CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Heat transfer is energy in transit, which occurs as a result of a temperature gradient or

difference. This temperature difference is thought of as a driving force that causes heat to

flow. Heat transfer occurs by three basic mechanisms or modes: conduction, convection,

and radiation.

Conduction

Conduction heat transfer is defined as heat transfer in solids and fluids without bulk

motion. Heat conduction generally takes place in solids, through it may occur in fluids

without bulk motion or with rigid body motion. In fluids, conduction is due to the

collusions of the molecules during their random motion. In solids, it is due to the

combination of vibrations of molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free

electrons.

T1 T2
concrete wall

heat (q)

cold hot

Figure 1.1 Heat conduction through a concrete wall.

It is observed that the rate of heat conduction through a wall (qx) with constant

thickness is proportional to the temperature difference (T2 - T1) between the surfaces and
the area normal to the heat flow direction (A) and is inversely proportional to the thickness

of the wall (L).

T2 − T1
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅ (1.1)
L

where k is thermal conductivity of the wall’s material (W/m.K)

A is cross-sectional area of the wall (m2)
L is the thickness of the wall (m)
T1, T2 is surface temperatures of the wall (°C)

Table 1.1 Thermal conductivity of some material at 300 K.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Material k (W/m.K)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Silver (pure) 427
Copper (pure) 399
Gold 316
Stainless steel (316) 14.4
Glass 0.81
Concrete 0.128
Fiberglass wool 0.040
Air 0.0262
Water 0.540
Wood 0.17
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Convection

Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that

is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The

faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk

fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure

conduction. The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between

the solid surface and the fluid.

Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface

by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection is called

natural or free convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy force that is induced

by density difference due to the variation of temperature in the fluid. Heat transfer from a

solid surface can be obtained from:

q = h c ⋅ A ⋅ ( Tw − T∞ ) (1.2)
where h c is convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
A is heat transfer area (m2)
Tw is surface temperatures of the wall (°C)
T∞ is the bulk fluid temperature (°C)

Table 1.2 Typical values of convective heat transfer coefficients

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Type of convection h (W/m2.K)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Natural convection (air) 5 - 15
Natural convection (water) 500 - 1000
Force convection (air) 10 - 200
Force convection (oil) 20 - 2000
Force convection (water) 300 - 20000
Water boiling 3000 - 100000
Water condensing 5000- 10000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Radiation

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result

of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike

conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not require the

presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is the fastest (at

the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is exactly how the energy

of the sun reaches the earth.

The maximum rate of radiation which can be emitted from a surface at an absolute

temperature (Ts) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law as:

q emit = ε ⋅ σ ⋅ A ⋅ Ts4 (1.3)

Where σ = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2.K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and ε is the emissivity of

the surface. An idealized surface, which emits radiation at a maximum rate has ε = 1, is

known as a blackbody. The radiation emitted by actual surfaces is less than that emitted by

the blackbody. The value of ε is in the range 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, is a measure of how closely a

surface approximates a blackbody.

Table 1.3 Emissivity of some materials at 300 K
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
material ε material ε
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
aluminum foil 0.07 Black paint 0.98
anodized aluminum 0.82 White paint 0.90
polished copper 0.03 White paper 0.92-0.97
polished gold 0.03 Asphalt pavement 0.85-0.93
polished silver 0.02 Human skin 0.95
polished stainless-steel 0.17 Wood 0.82-0.92
black paint 0.98 Soil 0.93-0.96
Water 0.96
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity (α), which is

the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface which is absorbed by the surface.

Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 ≤ α ≤ 1. A blackbody absorbs the entire

radiation incident on it. That is, a black is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as well as a perfect

emitter. In practice, α and ε are assumed to independent from temperature and wavelength

of the radiation. The average absorptivity of a surface is taken to be equal to its average

emissivity. The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from:

q abs = α ⋅ q inc (1.4)

Where qinc is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface. For nontransparent

surfaces, the portion of incident radiation not absorbed by the surface

qinc
qref = (1 - α)qinc

surface
qabs = α qinc

Figure 1.2 The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity ∝.

The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the

radiation absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer. If the rate of radiation absorption is

greater than the rate of radiation emission, the surface is said to be gaining energy by

radiation. Otherwise, the surface is said to be losing energy by radiation.

CHAPTER II

STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION

2.1 Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Consider a wall as shown, we know that the rate of heat transfer through the wall increases
when:
• The temperatures difference between the left and right surfaces increase,
• The wall surface area increases,
• The wall thickness reduces,
• The wall is change from brick to aluminum.
If we measure temperatures of the wall from left to right and plot the temperature variation
with the wall thickness, we get:

dT
slope =
Thot dX
q

Tcold Tcold
Thot

0 L L

Figure 2.1 Heat conduction through a wall.

