Preface

In line with recent trends toward high-quality production and diversification in the textile
processing , much efforts is being exerted to improve the performance of mixed fabrics
of natural and synthetic fibres and to introduce the new product with new values.

This technical information presents a detailed description of the standard working

procedure adopted under normal practice for continous dyeing of polyester/cellulosic
blended fabrics,a and series of important suggestions over the selection of dye sftuff.

As continous dyeing polyester /cellulosic blended fabrics involves a large variety of fibre
substrates, processing methods and recommendable dye stuffs, in this information two
possible dye stuffs are described—one is disperse vat combination and second is disperse
reactive combination .

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 Acknowledgment

All thanks are due to Almighty “ALLAH” most beneficial and merciful who enable us to
complete this project.

The completion of this project is perceived as the fruitful result of and incredible effort,
devotion and hardwork. It can be stated without any hesitation that this subject is the
outcome of the joint effort of all concerned by successfully negotiating the various
tedious problems and hurdles.

We are particularly thankful of S.M Qutab ,our project advisor for the guidance and
valuable cooperation render by him at any stage regarding this project. He full indulged
himself to facilitate our job whenever approached him to seek guidance regarding this
study.

Finally we acknowledge a debt of gratitude to our parents and other encouragement, who
led us to complete this project work.

Authors

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 HISTROY OF DENIM
Denim is more than a cotton fabric; it inspires strong opinions from historians,
designers, teenagers, movie stars, reporters and writers. In 1969 a writer for
American Fabrics magazine declared, "Denim is one of the world's oldest fabrics, yet
it remains eternally young." If continuous use of and interest in an item makes it
"eternally young," then denim certainly qualifies.

Legend and fact are also interwoven when scholars discuss the origin of the name
denim. Most reference books say that denim is an English corruption of the French
phrase "serge de Nimes;" a serge fabric from the town of Nimes in France. However,
some scholars have begun to question this explanation.

ORIGINS IN EUROPE: -

There are a few schools of thought on the derivation of the

word "denim." The serge de Nimes fabric traces back to France prior to the 17th
century. At the same time, there was also a fabric known in France as "nim." Both
fabrics were composed partly of wool.

Serge de Nimes was also known in England before the end of the 17th century. The
question then arises: was this fabric imported from France or was it an English fabric
bearing the same name? Fabrics which were named for a certain geographic location
were often also made elsewhere; the name was used to lend a certain cachet to the
fabric when it was offered for sale. Therefore a "serge de Nimes" purchased in
England was very likely also made in England, and not in Nimes, France.

There still remains the question of how the word "denim" is thought to have
descended from the word "serge de Nimes." Serge de Nimes was made of silk and
wool, but denim has always been made of cotton. Again, this relation between
fabrics is in name only, though both fabrics are twill weave. Is the real origin of the
word denim "serge de nim," meaning a fabric that resembled the part-wool fabric
called nim? Was serge de Nimes more well-known than serge de nim and mis-
translated when it crossed the English Channel? It's likely we will never really know.

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To confuse things even more, another fabric known as "jean" also existed at this
same time. Research on this textile indicates that it was a fustian - a cotton, linen
and/or wool blend - and that fustian from Genoa, Italy was called jean. This is
evidence of a fabric being named for a place of origin. It was apparently quite
popular and imported into England in large quantities during the 16th century. By the
end of this period, jean was being produced in Lancashire. By the 18th century, jean
cloth was made completely of cotton and used to make men's clothing, valued
especially for its property of durability even after many types of washing.

Denim's popularity was also on the rise. It was stronger and more expensive than
jean, and though the two fabrics were very similar in some ways, they did have one
major difference: denim was made of one colored thread and one white thread; jean
was woven of two threads of the same color.

DENIM COMES TO AMERICA: -

As denim moved across the Atlantic in the late 18th

century, American textile mills started to produce their own denim fabric on a small
scale, mostly as a way to become independent from foreign producers (mainly the
English). From the very beginning, cotton fabrics were an important component of
American mills' product line. A factory in the state of Massachusetts wove both
denim and jean. American President George Washington toured this mill in 1789 and
was shown the machinery that wove denim. That same year, one of the first printed
references to the word "denim" in the United States appeared: a Rhode Island
newspaper reported on the local production of denim among other fabrics. The book
"The Weavers Draft Book and Clothiers Assistant," published in 1792, contains
technical sketches of the weaving methods for a variety of denims.

In 1864, an East Coast wholesale house advertised that it carried 10 different kinds
of denim, including "New Creek Blues" and "Madison River Browns," terms that still
sound contemporary today. Webster's Dictionary from the same year contained the
word "denim," referring to it as "a coarse cotton drilling used for overalls, etc."

Research shows that jean and denim were two very different fabrics in 19th century
America. They also differed in how they were used. In 1849, a New York clothing

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manufacturer advertised topcoats, vests or short jackets in chestnut, olive, black,
white and blue jean. Fine trousers were offered in blue jean; overalls and trousers
made for work were offered in blue and fancy denim. Other American advertisements
show working men wearing clothing that illustrates this difference in jean and denim
usage. Mechanics and painters wore overalls made of blue denim. Working men in
general, including those not engaged in manual labor, wore more tailored trousers
made of jean.

Denim, then, seems to have been reserved for work clothes, when both durability
and comfort were needed. Jean was a sturdy fabric, but it did not offer the added
benefits of denim, such as durability and comfort.

THE FIRST BLUE JEANS: -

In 1962, the magazine American Fabrics ran an article

that stated, "If we were to use a human term to describe a textile we might say that
denim is an honest fabric - substantial, forthright, and unpretentious." So how did
this utilitarian and unpretentious fabric become the stuff of legends that it is today?
And how did pants made out of denim come to be called jeans, when they were not
made out of the fabric called jean? One very important reason can be found in the
life and work of a Bavarian-born businessman who made his way to Gold Rush San
Francisco nearly 150 years ago.

Levi's® jeans, of course, are named for the founder of the company that invented
them: Levi Strauss, born as "Loeb" Strauss in Bavaria in 1829. He, his mother and
two sisters left Germany in 1847 and sailed to New York, where Loeb's half-brothers
ran a wholesale dry-goods business (selling bolts of cloth, linens, clothing, etc.). For
a few years, young Loeb worked for his brothers, and by 1850 had changed his name
to Levi. In 1853, he obtained his American citizenship and decided to make a new
start and undertake the hazardous journey to San Francisco, a city enjoying the
benefits of the recent Gold Rush. His mission was to open the West Coast branch of
his brothers' wholesale dry- goods business, which he started as soon as he got off
the boat.

He sold common dry-goods products to small stores all over the West. These
products included pillows, blankets, underwear and clothing whose manufacturers

5
are no longer in business. Levi worked hard, and acquired a reputation for quality
products over the next two decades.

In 1872, he got a letter from Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor, who had come up
with a great idea. To improve the strength of the pants he made for his customers,
he added metal rivets, which proved to be a big success. He wanted to patent the
idea, but didn't have the money he needed to file the papers. So he wrote to Levi,
saying that if he would pay for the application, the two men could make riveted
clothing and, as Davis put it in his letter, "make a very large amount of money." Levi
knew a good business opportunity when he saw one, and in 1873 he and Davis
received a patent for an "Improvement in Fastening Pocket-Openings."

Levi brought Jacob Davis to San Francisco to oversee the first manufacture of their
copper riveted "waist overalls," the old name for jeans. These pants were made from
brown cotton duck and blue denim. Knowing that the riveted pants were going to be
perfect for work wear, Levi and Jacob decided to make them out of denim rather than
jean because denim was a very sturdy fabric appropriate for workwear.

Levi Strauss died in 1902, at the age of 73. He left his thriving manufacturing and
dry goods business to his four nephews — Jacob, Louis, Abraham and Sigmund Stern
— who helped rebuild the company after the big earthquake and fire of 1906. The
following year, Jacob Davis sold back his share of the company.

The oldest surviving catalog in our company archives, which was published after the
earthquake, shows a variety of denim products for sale.

DENIM MEETS THE 21ST CENTURY: -

American Fabrics magazine predicted back in

1969 that denim would become a fashion statement for many occasions when it said,
"What has happened to denim in the last decade is really a capsule of what
happened to America. It has climbed the ladder of taste."

Today, millions of people wear jeans to work, where the suit once ruled. Looking
back, we know that the very first people to wear Levi's® jeans worked with pick and
shovel. Though our tools are now pencils, paper and computer keyboard, we have
been moved to wear the same thing: denim jeans.

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Born in Europe, denim's function and adaptable form found a perfect home in
untamed 19th century America with the invention of jeans.

Denim gives us a little bit of history every time we put it on.

DYES WHICH ARE BEING USED FOR THE DENIM DYEING

Background

Indigo, or indigotin, is a dyestuff originally extracted from the varieties of the indigo
and woad plants. Indigo was known throughout the ancient world for its ability to
color fabrics a deep blue. Egyptian artifacts suggest that indigo was employed as
early as 1600 B.C. and it has been found in Africa, India, Indonesia, and China.

The dye imparts a brilliant blue hue to fabric. In the dying process, cotton and linen
threads are usually soaked and dried 15-20 times. By comparison, silk threads must
be died over 40 times. After dying, the yarn may be sun dried to deepen the color.
Indigo is unique in its ability to impart surface color while only partially penetrating
fibers. When yarn died with indigo is untwisted, it can be seen that the inner layers
remain uncolored. The dye also fades to give a characteristic wom look and for this
reason it is commonly used to color denim. Originally extracted from plants, today
indigo is synthetically produced on an industrial scale. It is most commonly sold as
either a 100% powder or as a 20% solution. Through the early 1990s, indigo prices
ranged near $44/lb ($20/kg).

History

The name indigo comes from the Roman term indicum, which means a product of
India. This is somewhat of a misnomer since the plant is grown in many areas of the
world, including Asia, Java, Japan, and Central America. Another ancient term for the
dye is nil from which the Arabic term for blue, al-nil, is derived. The English word
aniline comes from the same source.

The dye can be extracted from several plants, but historically the indigo plant was
the most commonly used because it is was more widely available. It belongs to the

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legume family and over three hundred species have been identified. Indigo tinctoria
and I. suifruticosa are the most common. In ancient times, indigo was a precious
commodity because plant leaves contain only about small amount of the dye (about
2-4%). Therefore, a large number of plants are required to produce a significant
quantity of dye. Indigo plantations were founded in many parts of the world to
ensure a controlled supply.

Demand for indigo dramatically increased during the industrial revolution, in part due
to the popularity of Levi Strauss's blue denim jeans. The natural extraction process
was expensive and could not produce the mass quantities required for the
burgeoning garment industry. So chemists began searching for synthetic methods of
producing the dye. In 1883 Adolf von Baeyer (of Baeyer aspirin fame) researched
indigo's chemical structure. He found that he could treat omega-bromoacetanilide
with an alkali (a substance that is high in pH) to produce oxindole. Later, based on
this observation, K. Heumann identified a synthesis pathway to produce indigo.
Within 14 years their work resulted in the first commercial production of the
synthetic dye. In 1905 Baeyer was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery.

At the end of the 1990s, the German based company BASF AG was the world's
leading producer, accounting for nearly 50% of all indigo dyestuffs sold. In recent
years, the synthetic process used to produce indigo has come under scrutiny because
of the harsh chemicals involved. New, more environmentally responsible methods are
being sought by manufacturers.

Raw Materials

The raw materials used in the natural production of indigo are leaves from a variety
of plant species including indigo, woad, and polygonum. Only the leaves are used
since they contain the greatest concentration of dye molecules. In the synthetic
process, a number of chemicals are employed as described below.

SOURCES AND USES: -

A variety of plants, including woad, have provided indigo throughout history, but
most natural indigo is obtained from those in the genus Indigofera, which are native
to the tropics. In temperate climates indigo can also be obtained from woad (Isatis
tinctoria) and dyer's knotweed (Polygonum tinctorum), although the Indigofera

8
species yield more dye. The primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true
indigo (Indigofera tinctoria, also known as Indigofera sumatrana). In Central and
South America the two species Indigofera suffructicosa and Indigofera arrecta (Natal
indigo) were the most important.

Natural indigo was the only source of the dye until about 1900. Within a short time,
however, synthetic indigo had almost completely superseded natural indigo, and
today nearly all indigo produced is synthetic.

In the United States, the primary use for indigo is as a dye for cotton work clothes
and blue jeans. Over one billion pairs of jeans around the world are dyed blue with
indigo. For many years indigo was used to produce deep navy blue colors on wool.

Indigo does not bond strongly to the fiber, and wear and repeated washing may
slowly remove the dye.

Indigo is also used as a food coloring, and is listed as FD&C Blue No. 2. The
specification for FD&C Blue No. 2 includes three substances, of which the major one
is the sodium salt of Indigotindisulfonate.

Indigotinesulfonate is also used as a dye in renal function testing, as a reagent for

the detection of nitrates and chlorates and in the testing of milk.

INDIGO MOLECULE

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: -

Indigo is a dark blue crystalline powder that

melts at 390°–392°C. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether but soluble in
chloroform, nitrobenzene, or concentrated sulfuric acid. The chemical structure of
indigo corresponds to the formula C16H10N2O2.

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The naturally occurring substance is indican, which is colorless and soluble in water.
Indican can easily be hydrolyzed to glucose and indoxyl. Mild oxidation, such as by
exposure to air, converts indoxyl to indigo.

The manufacturing process developed in the late 1800s is still in use throughout the
world. In this process, indoxyl is synthesized by the fusion of sodium phenylglycinate
in a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodamide.

Several simpler compounds can be produced by decomposing indigo; these

compounds include aniline and picric acid. The only chemical reaction of practical
importance is its reduction by urea to indigo white. The indigo white is reoxidized to
indigo after it has been applied to the fabric.

Indigo treated with sulfuric acid produces a blue-green color. It became available in
the mid-1700s. Sulfonated indigo is also referred to as Saxon blue or indigo carmine.

Tyrian purple was a valuable purple dye in antiquity. It was made from excretions of
a common Mediterranean Sea snail. In 1909 its structure was shown to be 6,6′-
dibromoindigo. It has never been produced synthetically on a commercial basis.

INDIGO CARMINE

HOW THE DYE WAS PRODUCED IN INDIA

The cut plant is tied into bundles, which are then packed into the fermenting vats
and covered with clear fresh water. The vats, which are usually made of brick lined
with cement, have an area of about 400 square feet and are 3 feet deep, are
arranged in two rows, the tops of the bottom or "beating vats" being generally on a

10
level with the bottoms of the fermenting vats. The indigo plant is allowed to steep till
the rapid fermentation, which quickly sets in, has almost ceased, the time required
being from 10-15 hours. The liquor, which varies from a pale straw colour to a
golden-yellow, is then run into the beaters, where it is agitated either by men
entering the vats and beating with oars, or by machinery. The colour of the liquid
becomes green, then blue, and, finally, the indigo separates out as flakes, and is
precipitated to the bottom of the vats. The indigo is allowed to thoroughly settle,
when the supernatant liquid is drawn off. The pulpy mass of indigo is then boiled with
water for some hours to remove impurities, filtered through thick woollen or coarse
canvas bags, then pressed to remove as much of the moisture as possible, after
which it is cut into cubes and finally air-dried Nature 1 November 1900

INDIGO DYEING: -

Indigo dye is an important dyestuff with a distinctive blue color

(see indigo). The natural dye comes from several species of plant, but nearly all
indigo produced today is synthetic. Among other uses, it is used in the production of
denim cloth for blue jeans. The form of indigo used in food is called "indigotine", and
is listed as FD&C Blue No. 2.

