II. D.

Principles of Flight

OBJECTIVE:

Reference:
1. FAA-H-8083-3 (Airplane Flying Handbook)
2. AC 61-23 (Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge)

Objective To develop the students understanding of the principles of flight.

Elements 1. Airplane and airfoil design

2. Forces acting on an airplane
3. Stability and Controllability
4. Torque
5. Structural integrity
6. Wingtip vortices

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives 03

2. Review Material 02
3. Development 20
4. Conclusion 05

Equipment 1. White Board / Markers

2. Model Airplane
3. Airplane Flying Handbook
4. Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions
Completion 1. This lesson will be complete when the student demonstrates an understanding of
Standards the elements related to the flight.

II.D. Principles of Flight

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Instructor’s Notes: Principles of Flight_______________________________________
INTRODUCTION:

What?- The principles of flight are airplane and airfoil design, forces acting on an airplane, stability and
controllability, torque, structural integrity, and wingtip vortices.

Why?- The principles of flight are required to understand why the aircraft acts as it does, and to act
appropriately in an emergency situation.

OVERVIEW - This lesson will cover the basic element pertaining to the principles of flight, including:
1. Airplane and airfoil design
2. Forces acting on an airplane
3. Stability and Controllability
4. Torque
5. Structural integrity
6. Wingtip vortices - Straight and Level

DEVELOPMENT:

HOW ?

1. Design characteristics. Airplanes are designed to meet objectives, fly fast or slowly, range, carry
freight or passengers, etc. The airplane's objectives determine size, shape, airfoil design, the number of
pilots required, etc. Similarly, airfoils vary in design-based objectives of lift, drag, desired airspeeds, etc.
2. Forces acting on the airplane in flight.
A. Among the aerodynamic forces acting on an airplane during flight, four are considered to be basic
because they act upon the airplane during all maneuvers.
- Lift, the upward acting force.
- Weight, (or gravity), the downward acting force.
- Thrust, the forward acting force.
- Drag, the force acting rearward.
B. While in steady flight, the attitude, direction, and speed of the airplane will remain constant until
one or more of the basic forces changes in magnitude.
- In steady flight, the opposing forces are in equilibrium.
- Lift and thrust are considered positive forces (+), while weight and drag are considered negative
forces (-).
- In steady flight, the sum of all opposing forces is zero. In other words, lift equals weight and
thrust equals drag.
C. When pressure is applied to one or more of the airplanes controls, one or more of the basic forces
changes in magnitude and becomes greater than the opposing force, causing the airplane to move
in the direction of the applied forces.
- EXAMPLE. If power is applied (increasing thrust) and altitude is maintained, the airplane will
accelerate. As speed increases, drag increases until a point is reached at which drag again
equals thrust. Then the airplane will continue in steady flight at a higher speed.

II.D. Principles of Flight

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3. Airplane Stability and Controllability. The basic differences between stability, maneuverability,
and controllability are as follows:
A) Stability is the inherent quality of an airplane to correct for conditions that may disturb it’s
equilibrium, and return or continue on the original flight path. It is primarily an airplane design
characteristic.
1. Stability is classified into three types:
a. Positive stability can be illustrated by a ball inside a bowl. If the ball is displaced from its
original resting place, it will eventually return to its original position at the bottom of the
bowl.
b. Neutral stability can be illustrated by a ball on a flat plane. If the ball is displaced, it will
come to rest at some new, neutral position and show no tendency to return to its original
position.
c. Negative stability is actually instability. It can be illustrated by a ball on top of an inverted
bowl. Even the slightest displacement of the ball will activate greater forces which will
cause the ball to continue to move in the direction of the applied force (i.e. gravity).
2. Stability may be further classified as static and/or dynamic.
a. Static stability means that if the airplane's equilibrium is disturbed, forces will be
activated which will initially return the airplane to its original position.
b. Dynamic stability is a property which dampens the oscillations set up by a statically
stable airplane, enabling the oscillations to become smaller and smaller in magnitude until
the airplane eventually settles down to its original condition of flight.
- Therefore, an airplane should posses positive stability which is both static and dynamic in
nature.
B) Maneuverability is the quality of an airplane that permits it to be maneuvered easily and to
withstand the stresses imposed by maneuvers. It is governed by the airplane's weight, inertia, size
and location of flight controls, structural strength, and power plant. It too is an airplane design
characteristic.
C) Controllability is the capability of an airplane to respond to the pilot's control, especially with
regard to flight path and attitude. It is the quality of the airplane's response to the pilot's control
application when maneuvering the airplane, regardless of its stability characteristics.