Relative to the heat flow direction, the slope of the temperature line is negative as the
temperature decrease with the heat flow direction.
Therefore, the relation can be written as:

∂T
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅ (2.1)
∂x

This relation is known a Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

2.2 General conduction equation based on Cartesian Coordinates

qy+d

qz
qx
qx+d

qz+d
qy

Figure 2.2 A control volume for deriving the three-dimensional conduction

equation in Cartesian Coordinates.

Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the element, we get:

Rate of energy Rate of energy

conducted into the + generated inside
control volume the control volume

Rate of energy Rate of energy

conducted out off + stored inside the
the control control volume

Rate of energy conducted into the system:

∂T ∂T ∂T
q x = −k ⋅ dy ⋅ dz ⋅ , q y = −k ⋅ dx ⋅ dz ⋅ , q z = −k ⋅ dy ⋅ dx ⋅ (2.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Rate of energy conducted out off the system:

∂ qx ∂ qy ∂ qz
q x + dx = q x + ⋅ dx , q y + dy = q y + ⋅ dy , q z + dz = q z + ⋅ dz (2 .3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Rate of energy generated inside the system:

q gen = q ′′′ ⋅ dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz (2.4)

Rate of energy stored inside the system

∂T
q store = C ⋅ ρ ⋅ dx ⋅ dy ⋅ dz ⋅ (2.5)
∂t
By combining equations 2.2 to 2.5, then:
 2 2 2 
∂ T ∂ T ∂ T 1 ∂ T
q ′′′ = − k  + + + ⋅ (2.6)
 ∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z 2  α ∂ t


Where α is called thermal diffusivity of material (m2/sec):

k
α= (2.7)
ρ⋅C

Note that the thermal conductivity (k) represented how well a material conducts heat, and
the heat capacity ( ρ ⋅ C) represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume. The
larger the diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium. A small value of
thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly abs0rbed by the material and a small amount
of heat will be conducted further.

2.2.1 Heat transfer through a wall

For this case, the process is steady-state, no internal heat

T1
generated, and one dimensional heat flow, therefore
T2 equation 2.6 can be simplified as:

x ∂2 T
=0 (2.8)
∂ x2

L
Figure 2.3 Steady-state temperature
distribution within a plane wall.

By integrating equation 2.8:

dT
= C1 (2.9)
dx

T = C1 ⋅ x + C2 (2.10)
and we know at x = 0, T = T1, and at x = L, T = T2, therefore:
at x = 0
T1 = C2
at x = L
T2 = C1 ⋅ L + T1

then we have
x
Tx = ( T2 − T1 ) ⋅ + T1 (2.11)
L

by differentiating equation 2.11 and applying to a Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the
heat transfer rate through the wall is then obtained from:
T2 − T1
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅ (2.12)
L

If we define a conductive thermal resistance as:

L
Rk = (2.13)
k⋅A

Then equation 2.12 may be written as:

T2 − T1
qx = (2.14)
Rk

This equation is analogous to the relation for electric current flow:

V2 − V1
I= (2.15)
Re

Based on this analogy, the system can be drawn schematically as:

Rk
T1 T2

Figure 2.4 Conductive thermal resistance.

2.2.2 Composite wall (materials in series)

T0 T1
T2
T3

∆ x1 ∆ x2 ∆ x3

Rk-1 Rk-2 Rk-3

T0 T1 T2 T3

Figure 2.5 Composite wall with material in series.

Heat transfer rate through material 1

k1 ⋅ A ( T0 − T1 )
q1 = ⋅ ( T0 − T1 ) = (2.13)
∆x 1 R k −1

Heat transfer rate through material 2

k2 ⋅ A ( T1 − T2 )
q2 = ⋅ ( T1 − T2 ) = (2.14)
∆x 2 Rk − 2

Heat transfer rate through material 3

k3 ⋅ A ( T − T3 )
q1 = ⋅ ( T2 − T3 ) = 2 (2.15)
∆x 3 R k −3

As the system is steady-state and no internal heat generated, the heat flows enter and exit
each layer are equal. Therefore:
q1 = q 2 = q 3 = q x (2.16)
Then, by combining equations 2.13 to 2.14:
T0 − T3 T0 − T3
qx = = (2.17)
R k −1 + R k − 2 + R k − 3 Σ Rn
2.2.3 Composite wall (material in parallel)

Rk-2a

T0 Rk-1 Rk-3
2a T3
T1 T2
1 3

2b
Rk-2b

Figure 2.6 Composite wall in a series/parallel arrangement.