PHYTOCHEMISTRY OF INDIGO

Now just a bit of chemistry about how the compounds in plants are converted into
indigo...

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In Indigofera species, the precursor of indigo is indican
(left), indoxyl-β-D-glucopyranoside,

While in woad it is mainly isatan A (right)

INDUSTRIAL SYNTHESIS OF INDIGO

Current world production of indigo is 17,000 tons/year, mostly (40%) produced by

BASF in Ludwigshafen. That is where things started in July 1897, using a process
developed by von Heumann. It started with naphthalene...

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13
 VAT DYES

Vat dyes are used in the dyeing and printing of all types of cellulose fibres, and also
of blends of cotton with polyester. In their coloured form they are insoluble pigments,
so their applications depend on reversible reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction. In
dye bath the pigment is converted into a water-soluble form using a strongly alkaline
solution of a powerful reducing agent. This form the sodium “leuco” compound of
the dye, which is soluble in water but often different in colour from the original in
pigment. It is then allowed to dye the cellulose in this water-soluble from once
exhaustion is completed the leuco compound is oxidized.

REDOX REACTIONS

Oxidation-reduction reactions (redox reaction) are important in textile colouration

because they are an essential part of the process of the application of vat and
sulphur dyes. In rather oversimplified terms, when a compound id oxidized it gain
oxygen when something is reduced it loses oxygen. Reduction of a substance can
also be thought of as gaining oxygen atoms, and oxidation as losing hydrogen atoms.
For example when hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water the hydrogen to
become oxidized and the oxygen is reduced. In a redox reaction there is always a
compound acting a reducing agent (hydrogen in this example). The reducing agents
become oxidized the reaction by the compound that is being reduced, which is acting
as an oxidizing agent. (In this case oxygen)

NaOH Na+ + OH-

Sodium Sodium Hydroxide
Hydroxide ion ion

In the water molecule each hydrogen atom shares the only electron it possesses by
pairing with one of the six electron of the oxygen atom, to form a covalent bond.
Thus the hydrogen atom has lost one electron to become oxidized and the oxygen
atom is reduced by gaining electrons. This is a more general way of expressing the
phenomena of oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation = entails the loss of electrons by the oxidized compound

Reduction = entails the net gain of electrons by the reduced compound

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vat dyes such as indigo and compounds derived from anthrequinone are applied after
the temporary reduction of two carboxyl group in a conjugated chain, this convert
the dye in to a colorless water insoluble form. The conversion is carried out using a
strong reducing agent and in this reaction the two oxygen atom becomes reduced –O
– and the two hydrogen atoms are oxidized to H+. The reduced form is called the
leuco vat acid, and is applied from an alkaline. Once on the fibre it can be re
-oxidized back to the insoluble carbonyl form by air or by the use of an oxidizing
agent.

Sulphur dyes are also applied using a redox reaction mechanism, in which sodium
sulphide is used as the reducing agent,

CHEMICAL NATURE OF VAT DYES

A large majority of vat dyes are based on the anthraquinonoid or the indigo (or
thioindigo) chromophores; indigo, one of the oldest dyes still in use, remains popular
through the wide use of indigo-dyed anthrequinone dyes are complex polycyclic
quinines (Appendix 1), and they all possess two carbonyl groups (C = O) linked by
alternate single and double bonds in a conjugated chain. The molecular arrangement
is responsible for the easily reversible redox reactions on which the application of vat
dyes depends.

In earlier countries, when all textile colorants where obtained from natural sources,
indigo plant is steeped in a large vat. It is forming this ancient vatting process that
the term fermentation vat dyes are derived. Fermentation converts one of the plant
constituents into the soluble leuco dye, which diffuses out of the plant. The
replacement of the natural by synthetic indigo at the end of the nineteenth century
gave the imputes to research on other syntheses vat dyes have since followed.

Synthetic vat dyes are costly because they are difficult to prepare, so their use is
usually directed to the higher quality fabrics. Nevertheless, they are widely used and
noted for their high fastness to light, in the dyeing of fabric for uses such as awning,
curtains, upholstery, military and naval uniforms and high quality gabardines.

15
High fastness to bleaching is another strong point of the anthraquinonoid group. This
is exploited in the production of patterned fabric from vat-dyed yarn in which the
white areas of the can be safely bleached out after weaving.

Anthraquinonoid vat dyes are widely used in the manufacturer of for example good
quality, shirting’s, table cloths, towels, sportswear, high quality over all, fabrics of
women and children clothing and tropical suiting, and yarns and effect threads where
repeated washing will be required. With careful dye solution, the use of vat dyes
allows is that the range lacks scarlet, maroon and wide shades.

APPLICATION OF VAT DYES

Both the extent of reduction and the rate at which equilibrium between the reduced
and oxidized from is achieved are of practical significance. Vat dyes vary in the speed
with which they go undergo reduction (Na2S2O4), which is capable of completely
reducing even the most stable of vat dyes. As a result any difficulties in vatting can
be over come by raising the vatting temperature, increasing the concentration of
reducing agent or prolonging the vatting time. The vatted dyes must be kept in a
strongly alkaline solution, because its leuco from is an insoluble acid. If instead of
being formed as its water soluble salt, it will not readily oxidize to the coloured form.

There are still some application methods in which reduction and adsorption in the
fibre take place rapidly and almost simultaneously. Under those conditions the rate
and extent of reduction can be decisive factors in the dye stuff choice for example, in
textile printing. Premature oxidation of the leuco compound in his print paste must
also be avoided during both storage and steaming. This condition is usually met by
using as the reducing agent sodium formaldehyde sulphoxylate (Formosul) a
compound that is fairly stable in air at room temperature and develops the necessary
action during steaming.

Variables such as pigment practical size and crystalline from can affect the rate of
reduction but these are controlled by the dye manufacturing. Consequently the
colourist needs to concentrate only on the temperature and the concentration of
reducing agent.

16
Leuco compounds can be applied by batch wise methods similar to those used for
other dye classes, but there are difficulties in obtaining leveling dyeing. The
necessary high concentration of sodium hydroxide and reducing agent affect the
exhaustion. The difference is that the option of reducing the concentration of the
addition is not available, because they are needed to form the leuco compound.
Serious leveling problems can be lessened by raising the temperature of dyeing and
then cooling to obtain satisfactory exhaustion, or by using a dye bath auxiliary that
restrains the rate of exhaustion. A different approach is to use specially formulated
to stable dispersion of the pigment, in which form they are evenly distributed on the
fabric by padding (pigment padding), followed by working the padded fabric through
a of caustic soda and sodium dithionite on a jig. Pre-pigmentation can be carried out
using package, jig, winch or beam dyeing machines provided specially formulated vat
dyes are used. Once the pigmentation is completed, sodium hydroxide and sodium
dithionite are added to the dye bath to reduce the pigment and allow the leuco day
salt to diffuse into the fibre.

Oxidation in air or in solution is then used to regenerate the pigment. A soaping

treatment is given to the fabric at the end of the dyeing process this is essential,
both for cleaning the dyed fabric and for developing the final shade. In some cases a
change in the crystalline form of dye accompanies the change in shade.

SOLUBILISED VAT DYES

The need to reduce vet dyes before use makes their application a cumbersome
process. Although it is possible to isolate the reduced form of the dye. It is too
readily oxidized in air for the manufacturer to provide the dyer with the leuco
compounds. it is possible however to convert the leuco acid into the leuco ester, a
derivative that has greater resistance to oxidation and grater solubility in water. Such
ester can be formed by the reaction of a hydroxyl group of a leuco acid with
sulphuric acid forming a sulphuric ester. The sodium salt of such esters are stable
and can be stored until required for use. Since the ester group is only weakly
attached to the rest of the dye molecule, it is easily removed by the action of sodium
nitrate in dilute sulphuric acid. The regenerated leuco compound may then be
oxidized back to the pigment form.

17
Solubilised vat dyes are less rapidly taken up than are the more conventional vat
dyes and are mainly used for the production of pale shade. As with ordinary vat dyes
application under alkaline condition is essential, thus eliminating wool from the list of
possible substrates because alkaline condition modifies the wool fibres. The low up
take and higher cost of solubilised vat dyes make them uneconomical for deep shade
however and for theses normal vat dyes alternative have to be used.

A interesting property of solubilised vat yes is their sensitivity to light in the

solubilised state. This is used to produce “photographic” print on fabric.

R - OH + H2S2O4 R - OH + H2S2O4 + H2O

Leuco vat sulphuric sulphuric ester
Dyes acid

18
 SULPHUR DYES

Deposition of insoluble pigments inside fibres may achieve more cheaply using
sulphur dyes. But with these the shade gamut is restricted to back, mauves, olives,
Bordeaux and reddish-browns. One of the earliest and best known sulphur dyes is Cl
sulphur black 1, which is popular black with good fastness properties still in use
today.

Like vat dyes, sulphur dyes are reduced and applied as soluble leuco compounds that
need to be kept under alkaline condition, but sulphur dyes need only sodium
sulphide to act as both alkaline and reducing agent. A simplified the version of the
reaction is represented in following equation. The structure of the chromophores of
sulphur dyes is complex and unknown. Again like vat dyes, these dyes can not be
applied to wool without damage to the fibres due to the action of sodium sulphide on
the cystine cross links. After exhausting the dye bath for approximately 1 hour at 60-
90Co the fabric is thoroughly rinsed and exposed to the atmosphere, where oxidation
generates the mechanically entrapped insoluble pigment.

One disadvantages of certain sulphur dyes (although, strangely, this problems

appears to arise with the black shade only) is that dyed material stored under
condition of high humidity and temperature can lose its nature strength. This is
because inadequate washing-off after dyeing can lead to the slow generation of
sulphuric acid in the fibre, arising from the presence of sulphur.

Sulphur dyes are used mainly in the dyeing of cellulose fabrics and in blend of
cellulose with polyester, nylon and acrylic fibres. Typical application is for heavy drill
fabrics. Corduroys, overalls, denim, awning and canvas. Limited quantities are also
consumed in the colouration of silk, paper and more widely, leather.

Ar’ – S – S- Ar’ Reduction with Na2S Ar’ – S – S- Ar’

19
 LATEST DYEING METHODS

Now processing and dyeing methods for indigo warps were introduced from 1978-
1987 to obtain a higher productivity and savings in dyeing or to achieve the required
darker shades (hard rock washing, super blue, soft denim), or softness of the yarn
for final finishing. The following table gives you a comparison of the possible
processing stages such as:

1- Indigo rope dyeing process

2- Indigo one sheet dye slashing
3- Indigo double sheet dyeing
4- Loop dye 1 for 6 (continuous dye slashing)
5- Loop dye 1for 6 with dyemer (continuous mercerization dyeing and sizing).

For the five major Indigo dyeing methods for the basic denim, super blue denim, soft
denim, stone wash denim, we also must take into consideration that a certain
appearance of the garments is only achieved after a certain washing method.
(Chemical washing, stone washing, hard rock washing), use of certain sizing agents
(soft denim) or irregular appearance in warp or weft direction by using a yarn with
slubs and neps (antic denim).
The final finishing methods have influence on fabric
construction and dyeing methods.

CHEMICAL WASHED DENIM

The father of snow wash denim or of f-side denim is Edwin Co. Limited Japan.
These chemical washed types of ready made garments show less tensile strength
and a harder hand.

STONE WASHING
With soft stones it takes 20 – 30 min. to achieve the desire surface appearance.

DRY BLEACH
Soft rock are socked with chloride and the garment treated in washing machines.

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HARD STONE WASHING
Treatment takes approx. 3 – 4 hours. A very soft hand the garments is achieved.
Due to the extended time of treatment in washing with hard rocks the strength of
fabric is influenced. This treatment requires improved yarn quality and deeper dyed
shades. Hard stone washing fades out partly at hems and stitched lines.

SUPER BLUE
Deepness shade is achieved by dyeing in 8 – 12 dye boxes with rope dyeing
methods. With mercerized yarn where the colour stays at the surface of the yarn
(ring dyeing) with continuous loop dye range with integrated mercerizing and dyeing
unit (dyemer).

BLACK DENIM
Sulfur dyed, padazoic dyed etc. on continuous dyeing sizing machines or loop dye
ranges.

INDIGO, DYESTUFF AND HIS DENIM CHARATERISTICS

Indigo has despite many other blue dyestuffs kept his popularity. This by no doubt is
achieved by the fact that Indigo has a number of properties which have in this
combination not yet been achieved by other single dyestuffs.

The main properties are:

• Pleasant colour shade.
• Possibility to achieve by simple repeated dipping, deep marine blue shade.
• Possibility to dye cotton in cold dye bath.
• Competitive in price.
• Possibility to achieve an acceptable colour fastness and the exceptional
advantage by repeated washing of fading colour, to keep the colour shade
that always a clear, pleasant blue shade result.

The following drawing shows the symbolic the built-up of dye stuff of the yarn
according to the multi-deep process.

21
The sketch shows how Indigo layers one after the other is placed on the surface of
the yarn then again scraped off, similar tot knife. Through force or tension or by
washing.

An Indigo has only a very low affinity the depth of colour of the fibre is achieved by
repeated dipping / oxidation. Each dipping cycle occur in a certain balanced manner
as dye stuff is observed by the fibre at the same time and part of the already
oxidized dye stuff is reduced and migrates from the fibres.

With increasing dipping operations. The balance of absorption / migration moves

towards migration.
A very important factor for the reduction of migration is the squeezing effect and the
oxidation which follows. A high squeezing effect promotes a quick and through
oxidation and reduces the migration and reduction in the following bye bath.
With the low squeezing effect, that means with high liquid absorption, the purely
visual impression of a good oxidation can be deceptive as the outer colour skin looks
blue. In the core of the thread however more or less vat dye stuff may be deposited

22
Let us have a close look at the different dyeing systems.
CONVENTIONAL CLASSICAL CONTINUOUS INDIGO ROPE DYEING

The classical rope dyeing system is very labour intensive and consists of:
• Ball warping
• Indigo dyeing
• Rebeaming on long- chain-beamer
• Sizing

Yarn from the ring spinning machine is wound on automatic winding machines on to
a suitable package either cylindrical or 5057 cone. The winders are directly linked to
the ring spinning frames and the cops joint by splicing. OE yarns are directly creeled
up on the Ball warper.