4. Torque effect.

A. By definition, torque is a force or combination of forces (described below) that produces or tends to
produce a twisting or rotating motion of an airplane.
B. The four forces involved in the tendency of an airplane to turn to the left (counteracted by right
rudder pressure) are created by the rotating propeller. The four forces are:
1. Torque reaction, based on Newton's Third law of Physics: for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
-Applying this to an airplane with a propeller rotating clockwise as seen from the rear, a
force is produced which tends to roll the entire airplane about its longitudinal axis in a
counterclockwise direction.
2. Spiraling slipstream, based on the reaction of the air to a rotating propeller blade.
- As the propeller rotates clockwise, as seen from the rear, the propeller blade forces the
air rearward in a spiraling clockwise direction of flow around the fuselage.
- A portion of this spiraling slipstream strikes the left side of the vertical stabilizer,
forcing the airplane's tail to the right and the nose to the left, causing the airplane to
rotate around the vertical axis.

3. Gyroscopic precession, based on one of two fundamental properties of gyroscopic action.

The rotating propeller of an airplane makes a very good gyroscope and thus had similar
properties.
- Precession is the resultant action or deflection of the propeller when a force is applied
to its rim.
- When the tail of the airplane is raised, a force is applied at the top of the propeller (12
0'clock position) in the direction of the airplane. Since the propeller moves in a
II.D. Principles of Flight
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 clockwise, the resultant force is 90' and in the direction of rotation, or at the 3
o'clock position. The action is then to move the nose to the left about the vertical
axis.
The resulting force can cause a pitching or yawing moment or a combination of both;
-This element of torque affect has always been associated with, and considered more
prominent, in tailwheel airplanes, and most often occurs during takeoff roll when the
tailwheel is lifted off the ground.
4. "P" factor or asymmetric loading usually occurs when the airplane is flown at high angles
of attack, with a high power setting.
-The downward moving blade, which is on the right side of the propeller arc as seen from the
rear, has a higher angle of attack, thus the "bite" of the downward moving blade is greater
than the "bite" of the upward moving blade.
-The center of thrust is moved to the right of the prop disc area causing a yawing moment
toward the left around the vertical axis.
-Airplanes are designed in such a manner that the torque affect is not noticeable to the
pilot when the plane is in straight and level flight.
-The effect of torque increases in direct proportion to engine power and airplane attitude, and
inversely with airspeed.
-If the power setting is high, the airspeed slow, and the angle of attack high, the effect of
torque is greater.
-Many airplane manufacturers cant the engine slightly so that the thrust line of the
propeller points slightly to the right,
-Often the vertical stabilizer is offset to the left and/or the rudder will have a fixed trim
tab to offset torque in normal cruise.
-Some airplanes are designed to increase the angle of incidence to the left wing, which
increases the angle of attack and thus increases the lift on this wing.

5. Structural integrity and load factors.

A. An airplane is designed and certified for a certain maximum weight during flight (maximum
certified gross weight).
1. It is important what the airplane be loaded within specific weight limits before
flight. If the airplane is overloaded, certain flight maneuvers that normally impose
an extra load on the airplane structure may impose stresses exceeding the design
capabilities of the airplane.
2. Overstressing the airplane can also occur if the pilot engages in maneuvers creating high loads,
regardless of how much weight is in the airplane.
3. The maneuvers increase both the load that the airplane structure must support and the airplane's
stalling speed.
4. The loads imposed on the wings in flight are stated in terms of load factor. Load factor is the
ratio of the total load (weight) supported by the airplane's wings to the actual weight of the
airplane and its contents:

Load factor = actual load (weight) supported by the wings

total weight of the airplane

5. Another way of expressing load factor is the ratio of a given load to the pull of gravity or "G".
If the weight of the airplane is equivalent to 1 G, and if a load of three times the actual weight
of the airplane were imposed upon the wing due to curved flight, the load factor would be
equal to 3 G's.
6. Load factors and airplane design. To be certificated by the FAA, the structural strength (load
factor) of airplanes must conform with prescribed standards set forth by FARs. Airplanes are
classified as to strength and operational use by means of the category system.
a. The normal category has a maximum load factor of 3.8 G's and -1.52 G's.
-Permissible maneuvers include:
1. Any maneuver incidental to normal flying.
2. Stalls
3. Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns in which the angle of bank does not
exceed 60'
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 b. The utility category has a maximum load factor of 4.4 G's and -1.76 G's
- Permissible maneuvers include:
1. All operations in the normal category.
2. Spins (if approved for that airplane).
3. Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns in which the angle of bank is more
than 60''.
c. The aerobatic category has a maximum load factor of 6.0 G's and -3.0 G's
- There are no restrictions except those shown to be necessary as a result of required
flight tests.
- Effect of turns on load factor. A turn is made by banking the airplane so that
horizontal lift from the wings pulls the airplane from its straight and level path. In
a constant altitude coordinated turn, the load factor (resultant load) is the result of
two forces: (1) pull of gravity and (2) centrifugal force.

B. The maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely stalled is the design maneuvering speed
(Va).
1 Va is a valuable reference point for the pilot.
- When operating below this speed, a damaging positive flight load should
not be produced. The airplane should stall before the load becomes
excessive. Any combination of flight control usage, including full
deflection of the controls or gust loads created by turbulence, should not
create an excessive air load if the airplane is operated below maneuvering
speed.

CAUTION: Certain adverse wind shear or gusts may cause excessive loads
even at speeds below maneuvering speed.

2. Design maneuvering speed can be found in the POH for each airplane and/or on a placard
within the cockpit and changes with the airplane's gross weight.
3. As gross weight decreases, so does Va.
4. The placard in the cockpit often shows only Va for maximum gross weight.
5. Effect of turbulence on load factor. Turbulence in the form of vertical air currents can,
under certain conditions, cause severe load stress on an airplane wing.
- Therefore, it is wise in extremely rough air, as in thunderstorm or frontal conditions, to
reduce the speed to the design maneuvering speed, which will normally result in a stall
before structural damage occurs.

C. Vg Diagram (velocity versus G loads)

1. Shows the flight operating strength of an airplane.
2. On the diagram shown, load factor is on the vertical axis with airspeed on the horizontal
axis.
3. The lines of maximum lift capability (curved lines) are the first items of importance on the
Vg diagram.

6. Wingtip vortices. Every aircraft generates a pair of counter-rotating vortices trailing from the wing
tips know as wake turbulence. The vortices from larger airplanes pose problems to encountering
airplanes.
A. Lift is generated by the pressure differential between the upper and lower wing surfaces. The
lowest pressure occurs over the upper wing surface. The highest pressure occurs under the wing.
1. This pressure differential triggers a roll-up of the airflow behind the wing.
- After the roll-up is completed, the wake consists of two counter rotating cylindrical
vortices.
2. The strength of the vortex is governed by the weight, speed, and wing shape of the generating
aircraft.
3. The vortex characteristics of any given aircraft can be changed by:
- Extension of flaps or other wing-configuring devices.
- Change in speed
4. The greatest vortex strength occurs when the generating aircraft is HEAVY-CLEAN-SLOW.
II.D. Principles of Flight
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 5. Vortices from large aircraft sink at a rate of about 400 to 500 fpm and level off at a distance
about 900ft. below the flight path of the generating aircraft.

COMMON ERRORS
TORQUE - No correction with rudder
G LOADING - Not paying attention to the maneuvering speed
WINGTIP VORTICES- Not using the proper landing or take off paths

CONCLUSION

OVERVIEW
Discuss Elements to include:
1. Airplane and airfoil design
2. Forces acting on an airplane
3. Stability and Controllability
4. Torque
5. Structural integrity
6. Wingtip vortices

Private PTS
As Stated
Commercial PTS
As Stated

II.D. Principles of Flight

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