If it is assumed that each layer has a uniform temperature:

q1 = q 2 a + q 2b = q 3 = q x (2.18)

T0 − T1 T1 − T2 T1 − T2 T2 − T3
= + = (2.19)
R k −1 Rk − 2a R k − 2b Rk − 3

The overall thermal resistance of layer 2 is:

1 1 1
= + (2.20)
Rk − 2 Rk − 2a R k − 2b

Therefore, the heat transfer through this wall is:

T0 − T3
qx = (2.21)
R k −1 + R k − 2 + R k − 3

T 0 − T3
= (2.22)
∆x 1 ∆x 2 ∆x 3
+ +
( k ⋅ A) 1 ( k ⋅ A) 2 a + ( k ⋅ A) 2b ( k ⋅ A) 3
2.2.4 Plane wall with internal heat generated

T A wall in which there is internal heat

generation per unit volume, q ′′′ . The heat
T = Tmax source is at the center plane, thus we can
heat source
expect a temperature profile that is symmetric
T = Tw
about the center. For this case, the process is
-X +X
steady-state and one-dimensional heat flow,
L L
therefore, equation 2.6 can be simplified as:

Figure 2.7 Plane wall with internal heat generation.

q ′′′ d 2T
− = (2.23)
k d x2

By integrating this equation:

dT x
= −q ′′′ + C1 (2.24)
dx k

x2
T = −q ′′′ + C1 ⋅ x + C2 (2.25)
2 ⋅k

We know that at the surface T = Tw, thus from equation 2.25:

at x = L
L2
Tw = −q ′′′ + C1 ⋅ L + C2 (2.26)
2 ⋅k

at x = -L
L2
Tw = −q ′′′ − C1 ⋅ L + C2 (2.27)
2 ⋅k

By combing equation 2.26 and 2.27:

L2
C2 = Tw + q ′′′ + C2 (2.28)
2 ⋅k
dT
At the x = 0 (center plane), T = Tmax and = 0, thus from equation 2.24:
dx

C1 = 0 (2.27)
As C1 and C2 are already known, the solution of equation 2.23 is:
 L2  x 2 
Tx = Tw + q ′′′ 1− (2.28)
 
2 ⋅k  L2 

2.2.5 Overall heat transfer coefficient

Heat transfer by convection between the wall’s surface and fluid can be obtained from:
q = h c ⋅ A ⋅ ( Tw − T∞ ) (2.29)
and the convective thermal resistance is:
1
Rc = (2.30)
hc ⋅ A

T∞ -1
T1

T2 T∞ - 2

Rc-1 Rk Rc-2
T∞ - 1 T1 T2 T∞ - 2

Figure 2.8 Combine convection-conduction heat transfer through a wall.

The heat transfer rate through the wall in term of fluid temperatures is:
T∞ −1 − T∞ −2
q= (2.31)
1 ∆x 1
+ +
h c −1 ⋅ A k ⋅ A h c −2 ⋅ A

T∞ −1 − T∞ −2
= (2.32)
R c −1 + R k + R c −2

It is convenient to express the heat transfer in term of a single value that accounts for both
conduction and convection resistances, thus:
q = U ⋅ A ⋅ ( T∞ −1 − T∞ −2 ) (2.32)
where U is defined as an over heat transfer coefficient and:
1 1
U= = (2.33)
1 ∆x 1
+ + A(R c −1 + R k + R c −2 )
h c −1 k h c −2
Then
1
U⋅ A = (2.34)
Σ R c + Σ Rk

2.3 General conduction equation based on Polar Cylindrical Coordinates

r⋅dθ qz

qθ+dθ qr+dr

qr
dz
qz+dz

dr
qθ

Figure 2.9 Volume element in a cylindrical coordinates.

Similar to the case for Cartesian Coordinates, energy equation can be obtained as:
∂ qr ∂ qθ
q r + q θ + q z + q ′′′(r ⋅ d θ) dr ⋅ dz = q r + dr + q θ + dθ + q z
∂r ∂θ
(2.35)
∂ qz ∂T
+ dz + C ⋅ ρ (r ⋅ d θ) dr ⋅ dz
∂z ∂t

Equation 2.35 can be rewritten as:

∂2 T 1 ∂T 1 ∂2 T ∂2 T q ′′′ 1 ∂T
+ + + + = (2.36)
∂ r2 r ∂r r 2 ∂ θ2 ∂ z2 k α ∂t
2.3.1 Heat transfer to/from a circular duct

T
L
R2

R1

T1
T2
r

Figure 2.10 Heat conduction through a cylindrical wall.