The requires No. of ends (usually 380 – 420 ends) are assembled into a rope. These
ends are wound onto a core. The rope is guided similar as a cross wound package
and wound into a ball, length of ball approx. 12 – 15.000 meters.
A lease is inserted at the start and end of the rope. The facilitate Rebeaming every
1000 meters an additional lease is inserted. Usually 18 – 24 ropes are
simultaneously process on the rope dyeing machine. Prior to dyeing, the ropes are
boiled out and treated with caustic-soda and wetting agent to remove from the
cotton oil, impurities which could influence the fastness for the dye.
To dye with indigo, the ropes are immersed into the dye-bath. To dye in rope 30 – 60
seconds immersion (20 meters yarn) and 60 - 180 seconds are required for the
oxidation of the Indigo dyestuff to ensure that also ends in the centre of the rope are
equally dyed. Please note that squeezing pressure is important 5 tons as fastness of
colour and shade depends on even squeezing pressure. The comparatively long
immersion and oxidation time requires a comparatively expensive equipment of
machinery.

In order to obtain the required deep shade of blue colour the ropes are 5 – 6 times
immersed in a sequence of dye boxes with an oxidation range then so called skying
after each dye box. (Indigo belongs to the group of the vat dyes which is water-
soluble in reduced solution and becomes an insoluble pigment when oxidized.

23
Having passed the dyeing and oxidation rage the ropes are guided through 2 or 3
washing boxes to wash off excessive loss pigments in the last box softener are added
to ease the opening of the ropes. They are dried in series of cans. The dried ropes
which contain 380 – 420 ends are then deposited into large coilers Rebeaming with
300 – 380 ends per rope is easer. These coilers are placed behind the long chain
beamer where the Rebeaming and opening of the ropes takes place. In order to
guarantee even yarn tension through Rebeaming on to a back beam ready for sizing
the ropes are guided over a tension device which is placed approx. in 10 -11 meters
distance from the long chain beamer. Broken ends which very really happen process
of the rope are repaired at this process stage. Initially these machines were supplied
without yarn stop motion but are available now a days on special request. This is of
major importance as lost ends, fluff, 3 – tail ends and yarn remnants can cause
inferior performance in weaving.
The so prepared beck beams are now sized in a sizing machine preferably with 2 size
boxes. The size pick up varies between 8 – 10%. In Europe mainly modified starches
with binders are used, whilst in USA certain low % of PVA is applied sin combination
with starches by some companies. Depending on the final finishing process (washed
denim) with no filler also CMC gives excellent performance in weaving. Special size
mixes for soft denim will be discussed separately. We recommend however not to use

24
PVA for sizing of denim as a surface of denim may show a leather skinned
appearance.

CONTINUOUS SLASHER DYEING

Contrary to the Indigo rope dyeing system, for the continuous slasher dyeing and
sizing back beams are used. That means that the total No of ends required for a
weavers beam are dyed, dried, sized and dried simultaneously. The back beam
contains similar to rope 380 – 420 ends but distributed evenly over the width of 140
or 160 cm between the flanges so the end lay parallel to each other, warp length 12
– 15.000 meters, similar to the rope dyeing system the full No of ends are pretreated
(washed) dyed in 4 dye boxes and oxidized, no softener are used in the last wash
box.

CONTINUOUS INDIGO DYEING AND SIZING PROCESS

We must however consider that the squeezing effect is lower and therefore the
danger streakiness and shade variation from centre to out side is also higher.
Consequently it would be better to deduce the warping width rather to 140 cm
instead of using warper beams with 160 – 180 cm warping width.

25
The immersion time in the dye boxes is approx. 10 – 15 seconds and time for
oxidation 30 – 60 second. The final result is a weaver’s beam. This system allows the
installation of less expensive dye rage and less additional preparatory machinery.
One of the disadvantages in previous year when warp preparation (knots, weak,
thick places) was not kept at a very high level was that ends sown in the dyeing
range could cause major colour variation through machine stops.

DOUBLE SHEET CONTINUOUS DYEING

Patents applied for double shade dyeing by E. Godau date back as 1976. With the
system dyeing sizing is done in 2 operations. The main reason for dyeing of 2 sheet
simultaneously is achieved a more even dyed sheet, that means 8000 – 8200 end
are dyed, oxidized, dried and the full length of the warper beam 12.000 – 15.000
meters flange diameter. These beams are transported with the aid of air cushions to
the sizing machine and the yarn sheet sized in double size boxes. Immersion time
and oxidation time is the same as with continuous slasher dyeing.

Indigo full-width warping process

With double sheet dyeing the linear warp thread density is doubled. Therefore:
Squeezing effect is increased,

26
An even squeezing over the whole width is achieved,
Condensation and concentration of ends at one spot show compared to single sheet
dyeing no colour strips formation, streakiness or shading in the finished fabric.
The production out put of the dyeing is increased by 75%.
Dyeing of 3 layers of yarn simultaneously is possible but very difficult to control the
beaming on 3 big warp batches.

Unfortunately the double sheet dyeing machine as well as the rope dyeing range
cannot be linked with a sizing machine which must be regarded as disadvantage as
the processes of dyeing and sizing must be carried out separately.

Loop dye system 1 for 6

Similar to the sheet dyeing systems 10 – 16 warper beams with the total number of
ends required for the weaver beams are used. The warper beams are placed in a
moveable warp creel which can be loaded whilst one set is in potation.

The yarn sheet is guided to the soaking bath through a feed-in system with tension
compensation rollers. The soaking bath has the task to prepare the yarn for the
following dyeing operation.

The yarn sheet after having been immersed into a single indigo dye bath runs into a
long loop where oxidation takes place. As you can see from the slide the back beams
are inside the yarn sheet passes through the dye box as often as necessary to obtain
the required deepness of shade. One of the advantages is:

27
Ideal, utilization of Hydrosulphite through squeezing 4 – 6 layers simultaneously and
oxidation of yarn in a comparatively long oxidation loop. After the oxidation the yarn
sheet is guided through 2 washing boxes into a yarn accumulator and finally on to a
series of drying cans, dried up to 25 – 30% final moisture content prior being
immersed into size boxes, dried and wound onto a weavers beam.

The molecules are controlled DC drive to maintain warp tensions. Temperatures are
automatically controlled as well as the PH value in the dye box. The automatic
control unit of the PH value supplies automatically hydrosulfite and caustic soda to
stabilize the present value from the start to end of a dye set.

All rollers are contact with the dyed sheet are fluted, they keep the sheet in position
and reduce deposit of dye and build-up of other deposit (fluff). In addition to width is
controlled by guides to ensure even distribution of the yarn layer over the whole
width of the dyed sheet.

All accumulators placed between washing boxes and drying cans guarantees a
continuous production of the dye range when a weaver beam has to be exchanged at
the head stock.
The creels can be loaded with back beam with 1200 mm diameter which allows to
warp approx. 36.800 meters of yarn, count No 7, 5 (tex 78) or 50.000 m count No
10 (tex 60). This means that depending on the count normally one cyl-spool is used
in warping to fill a warper beam.

WARPING SPEED
PRODUCTION
Speed varies between 1000 m/min, 35 m/min. No 5, 5 (tex 107) and 42 m/min. No
10 (tex 60)

MACHINE STOPS DURING SIZING

For 36800 m, 4 recorded on expansion comb.

28
WASTE OF MATERIAL

Approx. 15-20 kg per set.

TIME REQUIRED FOR CHANGE OF SET

2 hour
Linear warp densities in the squeeze.
The linear density in the nip is calculated in the same manner as for sizing.
Q= linear thread density
F= ends in cm -1
D= diameter of yarn

D= 0,921 mm = 0,921 = 0, 29125

Nm 10 = 3.1622

Q= F x D
As already mentioned previously the warp density has an influence on colour
fastness. A higher squeezing effect is achieved due to the over laying of the watp
ends this also gives more side to side squeezing, therefore reduce strips formation.
The high squeezing effect results also in better, quicker and proper oxidation and
better colour fastness.

It must be mentioned that recommended dip and oxidation times on warp dyeing
ranges are of little use if not the squeezing effect is taken into consideration. Under a
given squeeze pressure, for instance 500 kg the squeezing effect of the mentioned 4-
dyeing systems can be compared. We can see that similar squeezing effect can be
achieved with the loop dyeing system 1 for 6 (75%) as with rope dyeing 70 – 110%.
Double dyeing with 2 layers width with 150 cm gives approx. 80% squeezing effect,
whilst single sheet slasher dyeing varies depending on count between 100 – 130%.

Loop dye 1 for 6 Rope-dyeing Slasher-dyeing

29
As only one short indigo dye bath is deeded only one feeding tanks, no separate
feeding of chemicals is necessary.

Dye liquor is use in 1500 1 instead of 6-4500 1, therefore less chemicals in use at
same time.
• Lowe power consumption.
• Fine counts can be dyed as well (No 30)
• For dark shades, black shades or other shades needed by fashion, other
indanthrene dye stuff can be directly added into the indigo dye bath
(indanthrene yellow or orange).

LOOP DYE 1 FOR 6 COMBINED WITH DYEMER

The demand for dark shades specially dark marine blue for super blue denims also
led to new ideas in indigo dyeing ranges have been increased between 8-15 dye
boxes with corresponding oxidation ranges.

In some cases Hydroxyaceton has been specially treated with high frequency.
Besides achieving a darker shaded with the desire greenish touch it is very suitable
for biological treatment.

In order to achieving ring dyeing, mercerized yarn has also been used. A mercerizing
prevents penetration of dye stuff into the inner code it is suitable for this purpose to
obtain an optical blue effect and superior colour fastness and behavior in washing.
Mercerizing is very costly, therefore new ways is continuous mercerizing and indigo
dyeing was found.

30
DYEMER

The dyemer range is integrated.

For impregnation padder for hot caustic solution is placed after the heating system.
The yarn is guided over could cylinders and with an adjustable roller the tension of
the yarn sheet can be adjusted according to the required tension prior to the
scouring in 2 more boxes.
After having passed this, the yarn sheet is immersed into the dye box and the same
process as with the loop dye method is repeated.

CONTINUOUS DYEING AND SIZING ON THE DYEMER RANGE

If fashion needs other colours than indigo blue it is comparatively simply to dye and
size on this range.

31
 INDIGO ROPE DYEING

SLASHER (INDIGOFLOW) DYEING

Indigoflow

We can explain the indigo flow dyeing tech as, every phase included the IMPREGNATION

of the yarn with the Leuco solution, in ALKALINE bath and at temperature relatively low
to oxidation it follows, after squeezing a pressure a passage in air to allow the leuco
to oxidation and to become blue and therefore insoluble.

Oxidation
The oxidation is very important in the dyeing process; the purpose of the oxidation is
to get the permanent dye on the yarn and to eliminate the insolubility of the dye
stuff in the water.

According to the practical experience the average time for a perfect oxidation is
about 60 seconds, this means that after the first dyeing/squeezing the yarn has to
remain exposed in the air for about 60 seconds before being dipped again in the
second dyeing vat and so on for all the following dyeing.

The dyeing mean time can be calculated in about 30/35 meters of yarn per minutes
therefore keeping as base the machine with eight dye vats. The total yarn in the
oxidized can be calculated as m 35 x 8 = 280 meters.
But indigo flow with their special device Rapidsky only eight meters per dye vat of
yarn remain in the Rapidsky device. That means the total saving of yarn with
Rapidsky is m 24 x 8 = 216 meters.

FLEXIBILITY IN USE

The high degree of evolution that can be reached by completing the basic machine
with the mercerizing and an intermediate drying can group, a steamer and a special
double circuit system for bath circulation system, enabling separation of vats and
that allows the maximum flexibility in use. In addition to the classical indigo blue it
thus possible to dye the modern mercerized to dye the modern mercerized indigo

32
blue and black, the new indigo supper blue the per-dyed indigo, as well as the large
range of colour denim with sulphurs, indanthrene, naftoles, direct, relatives and
pigments dyes.

CIRCULATION SYSTEM OF DYE STUFF

This system has a ingenious and perfect dye bath circulation system. Through a
variable flow pump, the dye bath is sent from the circulation vat to the first dyeing
vat, and from this by means of an overflow system with special conveyors/mixers, to
the next vat and so on until it falls back into the circulation vat, where it is filtered its
temperature is adjusted and colour Hydrosulphite and soda are automatically added.
This system is very simple and dose not required maintenance.

Dye bath circulation vat, stainless steel made, complete with interchangeable bucket
filters, automatic level adjustment, temperature control and dosing of colours,
Hydrosulphite and soda.

ACCUMULATORS

This system have to Gravity accumulators for automatic storage of the dye yarn
when the slasher machines stops for beam change complete with finned stainless
steel rollers for synchronization and safety devices.

MERCERIZATION

Mercerization causes morphological and mechanical changes in the yarn thus

increasing its resistance and dye affinity (dye stuff) saving, mercerized warp makes
it possible to obtain a better texture handle and look as well as particular chromatic
effect on the ready made cloth.

MERCERIZED PROCESS

Mercerizing group consisting of soda process vat with circulation pump and filter,
timing cans neutralizing and washing vats with 10 tons squeezing foulards, automatic
feeding and electronic yarn tension regulation devices.

33
TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Reduced capacity dye vat with semicircular bottoms and with only 2-3 large
diameter immersed rollers, to avoid the yarn breaking and tangling and to
reduce the bath quantity.
2. Squeezing foulards with special rollers enabling a uniform squeeze effect over
the entire width under all pressure conditions.
3. In order to eliminate the cleaning operations and to help the colour oxidation
this system has special finning on the surface on the rollers of the oxidizers
and accumulators.
4. Compactness, thus being accessible and easy to handle.

Ropes are stronger and less subjective to broken ends that, if they do occur, will tend
to pass through the machine.

Ropes are braided from let-off creels to provide continuous operation. Therefore
there is no yarn waste from beam set splicing stops or shade tailing from dye class
changes. Standards pretreatment consists of counter flow scour/boxes. Optional
mercerizing section adds a caustic box plus skying rolls to provide proper reaction
time before washing. This adds important properties such as improved dye affinity,
fabric luster and strength as well as popular faction effects.

Rope dyeing is economical and well suited for processing chambrays, dark shades,
over dye and fashion colours. These would include sulfur, reactive and vat dyes.
Multiple dips of indigo and proper oxidation time and in the skying section achieve
depth of shade. Basic range consists of eight box/sky sections. High production
and/or deep fashion blue ay require more sections.

Dyestuff preparation circulation and custom designed chemical and system allow full
flexibility for variation dyestuff application. Morrison’s color kitchen for caustic,
Hydrosulphite and indigo is supplied with filters and stand by pumps to allow
uninterrupted operation. Large diameter feed and return lines assure content level in
the each dye box

34
After dyeing the ropes enter multiple wash boxes for rinsing and chemical
application. Ropes are than carefully dried to 6% moisture or steam heated drying
cylinders. Coilers lay the individual ropes into drums in a pattern to facilitate the
subsequent Rebeaming operation.

The 350 plus ends per rope are blended during the Rebeaming (post dye) stage, and
then further randomized when the twelve beams set are sized prior to weaving.
Virtually guaranteeing side/side colour uniformity.

Following are the major features of the rope dyeing systems which results in a
uniformly dyed quality denim to meets the strict quality standards of the BIG
BRANDS NAMES.