Assuming that, the system is steady-state, there is no internal heat generation, temperature
varies only with r. Thus equation 2.36 is simplified to:
 
∂2 T 1 ∂T 1 d  dT
+ =  r ⋅ =0 (2.37)
∂ r2 r ∂r r d r  d r 

 
d  dT
 r =0 (2.38)
dr  d r 

By integrating equation 2.36:

dT dT C1
r = C1 = (2.39)
dr dr r

By integrating again:
T = C1 ln ( r ) + C2 (2.40)
The boundary condition are: at r = R1, T = T1 and at r = R2, T = T2.
at R1
T1 = C1 ln (R1 ) + C2 (2.41)
at R2
T2 = C1 ln (R 2 ) + C2 (2.42)
then we can solve for C1 and C2, thus:
T − T1 ln ( r / R1 )
= (2.43)
T2 − T1 ln (R1 / R 2 )
equation 2.41 can be used to calculate temperature at r when R1 < r < R2. The heat transfer
through the pipe wall can be obtained by applying Fourier’s law of heat conduction, thus:
∂T
q r = −k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r ⋅ L) (2.44)
∂r

by differentiating equation 2.43 and combining with equation 2.44, thus:

 
1 T1 − T2 
q r = −k ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r ⋅ L)  (2.45)
 
 r ln (R1 / R 2 ) 

2 ⋅ π ⋅k ⋅L
= ( T1 − T2 ) (2.46)
ln (R 2 / R1 )

T1 − T2
= (2.47)
Rk

Thus the thermal resistance is:

ln (R 2 / R1 )
Rk = (2.48)
2 ⋅ π ⋅k ⋅L

2.3.2 Overall heat transfer coefficient

R3 pipe

R2

insulation
R1

T∞1

T1
T3
T2
T∞2

Rc-1 Rk-1 Rk-2 Rc-2

T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2

Figure 2.11 Heat flow through a cylinder with convection.

The heat transfer between the fluids can be obtained similar to the case for composites wall
(series), thus:
T∞ −1 − T∞ −2
qr = (2.49)
R c −1 + R k −1 + R k −2 + R c −2

and the thermal resistances are:

1
R c −1 =
h c − 1 ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R1 ⋅ L

1
Rc −2 =
hc − 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R2 ⋅ L

ln (R 2 / R1 )
R k −1 =
2 ⋅ π ⋅ k1 ⋅ L

ln (R 3 / R 2 )
Rk − 2 =
2 ⋅ π ⋅ k2 ⋅ L

Based on the inner surface area, the heat transfer rate may be obtained as:
q r = U1 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R 1 ⋅ L)( T∞ −1 − T∞ −2 ) (2.50)
The overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner surface area is:
1
U1 = (2.51)
1 R1 ln (R 2 / R1 ) R1 ln (R 3 / R 2 ) R1
+ + +
h c −1 k1 k2 R3 ⋅ hc − 2

Based on the outer surface area, the heat transfer rate may be obtained as:
q r = U2 ⋅ ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 ⋅ L)( T∞ −1 − T∞ −2 ) (2.52)
The overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer surface area is:
1
U2 = (2.53)
R3 R 3 ln (R 2 / R1 ) R 3 ln (R 3 / R 2 ) 1
+ + +
R1 ⋅ h c − 1 k1 k2 hc − 2

2.3.3 Critical thickness of insulation

In order to reduce heat loss from the hot fluid flowing inside a pipe, insulating
material is normally used. When we add the insulation, the conductive thermal resistance is
definitely increased. This causes the heat loss to reduce. However, at the same time, adding
the insulation also increases the outer surface area. This causes the heat loss to increase.
Therefore, in some case, adding insulation may increase the heat loss. Particularly for a
large pipe and when the outer convective coefficient and thermal conductivity of the
insulation used are high.
 Consider a 1 inch pipe (OD = 3.34 cm) covered with kapok insulation (k = 0.035
W/m.K). Assume that the outside-pipe-wall temperature is 200°C and the ambient
temperature is 20°C. The outer convective coefficient is 1.7 W/m2.K. The heat loss from
the pipe is:
T2 − T∞ −2
q/L= (2.54)
ln (R 3 / R 2 ) 1
+
2 ⋅ π ⋅k2 h c −2 ( 2 ⋅ π ⋅ R 3 )

2 ⋅ π ⋅ ( 200 − 20 )
q/L= (2.55)
ln ( R 3 / 0 . 0167 ) 1
+
0 . 035 1.7 ⋅ R 3

The table below shows calculated heat loss when the insulation thickness (R3 - R2)
increases from 0 to 2.5 cm.

---------------------------------------------------- q/L q =qmax when dq/dR2 = 0

R3 –R2 (cm) heat loss (W/m)
----------------------------------------------------
0 32.1
0.5 32.7
1.0 31.9
1.5 30.7
2.0 29.4
2.5 28.1
----------------------------------------------------

R2 - R1
Rcri – R1
Figure 2.12 Heat loss from an insulated pipe as a function of insulation thickness.

from the graph, it can be seen that when the insulation thickness is greater than the critical
value, the heat loss reduce when the thickness increases. The critical radius is obtained as
the heat loss is at maximum value, thus:
by differentiating equation 2.54:
d ( q / L) 2 ⋅ π( T2 − T∞ −2 )(1 / k R 3 − 1 / h c −2 R 23
=0=− 2
(2.56)
d R3  ln (R 3 / R 2 ) 
 1 
+
 k2 h c −2 ⋅ R 3 


solving for R3-cri gives:

k2
R 3 − cri = (2.57)
hc − 2
2.3.4 Cylinder with internal heat generation

Tw

Figure 2.13 Solid cylinder with uniform internal heat generation.

Examples of this system are a tungsten wire in an electric light bulb, an electric heating
element. For this case, the system is steady state and temperature varies only r, thus
equation 2.36 may be simplified as:
 
d  d T  r ⋅ q ′′′
 r + =0 (2.58)
dr  d r  k

rearranging and integrating once:

dT r 2 q ′′′
r =− + C1 (2.59)
dr 2 ⋅k

dividing by r and integrating again:

r 2 q ′′′
T=− + C1 ln ( r ) + C2 (2.60)
4 ⋅k

The boundary conditions are: at r = R, T = Tw and at r = 0, dT/dr = 0.

From equation 2.59 at r = 0
C1 = 0 (2.61)
From equation 2.60 at r = R
R 2 ⋅ q ′′′
C2 = Tw + (2.62)
4 ⋅k

The solution is:

R 2 q ′′′  r 2 
T − Tw = 1− (2.61)
 
4 ⋅k  R2 
Example 2.1
Walls of a cold-storage room are constructed of 10 cm thick brick on the outside and 1 cm
thick plywood on the inside. Sandwiched between the brick and the plywood is glass fiber
insulation that is 7 cm thick. The inside surface temperature is to be maintained at -5°C and
the outside surface temperature is 32°C. In order to estimate the cooling capacity of a
refrigeration system, the heat flow through the wall per square meter must be determined.

32°C
-5°C

brick
plywood

glass fiber wool

1 cm 7 cm 10 cm
Example 2.2
A wall as shown in the figure is a typical wall construction for a convention house.
Determine the heat flow of 1 section if the wall is 2 m long.

wall stud (8 cm × 5 cm)

10 cm 8 cm 25°C

40 cm

brick
plaster board
(1.5 cm thick)
air space
Example 2.3
A steel pipe with 5 cm OD and 4 cm ID carries hot steam at temperature of 120°C. The
pipe is insulated with 3 cm thick of glass wool. The convective heat transfer coefficient
between the steam and the pipe is 300 W/m2.K and 60 W/m2.K for the insulation and the
air. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for this system and the heat transfer
coefficient for this system and the heat loss for 1 meter if the air temp is 30°C.

R1 = 2 cm
R2 = 2.5 cm
R2 R3 = 5.5 cm
R1

T∝-2 = 30°C
h∝-2 = 60 W/m2.K
R3

T∝-1 = 120°C
h∝-1 = 300 /m2.K
Example 2.4
There is a 1 kW heating element with diameter of 10 mm and 1 m long. The heater is used
in an electric kettle. Assuming that the heater outer surface temperature is 10°C above
water temperature (because the convective resistance between the surface and the water is
very low due to an extremely high convective heat transfer coefficient for boiling).
Determine the maximum of the heater.

heating wire stainless-steel tube

(thickness of 0.5 mm)

silica
10 cm
CHAPTER III
HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACE

One example of an extended surface is a spoon placed in a cup of hot coffee. The handle
extended beyond the hot coffee. Heat is conducted along the spoon handle, causing the
handle to become warmer than the surrounding air. The heat conducted to the handle is
then transfer to the air by convection.

Figure 3.1 A spoon and a cup of coffee.

The purpose of adding an extended surface is to help dissipate heat. Fins are
usually added to a heat transfer device to increase the rate of heat removal. This is because
of the increase of the heat transfer area.

3.1 General equation for extended surface

dz

qz qz+dz

x-section area = A
dqc

Figure 3.1 An extended surface of aebitrary shape and cross section

Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the system:

Rate of energy Rate of energy Rate of energy

convection out conducted into conducted out off
from the control the control volume the control volume

dq c = dq z − dq z + dz (3.1)
 dq z 
dq c = dq z −  dq z + dz  (3.2)
 dz 
dq z
dq c = dz (3.3)
dz

From Fourier’s law for heat conduction:

dT
q x = −k ⋅ A ⋅
dz (3.4)