• Dye boxes with maximum yarn contents for highest production speed.
• Kept the surface area to a minimum.
• Reducing the risk of dye-stuff oxidation.

Two different working position of bottom rolls feature maximum flexibility in

operating speeds.

This system has HV nip which permits the removal of bottom nip rolls without
dismantling the top rolls. Those nips are used on all dyes and wash boxes throughout
the range.

Large diameter direction rolls in the skying section insure the optimum guarding of
yarn ropes, a major contribution to a more efficient Rebeaming process.
Optimal sulfur black, top or bottom, can easily be achieved with slight modifications
of entire system. The indigo dyes ranges can be built to give you the flexibility to
switch from bottom to top application or use indigo dye stuff only, based on
customers choice and market requirement.

The use of sulfur black has for some time been a popular tool to the denim
manufacturer to achieve the dark shades economically by reducing the use of

35
expenses indigo dye stuff without violating the high quality standards of “genuine
denim”

The dry cans are other factors in making the rope dyeing range efficient and reliable.
Teflon coating are available upon costumer request.
The dye stuff circulation system is an extremely important part of an indigo dye
range. Constant circulation at high rates guarantees of dye-stuff, caustic and
Hydrosulphite.

Standby pumps ensure the uninterrupted operation of the range

36
 SLASHER DYEING VS ROPE DYEING

SLASHER DYEING CRITICAL POINTS ROPE DYEING

Required lesser floor Building Area floor space required

Space more than indigo
flow
Is a continuous process It is not a continues
or beam, beam process process. Including
including. Ball warping
a) Pre-washing indigo dyeing (6-8)
b) Mercerizing boxes
c) Dyeing with (6 -8 boxes) Rebeaming critical
d) Washing
e) Sizing
f) Drying

The mercerizing process Mercerizing in rope dyeing mercer-

Is easy and simple izing is difficult. Due to
Rebeaming (critical)

Required lesser Manpower required more man-power

manpower due to extra steps
i.e Ball warping &
Rebeaming

The capacity of one dye Dye bath the dye bath are in requ-
Bath is 100 lits to make ire shape. The capacity
more effective and to of dye stuff is 2.500 lits.
save the expensive indigo the dye bath have five
dye stuff. The dye bath rollers of same size
have three rollers one is

37
bigger than the other
two
this system have the
option to use the yarn
from Ne 1-30 count on
the same system with
out ant major change
this system have the
flexibility to produce
the denim in different
colours. Reason is requ-
ired short time to change
colours.
we can produce the any
type of denim on this range
With this system we can
entire denim market. Or
we can meet the all demands
of the international denim.
The piece of the denim
Produce with its tech-
nology in comparatively
low than the denim pro-
duced on rope dyeing
technology.
Yarn this major allows to use
the yarn from Ne 1-16
count without any major
change
Flexibility this system allows to pro-
duce denim only in two
colours i.e blue and black
reason is difficult to chan-
ge colours quality as in
Slasher dyeing
Limitation this system is only allows
to produce the classic
Denim
Market share The market share of class-
ic denim in 70 & in internat-
ional denim market. It is
very difficult to fulfill the re-
quire of major buyers.
Price we can get the premium
price of the classic denim
with this technology i.e
approx. $ 2.85 per meter
in international market
38
COST COMPARISON

A study made recently to compare the 3 main systems in use in indigo dyeing, rope
dyeing, slasher single sheet dyeing and loop dye system 1 for 6 for a given
production are summarized in the following the comparison. The dye systems with
12 ropes has been taken as basis of comparison. The percentage figures in brackets
refer to the quantities required for an equivalent production.

QUALITY OF DYEING AND COLOUR FASTNESS

Shading of fabric from center to selvedge has always been critical. To test colour
evenness, fabric have been sewn together from center and out side to compare the
colour after weaving and sanforizing, With the trends towards mill washed denims
and garment washed denim with the systems mentioned earlier (stone wash, hard
rock, chemical treatment with chloride of super blue and normal basic denim) where
the fabric is exposed to washing treatment varying from 30 min to 4 hour and more,
the quality of dyeing becomes a very critical aspects in the choice of the dyeing
process. If we remember the squeezing effect of the rope dyeing system and the
loop dye system 1 for 6 give very similar good results. Single slasher dyed denim
fabrics however will experience more problems to match specification for colour
shade. Despite the fact that yarns in rope dyeing are expose to varying squeezing
effect in the rope slightly different colour take-up is equalized in Rebeaming and use
of 10 – 12 back beam in sizing.

Despite the fact we have learnt from one of our customers who operate his loop dye
system between 35-42 m/min, depending on the yarn count used, we feel that a
comparison the operating speed of 30 m/min. is still justified. The comparison does
not claim to complete in all respects but should give an objectives bases to
interested listeners.

39
 CONSTRUCTIONS FOR DENIM FABRICS

STANDARD DENIM

As a rule denim fabric for woven as twill 3/1 Z or broken twill 3/1 or 2/2. Depending
on the final used. The weight of the finished fabrics vary between 3,5 and 16,15
ounces sq/yd. depending on the weight, the fabrics are used for different garments.

3 ½ - 12 ounces, ideal for blouses, tops, shirts, sweet shirts, sweat shirts and
jogging suits.
11 - 16 ½ ounces, trousers and jackets

The classical construction of a 14/ ½ ounce denim is 24,6 ends/cm, 16,5 picks/cm,
tex 100 warp/tex 100 weft. But there are many other possibilities to in constructions
a cloth to (size and stiffening). It also gives us the possibility to show a more
pronounced twill-line, weft appearance and to achieve the desired tearing strength in
warp direction by using open-end yarns or ring spun yarns.
(See table 3.1.1. and 3.1.2.)

A fashion continuously creates new ideas the cloth manufacturers have to follow the
demands, of the marketing teams and market leaders. Checks in fabrics for jackets
and trousers were very popular in USA 1975-1978, herringbone weaves, bed fords
card, crinkle cloth, combinations of twill 3/1 and 1/3 or twill 2/1 and plain weave
popular just recently. There is no limitation for a designer to turn a apparently simple
fabric into a highly sophisticated fashion fabric.
Last year jacquard designer and diamond weaves were the runner on the fashion
market.

Let me show you a few examples what can be achieved by rearranging the drafting
plan and the lifting frequencies of the heddles.
Some fabric cam be woven with tappet motion whilst other will require dobbys
reversals, diamond blocks) four colour machines or second beam in high position.

DENIM CLOTH CONSTRUCTIONS

40
Some typical denim grey fabric constructions
Weave: twill 3/1 Z
No. of ends per cm yarn count
Warp weft warp tex weft tex weave
24 16 7 84 6 98 3/1
25 16 7 84 6 98
24 16 7 84 5.5 107
20.8 15.5 7.4 80 6 98
27 19 7.5 78 6.7 88
24 17 7 84 6 98
23 15 11.8 50 11.8 50
23 16.5 7 84 7 84
24.6 16.5 6 98 7 84
30 18 8.6 71 7 84
25 26 7 84 5.5 107
26 21 11.8 50 11.8 50
22.8 16.5 6.7 88 6.7 88
25 18 7 84 7 84
27 18 7 84 5.5 107
CHAMBRAY FABRICS

Weave: plain or twill 2/1

24 20 24 25 24 25 1/1
27 16 24 25 24 25 1/1
21 12 12 49 12 49 1/1
23 16 12 49 14 42 1/1
25 15 9 66 7 84 1/2
23.3 16 16 37 12 50 1/2
25 16 16 37 16 37 1/2
25 15 9 66 12 50 1/1
23 19 20 30 20 30 1/1

41
Denim with strips: combination twill 3/1, plain 1/1 whipcord. Possibilities
to achieve different fabric appearance.

Stripps twill 2/1 + ½ Stripps twill 2/1 + plain

Whipcord narrow strips whipcord weave strips

42
Fancy fabric woven on dobby (fig. 14 + 16 woven on tappets) by inserting
Lurex or count. Viscose filament in weft good cloth.

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Fig. 14 Reversal drafting Fig. 14 Fancy drafting

43
 Fig. 14 Broken drafting Fig. 17
Effects are achieved with multicolor WM and warp beam in high pos.

44
Elastic Denim

For many years, warp elastic and bi-elastic corduroy was highly in demand in Europe.
Consequently efforts were made to compete with elastic corduroy. As mentioned
earlier denim, flats and corduroy share the market for leisure wear.

The denim ranges in USA consists nearly 100% of rope dyeing units. With this dyeing
system it is practically impossible to warp and dye and rebeam yarns with an
elastomeric core. Warp dyeing systems were warper beams are used are very well
suitable for a continuous open width dyeing and sizing operation.

Because of these facts only weft elastic denims are used in USA for leisure wear. In
Europe however because of the different dyeing technologies byproducts of the
classical denim warp elastic denim is produced.

The fabrics are not only pleasant to wear they also help to improve the appearance
of the fashion conscious individuals.

ELASTIC FABRICS
WEFT ELASTIC

Ends per cm counts stretch% reed width

Warp weft warp cm
Ne tex Ne tex

25.6 17.3 84 70/20/20 7.8/30/30 192

twisted
25.6 17.3 84 6.5 91 15.6/91 24 192

WARP ELASTIC

Ends per finished counts

45
 Warp weft warp weft
Ne tex Ne tex
26.7 18 finished 13*2+15.6 45*2+15.6 6.5 91
24.7 14 grey
23.5 14 reed

23.5 18 finished 18.5*2+15.6 32*2+15.6 6 98.5

21.5 15.5 grey
20.8 15.5 reed

Metallic Thread Used In Weft

In fancy metallic threads are very suitable to achieve a bright luster when used in
weft faced weave.

PRINTED DENIM

A special surface appearance can be achieved on denim fabrics with multicolour

print, filigree prints or acid prints. Cashmere designs in different colours as well as
check over prints have been in demand for some time.

In consequence of this trend jacquard designs in indigo warps with different colours
in weft came for a short time on the market. Some are shown in fig. 25

46
Fig. 24 Cockling appearance of fabric by combining weave and different
twisted yarn types.

47
Fig. 25 jacquard design of denim.

Fig. 26 printed denim with cashmere.

Fig. 27 coloured printed denim.

48
 WARP PREPARATION

SPINNING

The base of a good fabric and weaving operation is already laid down with the
purchase of the cotton fiber. Although the count range suitable for denim fabrics is
rather towards coarse counts, we require perfect spun yarn.

Warp – and Weft preparation plays a major part. Main problems in denim production
in previous years were uneven weft, knots on surface of denim fabrics and weft bars.
With the aid of weft mixers or 4 colour mixing uneven yarn appearance or irregular
yarn blending can be more or less avoided.

But most of the problems can already be solved in spinning through:

 Good blending
 Correct drafting ratio on draw frames
 Speed frames
 Ring frames
 OE – spinning.

RING YARN:

With the possibility to link the ring spinning frame with an automatic winder ring yarn
has become of interest again for denim production. The superiority of spliced joins
over knots is felt not only when weaving outerwear fabrics but also for technical
cloth. It contributes substantially towards improved yarn performance in weaving not
only for course, but also find counts. As a rough figure we can say that end breaks in
weaving are reduced by 30 – 40% in some case for example dense fabrics and fine
count up to 50%.

OPEN END YARNS:

49
 Due to the lower tensile strength of OE – spun yarn it took quite
some time before they were accepted by the garment manufacturers . Many
problems existing with ring yarns such as thick, thin places, twist variation tube base
top of ring tube and therefore tendency to barriness in weft were eliminated. The
slightly higher hairiness and different colour Take-up, deeper colour, good colour
fastness were of advantage but some of the garment finishing techniques reduce the
tensile strength of OE – yarns that a switch to ring yarn is necessary.

In a few tables I would like to compare standards in spinning under similar conditions
(Ne 6) for ring and OE – yarns. Nov. 1979 / 1080 and standards from 1986 where
especially thick thin places and neps are reduced by 50 %.
It must be mentioned that in order to meet higher standards 2 draw frame passage
give better results, dust content max. 0.15 %.

Jets on OE spinning machines 80.000 trs. / Min 4 groves

60.000 trs. / Min 6 groves

Stop value standards:

tex 84, Ne 7, 17 stops per 1000 rotor hours.

tex 30, Ne 20,15 stops per 1000 rotor hours.

Check for:
• Perfect yarn joins
• Thick, thin place
• 1st yarn layers must be wound tight on spool cores.
• Tails must be perfect.

50
 WARPING

Indigo dyeing required even tension over the whole width of the yarn sheet
irrespective whether the yarn is rope dyed or in full width. But uneven tension from
front to rear rows of a creel may show up more on a single sheet slasher dyeing
machine than in rope dyeing.

TYPE OF CREEL:

The selection of a creel which provides more or less even tension from front to back
rows is important irrespective whether

• A parallel creel with trucks , with or without automatic knotter

• Magazine creel (to run from nose to tail )
• V – creel
• V - creel with trucks

is used.

Depending on the advanced transport and automatic in spinning a truck creel where
trucks can be loaded automatically by robots in the spinning may be more suitable
than a magazine creel.

But all creels should have one thing in common: the tension must be adjustable. We
must remember that each supported guiding eyelet in addition to distance to the
head stock, difference in spool diameter, warping speed adds to increase tension
during the warping process. We have measured on different occasion’s tension and
found a tension increase from front to back row of 80 – 100 %.

Machine supplier offer today electronic tension control devices. These units not only
help to reduce tension variation caused by warper acceleration, deceleration, or when
a warper stopped to keep a certain tension to avoid snarling or sagging of the yarn.

51
The adjustment of the tension in 3 – 6 zones to compensate for different in length is
a first start. (Reed Chatwood)

Other possibilities are offered by adopting a pre-tensioner in V- creels. Despite the

fact that tension variations are far less pronounced in a V- creel Benninger now
offers an automatic pre-tensioner, which can be used as creel length compensating
unit as well as automatic pre-tensioner for the 3 main positions.

• Stop: tensioner is open to allow free access to spools.

• Acceleration: yarn is diverted to eliminate snarls.
• Running speed: tensioner open to allow optimal warping tension.

These controls are important for both warping systems, ball-warping as well as full
width warping, but will bring certainly more benefits for high speed full width warping
at 1000 – 1200 m/min.

Automatic pre-tensioner with creel scheme: automatic pre-tensioner in

length compensating unit. three working position.

ELECTRIC STOP MOTIONS:-

Especially on ball warpers very often faller bar stop devices are fitted. Even at low
warping speeds of 350 – 450 m/min they are sometimes not fast enough to stop a
yarn break prior the yarn has been condensed into the rope. To find the end is time
consuming and the danger exists that the end is tied whilst still twisted with one or
more ends.

Electronic yarn stop motion sensor at the exit of each spool should be standard
equipment for a denim warp producer, especially when magazine creels are used, a

52
dependable thread monitoring is necessary if faultless ropes or beams are to be
warped without lost ends or wrapped threads.