Where A is the cross-section and varies along the length, then:

dq z d  dT 
= −k ⋅ A ⋅  (3.5)
dz dz  dz 

For convection:
dq c = h c ⋅ d As ( T − T∞ ) (3.6)
By substituting equations 3.5and 3.6 into equation 3.3 then:

d  dT 
h c ⋅ d As ( T − T∞ ) = −k ⋅ A ⋅  dz (3.7)
dz  dz 

Then divide by k ⋅ dz :
dAdT d2 T h c d As
+A = ( T − T∞ ) (3.8)
dz dz d Z2 k dz

d2 T 1 dAdT h c 1 d As
+ − ( T − T∞ ) = 0 (3.9)
2
dZ A dz dz k A dz

If we define
θ = T − T∞ (3.10)
Then
dT dθ
= (3.11)
dZ dz
and
d2 T d2θ
= (3.12)
d Z2 d z2

Substitute equations 3.10 to 3.12 into 3.9 then:

d2θ 1 dA dθ h c 1 d As
+ − θ=0 (3.13)
d z2 A dz dz k A dz

Equation 3.13 is the general equation for extended surface.

3.2 Uniform fin

Assumptions used in the analysis
dA
• Fin is uniform or constant cross-sectional area, thus =0.
dz

• There is no heat convection out at the fin tip. The fin tip is insulated or the area is
very small compared with the total surface area.

Tw

dδ

dz

Figure 3.2 A uniform fin.

Based on these assumptions equation 3.13 is simplified to:

d2θ h c 1 d As
− θ=0 (3.14)
2
dz k A dz

If we define pin perimeter as:

d As
P= (3.15)
dz
Therefore, equation 3.14 is:
d2θ hc ⋅ P
− θ=0 (3.16)
d z2 k⋅A

Then we define

hc ⋅ P
m= (3.17)
k⋅A

Equation 3.16 is then become

d2θ
− m2 ⋅ θ = 0 (3.18)
2
dz

By solving equation 3.18, we have:

θ = C1 cosh ( m ⋅ Z) + C2 sinh ( m ⋅ z) (3.19)
or
θ = C3 e m z + C 4 e −m z (3.20)

As we assume that the fin’s tip is insulated thus:

at root
z = 0, T = Tw θw = Tw - T∞
at tip
dT dθ
z = L, =0 =0
dz dz

from equation 3.19, at root cosh (0) = 1 and sinh (0) = 0, thus
C1 = θ w (3.21)
then
θ = θ w cosh ( m ⋅ z) + C2 sinh ( m ⋅ z) (3.22)
by differentiating
dθ
= θ w m ⋅ sinh ( m ⋅ z) + C2 m ⋅ cosh ( m ⋅ z) (3.23)
dz

from equation 3.23, at root

0 = θ w sinh ( m ⋅ L) + C2 m ⋅ cosh ( m ⋅ L) (3.24)
thus
θ w sinh ( m ⋅ L)
C2 = − (3.25)
cosh ( m ⋅ L)

the solution is then:

 Tz − T∞ θ cosh (m ⋅ L) cosh (m ⋅ z) − sinh (m ⋅ L) sinh (m ⋅ z)
= = (3.26)
Tw − T∞ θw cosh (m ⋅ L)

cosh [m ⋅ L ( 1 − z / L ) ]
= (3.27)
cosh ( m ⋅ L )

Equation 3.27 can be used to determine temperature (Tz) at distance z from the root. In
order to fine the heat rejected out from the fin, Fourier’s law of heat conduction may be
applied. We also know that, the heat conducted through the root is equal to the heat
rejected out by convection, thus:

dT
qz = − k ⋅ A⋅ (3.28)
dz z=0

dθ
= − k ⋅ A⋅ (3.29)
dz z =0

k ⋅ A⋅ θw
=− × [m ⋅ cosh (m ⋅ L) sinh (m ⋅ z) − .....
cosh (m ⋅ L) (3.30)
m sinh (m ⋅ L) cosh (m ⋅ z) ]z =0

as sinh 0 = 0 and cosh 0 = 1 then

q z = k ⋅ A ⋅ m ⋅ θ w tanh ( m ⋅ L) (3.31)

3.3 Fin efficiency and effectiveness

The fin efficiency is defined as:
actual heat transferre d from wall with fin attached
ηfin = (3.32)
heat that would be transferre d if entire fin is at wall temperatur e

thus
k ⋅ A ⋅ h c ⋅ P ⋅ ( Tw − T∞ ) tanh ( m ⋅ L)
ηfin = (3.33)
h c ⋅ (P ⋅ L)( Tw − T∞ )

tanh ( m ⋅ L)
ηfin = (3.34)
m ⋅L
 (a) (b)
Figure 3.3 a.) Dimensionless graph of heat flow as a function of length for a uniform fin.
b) Efficiency of a fin.

It can be seen that the heat rejected through the fin cannot be substantially increased past
m × L = 3 . Practically a fin length of over L = 3 / m will not improve the performance

( m × L > 3 is over designed).