THREAD TENSIONERS

The yarn is controlled by 2 or 3 post- and disc- tension system. It consists of

mechanical pivot levers, ceramic posts, chromeplated tension discs and varying
weight washers.

I have been realized that uniform thread tension is important:

• From full to empty package

• Between front and rear packages.

Fibre abrasion (fluff, fly) causes problems resulting in:

• Uncontrolled thread tension

• Or deflecting pins cut- in
• Missing loading discs
• Uneven distributed loading discs.

V- Creels equipped with electronic tension control and broken end detectors, or
adjustable roller tensioner performs better, even at high beaming speeds of 1000 –
1200 meters.

Tension level remains content across tension level remains nearly content
entire yarn sheet throughout yarn package.

53
SOME HINTS FOR WARPING

Mistakes made in ball warping and direct beaming can no longer be corrected in
downstream operations. It is therefore, vital to:

BALL WARPER WITH MAGAZINE CREEL

That
• all bobbins are properly wound
• transfer tail are perfect (no 2 tails )
• Spools without transfer tail not to be used as in many cases they lead to lost
ends or it is difficult to find ends.
• Joins to be made by weaver knots.
• thread monitoring devices must work perfect
• tension units to be checked regularly
• Leases to be inserted at 1000 meter intervals.

FULL WIDTH WARPING

• The back beam flanges are in perfect condition with no sign of damage.
• Threads do not built up at beam flanges. Make sure that the last end at the
flange drops. This will prevent that the last ends in the size box separate from
the dye or sizing sheet or become slack.
• Loose ends in the selvedge zone may lead to breaks in the dry split zone or
taped ends and badly twisted selvedge ends.
• Lost ends lead to wrapped ends on back beams, running out or missing ends
on the loom beam.
• Beaming speed to be adapted to the yarn material to be warped.

• One source of trouble frequently encountered are loose ends on back beams
due to poor machine maintenance.

54
 • Broken ends should be joined in such a manner that the thread is warped
under tension upon restarting, and not wound slack onto the beam.
• Unsuitable package types lead to layers sloughing off from the cone and can
cause multiple end breakages at the expanding comb on the sizing machine.

• End breaks must be recorded regularly. Specifying the causes and where they
occur.
• Spinning faults.
• Winding faults.
• Inadequate maintenance, packages running out etc.

• Packages with metered length can be worked off, down ta a few meters of
waste on each spool. They help to improve warping standards, because no
creel remnants have to be rewound. The danger of faults at change over
does not exist. Less knots in all other processing stages. In most cases
rewinding is more expensive because the remnants entail less costs if they
are reeled off as waste.

LONG CHAIN BEAMER

The ropes are opened at the long chain beamer and warpers beams made.

In order to obtain the required thread tension to separate the rope into single ends
the rope has to be tensioned by a tow tensioning system which consists of 2 belt
connected cylinders designed open ended for rapid threading. A shake-out rolls
system with a square rather than round design.

An expansion comb separates and distributes the threads over the width of the
warper beam. The shake reed is a useful tool to separate entangled ends, to prevent
end breaks prior passing the expansion comb. A machine mounted accumulator
microprocessor- coordinated with the beam reverse function is of advantage to find
lost ends quick in rebeaming. All broken ends caused mainly through the separation
process must be repaired with weavers knots. (No dog knots) The leases made at
the ball warper in certain intervals (1000 – 2000m) are used to check the position of

55
the threads in the rope in relation to the comb to prevent that broken ends are
twisted with other ends.

Depending on the quality of the ropes and yarn preparation rebeaming speeds up to
340 m/min can be achieved.

Some hints:

• The distance of the shake out roll system to the beamer should be 11 – 14
meters.
• It is of advantage to equip the long chain beamer with suction devices at the
comb in combination with beamer mounted fans.
• As in most cases beamers are operated without broken thread monitoring
devices, a perfect training in repairing ends, handling machines and warp
built-up control is of vital importance.

Assessing End Stop Rates At Ball Warpers, And Full Width Warpers.

Ball warper Full width warper

400 m/min 1000 m/min

Ring yarn knotted 5 7

Ring yarn spliced 3 5
Rotor yarns 2 4

Rebeamer 240 m/min

Ring yarn knotted 40 – 70
Ring yarn spliced 16 – 40
OE- yarn 10 – 30

56
STANDARDS

57
BALL WARPER FULL WIDTH WARPER

STANDARDS

58
 REBEAMER

SIZING OF INDIGO WARPS

The main purpose of sizing is to surround the warp ends with a protective coating, to
prevent fibre abrasion due to shedding in subsequent processing on the weaving
machine. It can be performed in various ways.

But there is one thing we have to bear in mind. Oversized warps which optically
appear to be perfect as there are no protruding fibres at all may cause tremendous
problems in weaving. In order to obtain the required weft density a very high warp
tension is needed. This can lead to over tensioning of warp ends and high warp end
stop frequency. It is therefore the task of the sizes to apply just as much size which
is needed to avoid beading of the dyed yarn during weaving. For many years native
starches or slightly modified starches with corresponding binders were sometimes
regarded as the most economical way to size Indigo warps. The change in garment
washed denims led to new sizing recipes. The final size pick-up is not only influenced
by the applied size mix but also, squeezing pressure and type of size box, 1 or 2
boxes, 1 or 2 nip.
SIZE BOX

If we look at the different possible size box combinations only 2 size boxes with
normal squeeze pressure 1200 kg but 2 squeeze rolls or 1 size box with 2 squeeze
and immersion rolls and squeeze pressure 2500 – 3000 kg will give good results in
sizing.
Besides this, shore hardness of the squeeze rolls is important.

With normal pressure we have 70 – 75 shore

With high pressure top 90 – 95 shore
Bottom 95 – 100 shore

59
SIZE PREPARATION

Under the just mentioned conditions, size concentration and viscosity of size is
different for normal squeeze pressure and high squeeze pressure (2500 – 3000 kg).
We must make sure that size concentration and size viscosity remain uniform
through the sizing operation.

Apart from the moisture content of the size products the accuracy of weighing-in also
effects the viscosity and concentration. Particularly prone to errors are sizing recipes
quoting the required quantities in bags. This may seem a simple way of establishing
recipes, but is may bring serious disadvantages such as weights indicated on the
bags differ from actual weights (moisture content). The viscosity and concentration
should therefore be monitored and checked continuously (at least twice per cooking)
with refractometer and Ford cup.

Modern size preparation can be accomplished in different ways:

a) Automatic metering from silos or large containers through duct system and
weigh scales (size, wetting agent, lubricants).
b) The size is dissolved in turbo-cookers or other open cookers with high-speed
agitators, and pumped into the stock tanks after reaching the right viscosity.
c) Production of a stock size for dilution as required. This is equally possible with
synthetic as natural or modified starch products. This method of size
preparation gives high flexibility in use and reduces the size losses in sizing
when batches and recipes are changed. The concentration may be raised or
lowered again in simple fashion.

SIZING PRODUCTS FOR NORMAL DENIM.

In many cases sizing products used are governed by:

60
 a) Product availability
b) Material and yarn to be sized
c) Finishing loom state denim
sanforized denim

SIZING FORMULAS

With the following examples I would like to give a few figures from industrial
practice. The sizing recipes depend of course on the type of size box, squeeze roll
pressure, sizing speed, and yarn whether ring- or OE- yarns are used. We have to
consider in addition, rope dye, sheet dye or loop dye.

• Size mix
• Size pick-up
• Stretch of warp during sizing (loss of elongation) as low as possible.
• Residual moisture content of yarn (7 – 8.5%)

In order to achieve good weaving performance:

• Elongation of yarn should remain 6%, residual moisture content 7 –

8.5%

All recipes are based on 100 L of water. Depending on the type of cooker a finished
solution of size of 120 – 130 L is achieved.

ROPE DYED YARN

Noredux M 20 10.0 kg Noredux 20/50 6.0 kg

U – size 6.1 kg Fibrosint M 85 2.0 kg
Fat 0.8 kg Olinor NW 81 0.3 kg
Belsoft 200 0.2 kg
Refractometer 9 – 9.3% 7.8 - 8%
Viscosity Ford cup 16 sec 12 sec.
Size pick-up 12% 9%

61
Perfectamyle 35 9.0 kg
Wax (Softner) 0.5 kg
Refractometer 8%
Viscosity 14 sec.
Size pick-up 11 %

LOOP DYE SYSTEM OR SINGLE SHEET DYEING.

Kollotex 1250 7.0 kg Extramyle WS 60 14.0 kg

Carbocil CMC 1.0 kg Plastifil M 1.4 kg
Leomin WG 0.2 kg Cerapol 0.8 kg
Glissofil 0.5 kg Fixot N5 2.2 kg
Refractometer 8 – 8.3% 12 – 12.3%
Size pick-up 9% 12%

62
SOFT DENIM:

• Horsil HV 55 3.5 kg Alkazet 2069 5.0 kg

• Olinor NW 81 0.2 kg Viskosil PSN 0.5 kg

• Belsoft 200 0.2 kg Digoral PV 0.5 kg

• Refractometer 3.5 % 4 – 4.3 %

• Size pick-up 6% 7 %
• Viscosity Ford cup 12.5 sec.

Carbocol CMC 4.0 kg

Refractometer 4 %
Size pick-up 6%

WITH HIGH PRESSURE SIZE BOX (2700 – 3000 KG):

Perfect amyl 35 8.0 kg

Glissofil 0.3 kg
Refectometer 7 – 7.5 %
Viscosity ford cup 9 sec
Size pick-up 10 %

For soft denim it is important to know whether the material will be mill washed prior
to garment make-up or the fabric is used loom state or Sanforized.

Size mixes with CMC have also shone excellent results on gray fabric which which are
printed or dyed black after weaving. As salt-free CMC is water soluble in warm
water, desizing for modified starch printing is not necessary. The mentioned products
have an ideal viscosity and good binding properties in normal and high pressure
sizing. High elasticity which can improve weaving properties, hand of fabric and

63
shows better twill line as a higher crimp can be achieved as far less tension is
required to weave with same recoil of fell as with normal viscose sizes.
It also reduces dust in weaving which will allow to produces certain gray, less critical
qualities side by side with denim. Besides modified starches pure CMC products are
since many years in use in Corduroy Manufacturing with excellent results.

AFTER WAXING:

In cases where a higher percentage of size pick-up with starches is reached after
waxing with 0.5 – 0.8 % will help to obtain more flexible warp ends without danger
of beading. Will in addition reduce dusting-off during weaving. Further important
points in sizing:

As we can assume that at the moment very few companies have computerized sizing
machines installed , which automatically control and adjust let-off tension , intake
tension , wet split tension , dry split tension , winding tension , pressure roller ,
pressure at head stock , size pick-up which is very important . Let me just point a
few things out which always need attention irrespective whether size and dye or just
size the indigo back beams.

CREEL FOR BACK BEAMS:

One requirement for proper sizing, especially in the edge zones, is perfect alignment
of the back beams with their flanges. Crowded threads due to inaccurately aligned
back beam flanges may lead to inadequate size take-up in the affected zones. Odd
ends may be undersized, roughened or slack.

LET-OFF TENSION (3% OF WARP BREAKING STRENGTH):

Modern back beam stands are designed so that the thread tension in the drawing-in
section is regulated automatically to a preset level , thus ensuring more or less
constant tension on the individual threads in beaming may be corrected a little by
raising the take-in tension, in many cases this leads to undesirable threads loading
and loss of elongation.

64
With the breaking system normally today, with braking belt and weight, the draw-off
direction and weighting must be taken into account. Whether the weighting is applied
by spring, suspended weight or breaking piston actuated by compressed air, It must
act against the direction of the yarn draw-off. If the weighting is applied in the same
direction as the yarn run-off, this will raise the tension in the drawing-in section.

More recent run-off systems operate with disk brake and roller bearings. This allows
much more accurate braking via tension rolls than band or rope brakes.
If shafts with bushes are used, check for wear very often only certain ends breaks in
weaving they might be caused by worn-out bushes on one side only.

WET SPLIT SECTION TENSION (2.5% OF WARP BREAKING STRENGTH):

Attention must be given to proper elongation while the yarn is exposed to the size,
Especially in the wet split section between size box and first drying cylinder. Cotton
fabrics increase slightly in strength in the wet state if properly stretched. If however
the tension in the wet split section is too high, the thread elongation will diminish.
Now the highest possible elongation is important in downstream weaving operations.
It must under no circumstances be reduced or eliminated by using excessive tension
in the wet split section. The tension to be adjusted here depends on the weight of
the thread sheet:

• Light/medium-weight articles 20 – 30 kg
• Heavy articles 30 – 50 kg
• Very heavy articles over 50 kg

These figures may be calculated approx. from the yarn count and kind of yarn. They
should then be recorded in the sizing instruction sheet for future warps of the same
article.

WET SPLITTING THE WARPS

True wet splitting, even if two size boxes are already being used, brings benefits
especially when sizing cotton/polyester blends. The warp ends are separated from a
thicker layer in the wet state and predried on drying cylinders. The threads thus lie

65
spaced well apart on the drying cylinder. Protruding fibres are less likely to cling
together, and splitting in the dry split section is simpler. The warp ends are smoother
and have fewer fibers protruding. There are various possibilities for single or multiple
warp splitting in the wet state:

• Single box single split - quadruple splitting

• Double box double split - sextuple splitting

DRY SPLIT SECTION (10% OF WARP BREAKING STRENGTH)

This is calculated from the number of ends and the yarn count.

In the dry spilt section the uniformity of this squeeze roll pressure can be ascertained
in sample faction. The split wedge before the first split rode must show evenly over
the full width of the warp (about 3 – 5 cm). if there are groves in the squeeze roll or
the squeezing action is uneven across the width of the bath, this will be apparent at
ounce on the first split roll.

Very often different tension of a yarn sheet visible when sizing is done in 2 boxes and
the drying cans are paced in 2 rows only. The reason for this is that the moisture
from the bottom row of cans is absorbed by the top row as the drying temperature
on both rows is the same; the top sheet has higher moisture content when it leaves
the final drying cans.

End breaks in the dry split section usually lead to double thread and ends running
out. To prevent this, the split rods should be put in a fresh after more than 2 breaks.
This should be done also when changes beams if end breaks occurred during sizing,
otherwise there is no guarantee that the warp will run of satisfactorily.

Special attention must be given to the warp ends in the edge zones. This can be
watched best in the dry split section. Taped threads cause trouble with the stop
motions droppers. Double ends taped are already apparent in the dry split section.

WINDING TENSION (12% OF WARP BREAKING STRENGTH)

66
The winding tension should be equal to the split section tension, but at any rate not
more that 10% higher. Set the winding tension just high enough to ensure proper
warp beam winding.

PRESSING

Formula:
Damage to the thread layers may result from excessive pressing. Often small burrs
form on the press rolls if these are handled inexpertly, due to impacts. Before every
fresh run the press rolls should be inspected for possible dents and polished with
emery paper if necessary. The pieces of pressing material at the ends of the press
rolls must correspond to the press roll diameter. Roughness on the end pieces may
lead to damage warp beam flanges and roughened warp thread, and ultimately to
end breaks.