The fin effectiveness is defined as:

heat flux from wall after adding fin
ε fin = (3.35)
heat flux from wall before adding fin

thus
k ⋅P
ε fin = × tanh ( m ⋅ L) (3.36)
hc ⋅ A

It can be seen that, fin will increase heat transfer rate when ε fin > 1 and the effectiveness
increase when k is high and h c is low. Thus, install fin may not increase the heat transfer
rate if the value of h c is large and the material k is low.
Figure 3.4 Effectiveness of a fin.

Figure 3.5 Efficiency of a fin.

Figure 3.6 Efficiency of a circular fin.
Example 3.1
Calculate heat transfer rate through a pot handle as shown in the figure. Also find
temperature distribution along it. Assuming that the handle material is stainless steel 304,
or brass.
100°C
∅ 3 cm

15 cm
Example 3.2
Hot steam flows through a tube whose outer diameter is 3 cm and whose wall are
maintained at 120°C. Circular aluminum fins of outer diameter of 6 cm and constant
thickness of 2 mm are attached to the tube. The space between the fin is 3 mm and thus
there are 200 fins/meter. The surrounding air temperature is 25°C and the convective heat
transfer coefficient is 60 W/m2.K. Determine the increase in heat transfer rate per meter as
a result of adding these fins.
CHAPTER IV

STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION IN MULTIPLE DIMENSIONS

Figure 4.1 Two-dimensions heat transfer.

• Heat flow line and isothermal line are perpendicular to each other.

• A heat flow line is parallel to an insulated surface or a line of symmetry

• An isotherm will intersect an insulated surface or a line of symmetry

Figure 4.2 A chimney quarter cross-section. Figure 4.3 A heat flow lane from figure 4.2
For each heat flow lane:

k ⋅ ∆x ⋅ L
qL = ( T1 a − Tab ) (4.1)
∆y

k ⋅ ∆x ⋅ L
= ( Tab − Tac ) (4.2)
∆y

Where L is the dept into the paper. Then we have:

k ⋅ ∆x ⋅ L
qL = ( T1 − T2 ) (4.3)
n ⋅ ∆y

Where n is number of block. If we assume ∆x ≈ ∆y then:

k ⋅L
qL = ( T1 − T2 ) (4.4)
n

If m is a total number of the heat flow lane, then the total heat flow is:

q = m ⋅ qL (4.5)

m ⋅L
=k ( T1 − T2 ) (4.6)
n

= k ⋅ S ⋅ ( T1 − T2 ) (4.7)

m ⋅L
where S = is defined as the conduction shape factor.
n
Table 5.1 Shape factors for a number of conduction heat-transfer system.
Example 4.1
A heat-treating furnace has outside dimensions of 15 mm ×150 mm×200 mm. The walls
are 6 mm thick and made of fireclay brick. For an inside wall temperature of 550°C and an
outside wall temperature of 30°C, determine the heat lost through the walls, by using shape
factor method.
Example 4.2
It is proposed to cool a certain volume of air by piping it underground. The cooled air
would then supplement the air-condition system of a dwelling and reduce costs. Determine
the conduction shape factor for the underground portion of the configuration if the pipe is 4
nominal , schedule 40.
CHAPTER V

UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

In this chapter we consider transient-conduction problems in which there is no internal heat

generation. Temperature will therefore vary with location within the system and with time.

Temperature and heat transfer variation of the system are dependent on its internal

resistance and surface resistance.

If we have a slab with initial temperature of Ti and it is left in fluid stream at T∝.

Heat is transferred by convection at the surface. As the surface temperature decreases, heat

is transfer from the center of the slab to the surface, then to the fluid. Now, if the system

itself is copper or the volume is small, the temperature response within the slab is

considerably different from that if it is glass or the volume is large. The response has to do

with what is called the internal resistance of the material. Further, if the convection

coefficient is very high, then the surface temperature almost becomes identical to the fluid

temperature quickly. Alternatively, for a low convection coefficient a large temperature

difference exists between the surface and the fluid. The value of the convection coefficient

controls what is known as the surface resistance to heat transfer.

Thus, the temperature variation within the system is dependent on the internal and

surface resistances. The larger internal resistance or the smaller surface resistance, the

larger temperature variation within the system, and vice versa. A Biot number is defined

as:

convection at the surface with in the body

Bi = (5.1)
conduction within the body

h ⋅ ∆T
Bi = (5.2)
( k / Lc ) ⋅ ∆T
 Figure 5.1 Relationship between the Biot number and the temperature profile.

5.1 System with negligible internal resistance

For this case Bi ≤ 0 . 1 and the temperature profile within the body is quite uniform.

fluid

T = T(t)

h∝, T∞

Figure 5.2 An object be cooled in a fluid.