TOTAL ELONGATION ON THE SIZING MACHINE

It is important that the necessary the warp tension is properly selected and
maintains. Warps with little elongation may lead to higher end break rates on
densely woven fabric. The aim must therefore be to retain the inherent elongation of
the threads. As a rule, this elongation is.
• Cotton yarns 1.2 – 1.5%
• Blended yarns 1.5 – 2.0%
• Rayon 2.0 – 3.0%

The total elongation is determined between the entry tension before the size box and
the entry roll trio on the beaming machine.

WARP WAXING

For denim warps however the main aim is to achieve a soft thread, less friction and
dusting-off during weaving.

EXPENDING COMB

67
When guiding warps through the sizing machine, make sure that the thread layers
are as parallel as possible. Leasing in to a fixed comb brings advantages with grey
and also with coloured yarn warps. If good results are to be obtained, parallel warps
ends are indispensable. The demands of weaving are diametrically opposed to those
of sizing.

High sizing speed call for coarser combs. Good parallelism of the warp ends calls for
finer combs, to prevent the warp ends rolling.

With high number of warp ends, as in poplin, warp satin and down proof fabrics with
40 – 60 threads per cm, it is advise able to lease the end into the expending comb.
It must however be realized that finer expending combs are not unattended by risks:

• Work must be done more carefully

• There is a danger of several threads breaking out if breaks are not noticed at
ounce

The expending comb should be traversed as little as possible; otherwise thread

tangles may increase, especially with high warp densities.

• Normal 6 – 14 ends per dent

• Fine comb about 6 – 8 ends per dent

Important is that as few correction as possible are made on the expending comb
ounce it is leased. Switching threads in the comb means crossed ends.

TAPING-OFF THE WARPS

Warps are taped-off with adhesive taped on both sides for tying-on in weaving.

RATIO BETWEEN WARPING AND BEAMING WIDTHS

Warps with warping width identical with beaming width are ideal strictly speaking. A
relatively short dry split section can be adopted. Experience gathered by sizing
machine makers indicates that a widening of the warp by up to 70 per side

68
(equivalent to 25 cm per meter dry split section length) is quite acceptable. As
already mentioned, wider back beam feeds yield benefits in sizing because there are
then fewer end in the size box, so that sizing is better. With the sheet dyeing process
the width of back beams should be as narrow as possible (140 cm) to obtain even
dye pressure and colour shade over the width. This is exactly opposite to what we
need in sizing.

RESIDUAL YARN MOISTURE

Yarn should have their normal residual moisture content if possible. Often yarns are
over dried after sizing. Which not only affects the elasticity of the sized coating but
also increases the hairiness, and as a result the thread-to-threads friction. Nor can
yarns reabsorbed the missing moisture during storage in air-conditioned rooms. The
point must be given attention. For denim warps moisture contents 7 – 8.5% should
be attained.

SIZE BOX YARN LOADING IN THE SIZE BOX

Continuous filament yarns without twist can be sized successfully only on a single-
end sizing machine. Followed by a assembling the sectional beam into the warp
beam (single size box without dipping roll).

Up to now, trials with multiple splitting using revolving split rods have been
successful only with textured and air-tangled yarns. However tangling techniques
have recently undergone big changes, so that in feature it may be possible to omit
sizing for various material.

With spun yarns especially, through also with polyester/cotton and polyester/rayon
blends yarns and 100% polyester, sizing the warp in a double in double box brings
advantages if the thread loading exceeds 50 – 70%

The thread loading is calculated as follows:

Loading% = yarn diameter x total no of ends x 10

Back beam width in cm

69
For example: metric 17s (English 10s), 4200 ends, back beam width 1600 mm

0.303 x 4200 x 10 = 79.53%

160
Thread loading guide lines:

Cotton (metric 10 – 34s) over 70 % (sizing with double)

Cotton (metric 40 – 120s) over 70 % (box is advisable)
Yarn blends (metric 10 – 100s) over 50 %

Coarse to medium yarn are sized to advantage in size boxes equipped with 2 dipping
and squeezing unit.

MAINTENANCE OF SQUEEZING ROLLS

To ensure optimal sizing results the squeezing pressure must be checked regularly
over the entire roll width using blue paper. This will enable faults due to worn
squeeze rolls or defect bearings to be a identified in good time. The squeezing action
at crawl speed and in normal running should also be checked regularly. Irrequalities
in the squeezing pressure are already visible on the first rode in the dry split section.
The squeezing rolls should be checked regularly for true running, and the surface
grinded-off according to the instruction of the roll makers.

The shore hardness of the rubber or daico rolls must also be checked.

Shore hardness recommendations:

Normal pressure 70 – 75 shore

High pressure 90 – 95 top squeeze roll
95 – 100 bottom squeeze roll

OTHER CHECKS ON THE SIZE BOX

• Automatic temperature control function

• Function of the feed valves for automatic size level control.

70
 • Viscosity metering by ford cup or other viscometer Haake, Brookfield.
• Concentration control by Refractometer

GENERAL CHECKS
• Sizing speed
• Temperature of sizing cylinder.
• Yarn elongation on the sizing machine
• Prescribe values in the sizing instructions with actual values.

• Breaking strength, breaking extension and residual moisture percentage of

the yarn
• Size uptake on the yarn.
• Abrasion with “Ruti-Reutlingen Webtester”.

RECOGNATION OF PROBLEMS

Possible causes:

Size dust-off warp overdried

Waft density can be attained
only with difficulty
Crossed threads
Hairy yarn
High warp end break rate
Ends cut by projectiles
Lint balls in healds and reed
Poor unsuitable sizing agents
warp oversized
incorrect shaft adjustment, whip roller
covering, shed closure wrong.
Expanding comb too coarse threads lifted
out of expending comb. Thread sheet not
taped off with double tape. Poor knotting
in weaving mills.
Not enough fibres in the yarn cross
section. Too many ends in the size box.
Yarn over stretched, over dried, damage
during dyeing.
insufficient size uptake. Shaft setting too
high. Shed closure too late. Whip roller
too high.
warp under sized. Too many ends in the

71
roughened selvedge threads. size box, size concentration too low.
Incorrect cooking.
Neighbouring ends broken. Knot ends too long. Warp over sized.

TYPICAL CALCULATION FOR COTTON YARNS

Given data:
a) Number of warp ends 4000
b) Yarn count metric 50s
c) Yarn breaking strength (length) 12 km
d) Warp tension and adjustment according to table

Warp weight = number of ends = 4000 = 80 grams per running meter

Metric count 50

Thread breaking load = breaking length = 12 = 0.240 kp per end

Metric count 50

Warp breaking load = 0.240 x 4000 = 960 kp

Run-off tension (3% of warp breaking load) = 960 x 3 = 29 kp

100

Entry tension (1.5% of warp breaking load) = 960 x 1.5 = 15 kp

100

Wet tension (2.5%% of warp breaking load) = 960 x 2.5 = 24 kp

100

Dry tension (10% of warp breaking load) = 960 x 10 = 95 kp

100

Winding tension (12% of warp breaking load) = 960 x 12 = 115 kp

100

72
Pressing (for warp weight 80 g/running meter, factor 2) = 80 x 1000 x 2 = 160kp
1000

For rayon the calculation procedure is the same. The values for rayon must be taken
from the table.

73
WEFT PREPARATION
FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE WEAVING MACHINES

Different limits are set depending on the machine used in spinning and weaving
operation. Thus, from a new rotor spinning machine better values are expected than
those yielded by machines supplied 5 years ago. (Typically 50% - 25% range user
statistics).

From the weavers point of view the regularity of a yarn is of prime importance, more
important than breaking strength. This has been demonstrated beyond all doubt,
since rotor yarns for example give much lower thread stoppage frequencies in
weaving than knotted ring yarns, in the 20 - 250 tex range, regarded as suitable now
a days despite lower breaking strength, even when spun from 100% comber waste
of 36 - 100 tex. Quite apart from the fact that a comber waste assortment with
average staple length 11 - 12 mm can not be spun on ring frame anyhow.

Important for weaving are:

• Yarn regularity

• Elongation

• Breaking strength

• Thick places

• Thin places

• Neps

YARN CLEARING

Spun yarn contains faults which may be caused by various shortcoming in spinning
such as bad manual sliver piecings, fly, foreign fibres (jute, polypropylene fibres),
malfunctioning of stop motions.

74
NEW SPINNING TECHNOLOGIES

With latest equipment in the market for automatic flyer bobbin doffing (Howa) and
auto matic splicing, single motor driven ring spinning machine, automatic sliver stop,
these faults should be prevented. with the aid of automatic piecing at the spinning
machine (Fill-A-mat Zinser), with the integrated controls for thickness of splicers
show by different companies at the ITMA in Paris with their links with spinning
machines, autospinnconer, Murata No 7 - 11, links coner for ring spun yarns as well
as rotor spun yarns. New electronic clearers have been developed which allow single
spindle data collection, "Uster Polyguard" in rotor spinning "Uster Polymatic" in
winding which automatically record and allow to stop individual spindles or spinning
units if the preset values of count, thick, thin places are not within these values. in
addition automatic transfer-tail winding at spool core and full bobbin and start-up is
performed.

ADJUSTING CLEARERS

Suppliers of yarn clearers recommend certain sensitivities and reference length for
the different yarn types. The degree of clearing depends not only on the reference
values named, but also on the winding speed.

Excessive clearing should be avoided, because it only leads to more knots, which in
downstream processing cause thread breaks and especially on high speed weaving
machines may cause neighboring threads to break also. if coarse ring yarn are used
without splicers or spinning links. The cops should hold 120 - 150 grams of yarn, fine
combed yarn about 80 grams. The number knots per kg yarn will increase or
decrease accordingly.

With coarse yarn (metric 10 – 34 s) 10 to 12 knots per kg yarn are expected, with
combed yarns (metric 10 – 160s) 20 to 40 knots per 100 000 m yarns (35 to 90 per
100 000 m length).

KNOTS AND OTHER YARNS JOINS

SIMPLE WEAVER KNOTS

75
This knot is still used on a large scale with cotton yarns, through it has certain
disadvantages owing to its inferior strength under the alternating stresses of
weaving.

DOUBLE WEAVER KNOT

With smooth yarn especially, this gives added strength.

FISHERMAN KNOT

Pure rayon yarns, wool worsted and also cotton/polyester blends are very smooth.
This knot has found increasing favor in recent years in order to prevent knots coming
undone in the downstream operation section warping, direct beaming, sizing and
weaving. It brings considerable disadvantages in the finished cloth; however
especially in outerwear fabrics on account of the time taken it opening it or pushing it
through to the outer side. New techniques like splicing like from much better here.

SPLICING

The advantages of splicing over knotting are felt with all yarn types and counts.
There are now only few yarns (smooth filament, acrylic OE-yarns and monofils)
demanding a knot or some other join, such as welding or latexing. Splicing
contributes significantly toward improved running performance in weaving, both in
warp and weft. For certain fabric categories a surface as smooth as possible is even
minatory (emery twill, coated fabric for artificial leather, outerwear). A separate
lecture is being giving on splicing.

ROTOR YARN

76
Some new spinning techniques, like rotor spinning, have already integrated
continuous yarn regularity monitoring and knotless joining by splicer in the spinning
operation.

CHECKING

In many cases we still have to deal with machines installed a few years ago and we
have to assure good quality of yarn by continuous checks such as
• Knotters (functional checks at least once every shift.)
• splicers
This involves to take 5 – 10 knots from a knotters, warp them on a black board
and check for strength.
The same applies also for spliced joins.
In addition evenness of length of the knot tail is to be checked. Maximum length
of tail of coarse to medium counts (100 – 36 Tex) is approx. 7 mm, finer
accounts approx. 5 mm.

Possible faults due to poor maintenance:

• Slack layers in the knotting zone 9thread tension).
• 3 legged knots
• thread remnants wound in (suction, nozzle distance)
• fly (suction)
• soft packages (pressure of spool cradle)
• rings on packages

WINDING DESTINY FOR CROSSWOUND PACKAGES

RANDOM WINDING

Cross wound packages must be wound hard enough for the draw off speed in direct
beaming 800 to 1200 m/min, up to 1500 m/min, to be expected in the future.
There is practically no longer any difference between warp and weft packages. Only
dye packages require random winding with less density.
Precision –wound packages may be used for dyeing to with normal winding hardness.

The deal winding density is influenced by 3 factors

77
 • Winding speed, thread tensioners
• Package cradle pressure on the drum

• Winding angle. The angle should be between 25 – 28o

As we know from Monofils-weaving a bobbin with flanges and exactly parallel wound
layers side by side could give the lowest packages are random or precision wound
packages.

A thread guiding drum with symmetrical guiding groves gives uniform winding
hardness over the whole width of a spool. For direct weft insertion up to 800 m/min
or via weft accumulators this winding system has advantages. The winding angle of
approx. 25 – 28o corresponds to drum traverses of:

• 83 mm 1.5 pitches, thread length per double traverse 835 mm

• 125 mm 2.5 pitch, thread length per double traverse 1150 mm

• 150 mm 2.5 pitch, thread length per double traverse 1450 mm

OPTIMUM WINDING DENSITY PER DM3

For yarns to be used in warp or weft winding densities are as follows:

Ring yarn

Coarse counts 400 g/dm3

Fine counts 450 g/dm3

OPEN END YARN

Count metric Nm 40/1 (tex 25) = 380 – 420 g/dm3

Nm 20/1 (tex 50) = 390 – 430 g/dm3
Nm 10/1 (tex 100) = 400 – 440

PATTERING AND CROSS WOUND PACKAGES

Pattering appears on every cross wound package driven by a grooved drum.

78
Pattering is always pronounced when the package and drum diameters are in a
whole-number ratio such as 1:1, 1:2 etc. (drum diameter 90 mm spool diameter 180
mm) less marked pattering results with ration 1:1.5, 1:2.5, etc. the pattering may
cause problems if it coincides with the knotting zone and cause layers sloughing-off
or entanglements on spools.

ANTI PATTERING DEVICES

Attempts are made to achieve a certain slippage between drum and package by
varying the drum speed, causing a rhythmic change in the winding angle. Anti
pattering drives yield better results than regularly lifting the packages off from the
winding drum surface.

With increasing outside diameter of the spools (warp and weft packages) anti
pattering gains more and more importance. The aim therefore is to produce random
wound packages without patterns

What are the differences of the 4 systems?

• Random winding
• Precision winding
• Step precision winding (digital winding) pattern free random winding
• Pattern free random winding

RANDOM WINDING

The crossing angle is constant from small to big diameter. The winding ratio becomes
smaller with increasing spool diameter.

Random winding

Precision winding

Step precision winding

(Digital winding)

79
 Pattern free random winding

PRECISION WINDING

With precision winding we have constant wind ratio. The winding angle varies from
small to large package diameter in accordance with the wind ratio selected. For
instance 20 and 14o corresponds to a winding angle between 20 and 40o. The wind
ratio is selected to suit the yarn geometry, and differs for fine and coarse yarns as
well as types. With appropriate choice of wind ration and reversing point
displacement, ideal winding is obtained. The distribution of the thread layers
prevents patterning and assures uniform wining density.
Open precision diamond winding for all continuous filament yarns and dye packages.
Closed precision diamond winding for coarse yarns.

DIGITAL WINDING (SCHWEITER)

With digital winding the wind ration alerts with growing package diameter. By
employing microprocessors the winding angle is allowed to change within narrow,
closely definable limits during the package build from small to final diameter.
Advantages are uniform density, precisely controlled thread laying and hence no
pattering.

PATTERN FREE RANDOM WINDING

With this winding technique 2 layers of yarn with different winding angles are used.
With the aid of a second displacement frequencies the main patterns and
intermediate patterns are over jumped.

PACKAGE CORES

Surface
If the thread layers are to be worked off completely from the package tube, as it is
the case when using magazine creels in direct beaming and by weft insertion and
shuttle- less weaving machines, the tube must be slightly rough. Thus roughness

80
may be obtained by brushing the tubes or cones with high-speed wire brushes,
sandblasting or flocking the surface. Brushing is the most common method used
today, through it should be borne in mind that 10 mm at the front of the tube is to
be left smooth.

This treatment ensures that the last thread layers do not slough-off. The smooth part
at the front end of the core prevents that the last layers get caught by roughness at
the edge f the tube.

PACKAGE FROM CORE DIAMETER

For weft insertion on the SRWM-P following package sizes are recommended:
Cylindrical; tube, ideal 100-105 mm outside diameter
Minimum 60 mm
Cones: 2o, 3o30, 4o20, 5o57

EQUIPMENT NEED FOR THE WEAVING MACHINE

WEFT ACCUMULATORS OR WEFT FEEDERS
PU-WEAVING MACHINES

Here accumulators must be employed with cones of 2o, 3o30, 4o20, 5o57, at weft
insertion rates exceeding 800 m/min
For weft insertion rates above 1000 m/min, accumulators are always needed.

PACKAGE TRAVERSE

In the design of winding machine as well as rotor spinning machines there is a clear
trend to travels widths around 150 mm, for coarse yarns even 200 to 300 mm.

ROTOR YARN (PACKAGE TRAVERSE 150 MM)

Rotor yarns are now being spun in the 250 tex count range (metric 4 to 50s)

DREF YARNS (FRICTION SPUN)

81
Metric count range 1.2 to 10s (833 – 10 tex)
Normally cylindrical cheeses, through also cones up 3o30, to are possible, mostly
precision -wound.

JET SPINNING (MURATA)

Yarns are taken up on cylindrical cheeses of 100 mm diameter and 128 mm traverse,
metric count range 55 to 14s (18 – 72 tex).
As a rule yarns up to metric 40x (25 tex) may be inserted from a package of this
format via accumulators.

FACTORS NECESSITATING REDUCED PACKAGE TRAVERSE

For finer yarns from metric 50s the package traverse must be reduced to 3 inches, or
a cone of 2 to 5o57, employed, using as accumulators or storage motion in any case.
Reason for this are:

Fine yarns from a small balloon, causing to thread to drag over the package surface.
With cylindrical package surface, with cylindrical packages this may lead to trapped
triangles in the pattern zone or catching on the front edge of the package, and
inevitably to end breaks.

Entangled threads are however directly connected with the winding direction on the
package and yarn twist. A distinction is made between P and Q winding. Drawing-off
a yarn over the end of the package reduces the twist or increases it, depending on
the direction of the yarn twist and the winding direction. Fibres projecting slightly
from the package surface sometime twisted is so strongly by the thread dragging on
the surface that the thread gets caught.

Remedies: User cones from 2o to 5o50

Reduce the package traverse to 80 mm possibly

S – P = twist reducing S – Q = twist increasing

Z – Q = twist reducing Z – P = twist reducing

82
MAXIMUM PACKAGE DIAMETER

Various winding machines and also spinning machines are now capable of producing
packages up to 300 mm diameter.
• For multi-colour machines maximum package diameter is 240 mm
• For single-colour and weft mixing machines, 300 mm diameter.

TRANSFER TAILS

To ensure smooth transfer from the package running out to the next one, a transfer
tail 50 to 70 cm long is needed. More recent winding and rotor spinning machines
allow transfer trails to be produced automatically (autoconer, autocore, ingoldstadt).
Repairing a thread break before the accumulator takes an average of 1.20 minutes,
compared with 0.55 to 0.70 minutes tails are therefore especially important.

LENGTH MEASUREMENT

Uniform thread length on the cross wound packages does not affect weft run-off. On
the other hand length measurement is very important for reducing waste in warping.
Results are secured in the neighborhood of 0.2% constancy. Length metering is an
integral feature on all winding and rotor spinning machines.

PERSONNEL SUPERVISION

• The way the personnel do its work must be verified regularly.

• Cleanliness and tidiness at the work place are indispensable
• Damages package centers must be rejected. Damaged tubes cause not only
more stoppages but more waste s well.
• Routine maintenance and check on machinery and equipment must be
performed regularly.

PACKAGE STORAGE

83
Cross wound package intended for weft insertion should be woven as soon as
possible. Prolonged storage is to be avoided, because where small-diameter package
core are employees, depending on the material the yarn layers contract, causing
more and less severe “cauliflower” deformation. This may be aggravated further by
distorted thread laying on cylindrical cheeses. These may give trouble during
unwinding, leading to thread tangling due to lateral sloughing or soft layers pressed
out close to the package core.

Careful handling, packing and storage on transport and storage tracks specially made
for the purpose, will help to prevent damage to weft packages.
Long storage periods are detrimental to good weft insertion in the pattern zones and
sloughing-off. Cotton approx. 15-20 days.

CALCULATION FOR DENIM FABRICS

Figures given for the weight for denims are usually for the finished fabric in ounces
and square yards.

CALCULATION FOR REED WIDTH

For the construction of a fabric the following values are closely related with each
other:
a) Total No of ends
b) Reed density (No. of dents/cm)
c) Reed density (No. of dents per dent)
d) Reed width
If we want to make a calculation we need to know at least 2 of the mentioned
values.
We assume that the following values are known to us:
Finished width of fabric 150.0 cm
Warp ends/cm in finished fabric 26.7
Picks/cm in finished fabric 18.75 cm
Yarn count warp Ne 6.5 Nm 11, Tex 91
Yarn count weft Ne 6.5 Nm 11, Tex 91
Warp crimp 12%

84
Weft contraction 4%
Contraction in finishing f.e sanforizing
Warp 14
Weft 3
Size and colour pick-up

CALCULATION

Reed width/cm finished width X 100 150 X 100

Crimp + sanfor %i.H. 93 161.3

Grey width/cm finished width X 100 150 X 100

Contraction in sanfor %i.H. 97 154.6

Total No. of ends 150 X 26.7 = 4005 ends

Total No. of dents 4005: 4 = 1001 dents
No of dents/cm 1001: 161.3 = 6.205 6.2
Total dents of reed 161.3 X 6.20 = 1000 dents
Total No of ends/width 1000 X 4 = 4000 ends

Yarn weight kg: total No. ends X crimp X tex = kg/m

For 1 m cloth 1000 X 1000

Or No of ends X warp crimp = kg/m

Nm. X 1000

4000 X 1.12 X 91 = 407.68 kg/m

1000

Size pick-up 8% + 32.61 g

Total weight = 440.29 g

Yarn weight = reed width/cm X pick/cm X 100 X Tex = kg

1000 X 1000

85
Weft kg
for I m cloth
161.3 X 1605 X 100 X 91 = 242.19 g/m
1000 X 100

Total weight 682.48 g/m

Weight increase by sanforizing 14% + 95.02 g/m
Total weight finished 778.02 g/m

Weight 1 m2 778.02 X 100 = 518.68 g/ m2

150
Weight 1 sq/yd 518058 X 8361.3 = 433.68 g/yd2
10.000
Weight in ounce 433.68 = 15.29 ounce/yd2
28.35
WEIGHT AND MEASURES USED
1 ounce = 28.35 g
1 yard = 91.44 cm
1 square yard = 8361.3 cm2

86
 CALCULATION OF WEFT DENSITY FOR WARP STRENGTH DENIM

We have to produce warp stretch denim with 26% warp elasticity (warp stretch)

Construction of finished fabric: 26.7 / 18.0 ends / cm

Yarn count warp Tex 45 X 2 + 15.6 Elastan
Yarn count weft Tex 91
Warp crimp (weave take-up): 6%
Sheath fibre shrinkage: 2%
Cloth elasticity fabric elongation 26%
Required No. of picks in fabric: fabric under tension on weaving machine

Picks/cm X (1-warp crimp)X1-fibre sheath shrinkage = picks/cm

1 + cloth elasticity

18 X 0.94 X 0.98 = 13.16 picks/cm on weaving machine

1.26
The pick density increase in relaxed condition of machine.
Considering 6% weave take-up (warp crimp) the weft density is as follows:

18 X 0.98 = 14.0 picks/cm of weaving machine

1.26

The cloth is now boiled off for 10 minutes and the actual weft density counted
elongation and relaxed fabric length measured. In order to do this, a distance of, for
example 20 cm, is marked on the fabric in warp direction. The cloth is stretched and
measured again, boiled off, as after washing is finishing it develops its final expected
elasticity; but loses some contractive power during dyeing and finishing due it
extended heat exposure.

Final cloth elongation stretched length-relaxed length X 100

87
 Relaxed length

= (25.2 – 20) X 100 = 26%

20
In case the check shows higher elongation than required we add picks, with lower
elongation we reduce picks..

Weft stretch fabrics

Finished cloth construction

Warp: 26.7 ends/cm

Weft: 16.5 picks/cm
Yarn count warp: tex 91
Yarn count waft: tex 91 core spun (with 15.6 tex Elastan)
Warp crimp: 12%
Sheath fibre shrinkage: 1%
Weft elongation 22%
Finished width 150.0 cm
Weft contraction: 4%

Setting ends in the reed: = 26.7 X 0.96 X 0.99 = 20.79 ends/cm

1.22

With weft stretch fabrics the No. of ends have to be dented more open to allow the
elastic weft to contract.
Reed with cm 150 X 26.7 = 192.64 cm
20.79
To determine the weft elongation and relaxed with, the same procedure is used as
for warp stretch fabrics. According to the final elongation the reed width is changed.
The elasticity is governed by the count of the elastomeric (44, 78 or 156 d Tex)

BI-ELASTIC FABRICS

In order to determine elongation and relaxed state with bielastic fabrics the
procedure is used to determine reed width and required weft density.

88
 WIDTH SETTING FOR WEFT ELASTIC DENIM

Denim 3/1 twill

Warp: cotton tex 91
Weft: tex 91 core spun (with 15.6 tex Elasthan

+22.0%

Stretch width 2X183 cm

-2.3%

Boil-off width 2X146 cm

100%

Finished width 2X150 cm

+24.0%

Grey width 2X186 cm

+28.4%

Reed width 2X192.6 cm

P 7100 390

89
 FINISHING PROCESS

FINISHING PROCEDURE

The fabric already inspected in the weaving shed where all faults are recorded and
minor faults required at the batching motions with the aid of an integrated inspection
table and cloth accumulator is transported direct to the finishing range. From the
batch roll the fabric is guided into an inlet scray or accumulator which contains 60 –
70 meters to ensure continuous finishing.

Depending on the final use on the fabric. Denim can be processed differently, in-line,
continuously or discontinuously. We recommend to apply the continuous process as
skewing of the fabric is easier and the skew can be controlled easier. In case of mill
washed denim or bleached denim a discontinuous process can be applied too.
The following lay-out shows a version of a continuous finishing process

MILL WASHED DENIM NORMAL FOAM FINISHING

BIG BATCH

BRUSHING

SINGING RIGHT
SIDE
DUST EXHAUSTION

WASHING PADDING ON FOULARD FOAM APPLICATOR

STRETCH METER STRETCH METER STRETCH METER

ANTI TWISTER ANTI TWISTER ANTI TWISTER

90
DRYING DRYING

SANFORIZING SANFORIZING SANFORIZING

Continuous finishing range for denim

STRETCHING, SKEWING

After the fabric has been brushed, double singed on the face of the fabric it is
impregnated on a padder (Foulard) to guarantee moisture absorption. After leaving
the padder, the fabric passes the squeeze roller and if necessary is stretched on a
stretch meter to achieve the required fabric width. An integrated ani-twisted serves
to de-twist the fabric to avoid twisting of the trouser legs in the finished garment.

SKEWING

Denim basically twill 3/1 Z (right and twill) is usually skewed 6 – 10% during the
finishing process.
Broken twill, as well as chambray is finished without skew.

91
IDEAL SCEW

A= First selvedge thread in fabric

B= Last selvedge thread in fabric

TOLERANCES

A= First selvedge thread in fabric

B= Last selvedge thread in fabric
No stretch between A and B: max. tolerance 20 cm
No stretch between A and B: max. tolerance 20 cm

NOT TOLERATED

The piece is not accepted if the distances A-B and C-D are greater than 20 cm and
the stretch runs in direction opposite to the twill.

92
A= First selvedge thread in fabric
B= Last selvedge thread in fabric

SANFORIZING

If the fabric is finished in line it leaves the drying cans with approx. 15 – 20%
residual moisture content.
The finished range works with continuous speed to achieve the desired sanfor
standard. It is therefore not possible to slow down the line.
Moisture measure and control units installed after the drying cans influences the
steam pressure ¼ of the installed cans and influenced cabs and thus influence the
residual moisture of the fabric.

COMPRESSIVE SHRINKAGE

The shrinkage of the fabric takes place between rubber belt and shrinkage drum. The
pressure roller with precision setting controls and scale compresses the rubber belt
by an amount corresponding to the specified shrinkage and so the rubber belt
stretches and lengthens its surface. The fabric guided in close content with the belt is
forced to follow the subsequent shortening of the belt when the pressure is relaxed
and again is automatically shrunk in the process.

The basic rubber belt shrinkage installation consists of a water spraying system
(damping) of fabric, steaming drum, straightening roller, clip chain, rubber belt
shrinkage unit, felt calendar, felt drying drum, cloth scray to allow the fabric to cool
out prior it is plaited or wound on a big batch roll.

93
 RUBBER BELT SHRINKAGE INSTALLATION

1. High cloth inlet for working from the stack with powered draw in roller
2. Water spraying (damping) system
3. Steaming drum
4. Straightening roller to remove bias stretch
5. Clip-chain, full-width expanded track 1400 mm long
6. Rubber-belt shrinkage unit compl with rubber belt.
7. Felt calendar, 1500 mm diameter, with felt control and tension system
8. Felt drying drum, 1000 mm diameter
9. Cloth plaiter
Despite the fact, that sanfor standard specifies:

Maximum residual shrinkage + 1% as tested to fixed rules, very often denim is

finished –2 to -2.5% (3 washings)

Under normal circumstances the finished fabric contains approx 8% filler.

The warp shrinkage of 14 ¾ ounce denim is approx. 14-15%, weft contraction 3-4%

94
 LIQUID –AMMONIA PROCESS

In some mills denims are Sanforized by liquid-ammonia process.