The rate of change in internal energy of the body is equal to the rate of heat taken away

from the surface by convection:

dT
ρ⋅∀⋅c ⋅ = − h c ⋅ As ⋅ ( Tt − T ∞ ) (5.3)
dt

At the initial state t = 0, T = Ti, and we also define:

Tt − T∞
θ= (5.4)
Ti − T∞

and then:

dT dθ
= ( Ti − T∞ ) (5.5)
dt dt

substitue equation 5.5 in to 5.3 then:

 dθ
ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ c ⋅ ( Ti − Tα ) = − h c ⋅ As ⋅ ( Tt − T∞ ) (5.6)
dt

ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ c dθ
− ⋅ =θ (5.7)
h c ⋅ As dt

If we integrate equation 5.7 from T = Ti to T∞ and θ = 1 to 0, then we have:

0 t
dθ h c ⋅ As
− ∫
1 θ
=
ρ⋅∀⋅c
∫ dt
0
(5.8)

finally we have:

   
Tt − T∞   h c ⋅ As  
= exp −   ⋅ t  (5.9)
 
Ti − T∞   ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ c  

Tt − T∞
= exp [− Bi ⋅ Fo ] (5.10)
Ti − T∞

Where Bi is Biot number:

hc ⋅ ∀
Bi = (5.11)
k ⋅ As

and Fo is Fourier number:

α ⋅ t ⋅ A2s
Fo = (5.12)
∀2

For the heat transfer rate at t, it can be obtained from:

dT
q = ρ⋅∀⋅c ⋅ (5.13)
dt

dT
and can be obtained by integrating equation 5.9, thus:
dt

q t = h c ⋅ As ⋅ ( T∞ − Ti ) exp [− Bi ⋅ Fo ] (5.14)

the total cumulative heat transfer for period of t second is:

Q = ρ ⋅ ∀ ⋅ C ⋅ ( Ti − Tt ) (5.15)
5.3 System with finite internal and external resistances

For this case, the problem is to complicate to solve therectically, it must be solved based on

graphical solutions. The solution provided here are:

Figure 5.3 to 5.5 for a simi-infinite plate,

Figure 5.6 to 5.8 for an infinite cylinder, and

Figure 5.9 to 5.11 for a sphere.

Figure 5.3 Dimensionless temperature history at the center of semi-infinite plate.

 Figure 5.4 Dimensionless temperature distribution in a semi-infinite plate.

Figure 5.5 Change in internal-energy ratio as a function of dimesionless time for a semi-inite plate.
Figure 5.6 Dimesionless temperature history at the centerline of an inifinite cylinde.

Figure 5.7 Dimesionless temperature distribution in an infinite cylinder.

Figure 5.8 Change in internal-energy ratio as a function of dimensionless time for an infinite cylinder.

Figure 5.9 Dimensionless temperature history at the center of a sphere.

 Figure 5.10 Dimensionless temperature distribution in a sphere.

Figure 5.11 Change in internal-energy ratio as a function of dimensionless time for a sphere.
5.4 System witth negligible surface resistance

In this category of problems we will deal with system where the film resistance is

negligible. We therefore simply assign a temperature at the surface of the object that in

essence will equal the surrounding temperature (T∞). Similar to the previous, this kind of

problem is solved graphically.

Figure 5.12 Central dimensionless temperature variation witth dimensionless time for an infinite plate, an
infinite square rod, an infinite cylinder, a cube, a finite cylinder, and a sphere.

Figure 5.13 Cumulative (Q) and instantaneous (q) heat transfer rates in various solids for tthhe case of
negligible surface resistance.
Example 5.1
A 5 cm, 60 cm long aluminum cylinder initially at 50°C is submerged in an ice-water bath
at 2°C. The unit surface conductance between the metal and thebath is 550 W/m2.K.
Determine the temperature of the aluminum after 1 minute. Also calculate the cumulative
heat transfer for 1 minute.
Example 5.2
Orange are usually refrigerated as a preservative measure. However, some people prefer to
eat oranges that are a little cooler than room temperature but not as cold as the refrigerator
makes them. Determine the time it takes for an orange removed from a refrigerator to reach
20°C.
Refrigerated temperature = 4°C
Ambient room temperature = 23°C
Surface heat transfer coefficient = 6 W/m2.K
Thermal conductivity of the orange 0.431 W/m.K
Density of orange = 998 kg/m3
Specific heat of orange = 2000 J/kg.K
Orange diameter = 105 mm

Example 5.3
A concrete wall is 15 cm thick. The outside wall surface is heated to a temperature of
200°C by fire. If the initial temperature of the wall is 25°C, how long will it take for the
inside wall surface to reach 100°C ? What would the time required become if the wall were
made of common brick instead ?