The fabric is treated in liquid-ammonia. Where a dimensional control is necessary as
the fabric would otherwise shrinkage several times more than the normal shrink
during washing.

As soon as a fabric is submerged in liquid ammonia, the swelling of fibre starts

instantaneously, and the whole swelling effects is visible in 1 – 2 seconds. The fabric
shrinkage take place slower as the shrinkage demands a mechanical reorientation.

Approx, 80 % shrinkage is reached in 5 – 6 seconds. The extent of shrinkage is

controlled by observing the duration over which the fabric is immersed in liquid
ammonia before drying.

In this way the weft and warp shrinkage of denim is treated with liquid ammonia is
treated. In addition the warp shrinkage can be limited by tensioning the warp while
the fabric is treated in liquid ammonia.

In weft direction the fabric may shrink to such an extent that when it leaces the
machine it posses approx. 12 % shrinkage after washing. In warp direction the fabric
shows a 5 – 6 % shrinkage after washing. Subsequently the fabric is compressed
shrunk.

Before the fabric enters the treatment camber, it is passed over a tension regulating
device and several drying cylinders to let it have minimum humidity.

A cooling device placed after the steam heated drying cylinders reduce the
temperature of the fabric. Before it submerges in liquid ammonia.

95
The fabric enters the machine through a sluice and is submerged in a bath containing
water free liquid ammonia, which is evenly spread over in the cloth by squeezing
rollers.

A special reaction compartment after the squeezing roller allows regulation of

reaction time. In this way the required effect is achieved.

Subsequently the ammonia is taken away from the fabric under the action of dry
heat from belt calendar.

FOAM FINISHING

In addition to the already mentioned finishing possibilities some companies see in

foam finishing advantages

• The fabric has only 20 % moisture and therefore no staining of the white
weft.
• No drying process needed therefore lower cost.
• Less water pollution

1- Cloth scray 4- Anti twisted

96
 6-Shrinkage range 11-Foam applicator
3- Stretching unit

Moanforts vacu-foam
1- Cloth
2- Knife
3- Bottom roller
4- Air tight for runner
5- Runner control unit,
6- Vacuum drums
7- Foam
8- Washing and brushing unit

97
 TINTING OF DENIM FABRIC

The achieve certain colour variations, fabric can be tinted. To grey weft takes up the
desired color shade and can lead to very interesting colour combinations, such as
blue / yellow, blue/ green, blue / red.

FINAL FABRIC CONTROL

In our final cloth inspection remaining cloth faults as wall as colour variations centre
/ selvedge get special attention.

From each piece prepared for the garment manufacturer a small 10 cm wide cutting
over the whole width of the inspection table and fastened in clamps. With this
system colour variations or shading of the fabric can immediately been seen. If the
colour shade varies, the piece is cut and the control strips is kept for the allotment of
the different pieces in the corresponding colour class. Further test stripes are taken
to check skewing, weight, tensile strength, tearing strength, washing shrinkage and
colour fastness prior the pieces are packed and prepared for delivery.

STANDARDS OF DENIM

FINAL CLOTH INSPECTION (LEVIS – STANDARD)

The standards are layed down by the market leaders and specify weight and
tolerance.

• Breaking strength
• Tear strength
• Abrasion
• Shrinkage

98
 • Colour fastness

As well as quality standards for the finished fabric the standard layed down in 1975
by Levis Strauss consists of 12 pages.

FINISH GOODS QUALITY STANDARDS

A piece shall not have more than 12 demerit points for 100m2 to be recognized for
first grade.

The demerit points are assigned as follows:

• Weft bars/ starting marks 4 points

• Dropped picks 4 points
• Oil spots 5 mm o 1 points
up to 10 mm 2 points
• Oil sports above 100 mm 4 points
• Slub yarn 70 – 150 mm 2 points
• Slub yarn exceeding 22 mm 4 points
• Fly – woven-in 1 points

Piece with the following continuous faults are regarded as second grade fabric.

• Double end
• Temple marks
• Slack picks
• Stitches
• Dyeing and sizing marks (stripes)

In addition skew and hand is checked and must meet the requirements.

99
Specification for Raw Material Evaluation

100
FIRST AND II GRADE

Weaving basic denim : 0.5% - 1.5%

Weaving soft denim : max 0.5%
Total 1. grade: 97% - 98% inclusive finishing
Second: 2% - 3% inclusive finishing

LIGHTING IN WEAVE ROOM

The ideal lighting for a denim-installation is 800 – 1000 lux.

The tube should run parallel to the warp and be as possible without interruption.
A twin flamed tube line should be placed at distance of 3m from whip rollers and be
without shades so that the roof is also illuminated.

AIR CIRCULATIONS / OVER HEAD CLEANER

In indigo dyeing blue particles adhere to the fibres, and the dust development during
weaving is quite considerable. Existing A/C plants have to be improved in most
cases. To minimize the fibre and colour dust in the weave room, a minimum of 26 air
changes per hour should be considers as the lower limit. 32 air changes are would be
ideal. Over head cleaner should be installed in addition so that the dust and fly
deposited on the fabric. As well as machine elements are continuously removed.

The advantages of over head cleaner are best utilized if the weave room floor has
returned air pockets

CENTRAL / MOBILE VACUUM CLEANER PLANT

For a denim installation a central or a vacuum cleaning unit can be strongly
recommended. For a small to medium sized plant a mobile unit is better suited as it
requires less investment.

101
The central vacuum cleaning unit is more suitable for bigger installations. It should
be observed that for a least every four SRWM one connection is available.

TEMPERATURE / RELATIVE AIR HUMIDITY IN WEAVE ROOM

Ideal temperature and relative air humidity values are:

• Temperature: 22 – 24oC

• Humidity: 70 – 75%
Sulzer will be to assist you in your planning, air conditioning as well as suitable
vacuum systems.
ECONOMICAL ASPECTS

For some years my experience with denim was based on Rope dyeing double sheet
dyeing installations. The fist installation for single sheet. Dyeing 1 saw in 1986.

EXPERIENCE IN MILL

During ITMA 1983 I paid a visit to (Italdenim) with operated for some time already
the first 1 for 6 loop dye installation knowing that I had loop-dye installation No.
worldwide, I was mush interested in the plant. How the operate spinning, weaving
and finishing.

The most striking example was hoe one operator could handle the finishing of denim
supplied by 96 rapier machines, (2 widths, 170 and 200 picks/min); one weaver
looked after 12 machines.

1983 1987
• Over looker 2 2
• Assistant over looker 2 3
• Knotter 2 2
• Cleaner 2 2
• Weaver 8 6

• Assistant weaver 3 1

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 Total: 19 16

After more then 4 years I had now the opportunity to visit the mill again. The
computer print-out which I received shows 91.9% weaver efficiency for the step by
step installed 84 PU-153, WME 10, averages machine speed 276 picks/min.

Why do I mention this? By installing new weaving machines as well as spinning and
warping machines the production with only 84 weaving machines has been increased
by more than 33% with a total of 107 workers including the technical and sales
department

SOME DETAILS:

Quality standard: for 14 ¾, 14, 14, 12, 6, 41/2 ounce denim and
chambrai.
Weaving: 0.5% seconds
Dyeing and finishing: 1.5%
Colour variations Max. 3 shade variation per shade
Waste: At beam change 15- 20 kg.
Warping speed: 1000 m/min. Hacoba warper with roller tension.
Sizing: 220 000m 5 days (42 m/min. Ne 7.5)
(35 m/min. Ne 5.5)
Production weaving: Approx. 12 million m/year

WEAVING COST CALCULATION

Details of achievable stoppage standard have already been given. You may asked
yourself are these just figures which have very little to do with your own results
because you have far fewer breaks in your mill or they exceed these.

Lets remember perfect yarn preparation, good preventive maintenance, good

organization, effective warp changes, influence our costs. With the increasing
machine speed, reduced down time at warp change become even more important.

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The tendency to larger warper beam diameters of 1016 mm in denim plants is single
to increase the running time of a warp and increase productivity.

The 6 denim qualities have been taken in the same proportion to be produced
simultaneously in the mill consisting of 96 weaving machines Type 360 N 1-1 EPR.

Weaving Cost Structure

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 DENIM WASHING

INTRODUCTION:-
Denim fabric can be define as a warp faced twill fabric made from
100% cotton containing havey weight indigo dyed warp yarn and undyed weft yarn
the coun of yarn used varied between 6’s to 12’s.
In today’s fasion a special place is occupied by the denim, fasions.
The spread of denim culture all over the world brought with it a trend of a fast
changing fashions the finish of this denim in the key perameter. The main part of the
globle production of denim garment-that is aroud 800 million pairs of jeans on a
yearly bases is passing through finishing laundries all over the world where they are
givien the desire fashionable look.
Denim garments have also formed a significant part of the apparel
export basket from India. The stone wash effect is most popular abrasion effect on
the garments obtained by the locally removing the surface bound indigo dye. This
reveals the white interior of the yarn. One after an other several washes where
introduce such as stone wash, acid wash, moon wash, monkey wash, show wash,
white wash, mud wash etc. over the last 6-8 years India has a probably since the
most domestic and the exciting changes in the washing of denim washing.
Garments washing place important role to provide fashion and the
functionality elements. In garment washing the seams, waist bands, pockets, cuffs
etc can be given different effect. The processors however face the several problems
and hence the need to use the right chemical in denim garments processing is very
essential.

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DESIZING:-
Traditional desizing is performed by using detergent and sodha or
hydrochloric acid are axidative desizing agents which is associated with many
drawbacks and limitations. Due to uncontrolled and non-specific reactions, the
cellulose material gets damage and losses strength. With the introduction of enzyme
based desizing process, the limitations and drawback of treditionals desizing process
can be overcome. The enzymatic desizing process is performed by the alpha amylase
enzyme.

ADVANTAGES OF ENZYMATIC DESIZING OVER TRADITIONAL DESIZING:-

• Due to very specific reactions of enzyme, there is no adverse effect on

cellulose, there for batter strength retention.
• Process time of desizing can be reduce.
• Neutralization is not required because same processing conditions are
required in next process there for zero salt formation in ETP.
• Saving of energy as desizing takes place at moderate temperature.
• Feel of fabric is much softer and less hairiness on the fabric.

RECIPE AND CONDITIONS:-

Strip SAL 4 (thrmo stable alpha amylase):0.5-1%(on weight of

garments)lub pro vx (creas inbitor ):0.5-1gm/ltr.
Treat at 80-85C and ph -6.5for 30min.

STONE WASH:-
Still the most famous of all washings. The jeans are
washed with oval or round pumice stones which should all have roughly the
same format. The pumice stones are very light with a rough surface. Sometimes,

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 when the final quality inspectors at the jeans factory forget to clean the pockets,
you may even find some residue of these stones in the pockets of your new
jeans. During the washing process these stones will scrap off a thin layer of the
denim does showing some of the white threads from the part of the cloth where
the indigo dyeing stuff was not able to penetrate. It also creates and effect
called brilliance. You may also encounter words like deep stone or super
stonewash, which are an indication of how long the jeans have been
stonewashed. Ergo: The longer the wash, the lighter the jeans.
In traditional washing process volcanic rocks are pumice stones are added to the
garments during washing as abradant. Due to rings dyeing and heavy abrasions,
fading is more apparent but less uniform. The degree of colour fading depends
on the garments to stone ratio, washing time, size of stone, material to liquor
ration and load of garments. Normally after desizing, stone wash process start
with the pumice stones addition in rotary drum type garment washer. Gernally 1-
2 kg stone is used for 1 kg of garment. The process time varies from 60-12-
minutes. They are many limitations and drawbacks associated with stone
washing process, which can be over come by using anzymes base washing
technology.

Enzyme washing:-
The cellulose anzymes are used in washing. They act on the
cotton yarn and there by facilitate the abrasions of the indigo dyeing from the
yarn surface. The cellulose hydrolyses cellulose, yelding sloble produce sach as a
short-chain polysaccharibes and glucose. The action loosens the indigo lyer,
which is then more easily to remove by the chemical abrasions. Use of cellulose
overcome must of the disadvantages of stone while yelding the desire softening
and “worn” look.
They are two cetagories of the enzyme, acid cellulose and nature
cellulose. The nature anzyme gives less back staining. The latter property is
responsible for a more reproducible finish from different wash.

CLASSIFICATION OF CELLULOSE ANZYME:-

1: Acid cellulose (cellulose 450 AP)

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 It works best in the Ph range of 4.5-5.5 and exhibite optimine activity 50oC
2: Natural cellulose (cellucom 110 OM)
It works best at Ph 6 however its activity is not adversely affected in the range
of Ph 6-8 and show maximum activity at 550Oc.

RECIPE AND CONDITIONS:-

1: FOR ACID CELLULASE ANZYME:-

Cellucos 450 AP: 0.5-1%(on weight of garment)

Lube pro vx (creases inhibitor) : 0.5-1gm/ltr
White MRC (anti-redepositing agent) : 1-2gm/ltr
Treat at 50 Oc and Ph 5 for 30-45 min

2: FOR NATURAL CELLULASE ANZYME:-

Cellucom 110 OM : 0.5-1% (on weight of garment)

Lube PRO VX (crease inhibitor) : 0.5-1%gm/ltr
White MRC (anti-redepositing agent) : 1-2gm/ltr
Treat at 550 Oc and Ph 6-8 for 30-60 min

ADVANTAGES OF ANZYME WASHING:-

1: Soft handle and attractive clean appearance is obtained without severe damage to
the surface of the yarn.
2: Inexpensive, low-grade fabric quality can be finish to a top quality product by the
removal of the hairiness fluff and pills etc.
3: Simple process handling and minimum effluent problem.
4: Batter feel to touch and increases bellows and luster.
5: More re-productible effect can be obtained.

ENZYME AND STONE WASHING:-

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 The cellulose anzyme can also be combine with the pumice stone. This
is recommendable for heavy stone wash finish. The same result can be reach in a
shorter time. Around 0.5kg pumice stone is used for 1kg garment and 50% of the
normal doze age to the enzyme is used.

BLEACHING:-

In this process, as a stone oxidative bleaching agent such as sodium

hydrochlorite or KMNO4 is added during the washing with or without stone addition.
This colouration is usually more apparent depending on the strength of the bleach
liquor, quantity, temperature and treatment time.

RECIPE AND CONDITIONS:-

Sodium hypochlorite “1-3kg/ltr” available chlorine

Lube PRO VX (crease inhibitor) : 0.5-1%gm/ltr
Adjust Ph 9.5-10 and treated for 10-30 min depending upon the fading

LIMITATION:-

1: Process is difficult to control i.e. difficult to reach the same level of bleaching in
repeated runs. When desire level to bleaching reach the time span available to stop
the bleaching is very narrow.
2: Due to the harshness of chemical, it may case damage to the cellulose resulting in
sever strength losses and / or breaks or pinhole at the seam, pocket, etc.
3: Required antichlor treatment.
4: Problem of yellowing is very frequent due to residual chlorine.

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