Reinforced Concrete Structures CARTEA

Petru MIHAl
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Editura Societatii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez" Iasi

2010
Petru MIHAl
Reinforced
Concrete Structures
Referenti stiintifici: Prof univ. dr. ing. Liviu GROLL Universitatea Tehnica HGh. Asachi" Iasi Facultatea de Constructii si Instalatii Prof. univ. dr. ing. loan HIRHUI Universitatea Tehnica "Gh. Asachi" Iasi Facultatea de Constructii si Instalatii
Descrierea elP a Bibliotecii N ationale a Romaniel MIHAl, PETRU Reinforced concrete structures I Petru Mihai. - Iasi : Editura Societatii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez", 2010
Bibliogr.
ISBN 978-973-8955-84-4 624
Editura Societatii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez" B-dul Dumitru Mangeron nr. 43 Director: Profuniv.dr.ing. Constantin Ionescu, e-mail: cionescu@ce.tuiasi.ro
TABI,! OF CONTENTS
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Reinforced Concrete Structures
5. References
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Bur) Khalifa, 828 m height 6
1 ..BASICS OFSTRUCTVRAL CONCRETE
Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and cement paste. The aggregate component is normally comprised of sand and gravel or crushed stone. The paste component is normally compound of cementing materials (Portland cement with or without supplementary cementing materials), water, and air. The paste, acting like a glue, hardens due to a chemical reaction between the cement and water and binds the aggregates together into a rock-like mass - which is known as concrete (Figure 1.1.). Therefore, the concrete is a composite material because the paste is used to form a matrix and to cover the aggregates.
Figure 1.1 - Concrete components Aggregate usually occupy 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete. They are granular material derived, for the most part, from natural rock, crushed stone, natural gravels and sands. The shape can be rounded, irregular, angular, flaky, or elongated. The surface texture can be glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed. Aggregates are generally divided into two groups: fine and coarse. Fine aggregates consist of natural or manufactured sand with particle sizes ranging up to 4.75 mm; coarse aggregates are particles retained on the 4.75 7
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mm sieve and ranging up to 150 mm in size. The commonly used maximum size of coarse aggregate is 31 mm The particle size distribution or grading of aggregates is very important as it determines the amount of paste for a workable concrete. Bigger space between aggregates increase the consumption of the paste (Figure 1.2.) and, since cement is the most expensive component of the concrete, the price is growing. In conclusion, establishing of the proper gradation is ofparamount importance.
b. c. d. Figure 1.2 - The influence of the aggregate dimensions in paste consumption The grading of an aggregate supply IS determined by a SIeve analysis. A representative sample of the aggregate is passed through a stack of sieves, which are arranged in order of decreasing size opening of the SIeve. The paste is usually composed of cementing materials, water, and entrapped air or purposely entrained air. The less water used, the better the quality of the concrete provided the mixture can be consolidated properly. Ideal mixture is one in which: • a minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to fill the interstices between the particles of aggregates; • a minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement. Strictly speaking, a water/cement ratio of about 0.25 is needed to complete this reaction, but then the concrete will have a very low workability. The paste ordinarily constitutes about 25% to 40% of the total volume of concrete. Figure 1.3 shows that the absolute volume of cementing
a.
materials is usually between 7% and 15%, the water between 14% 21 % and air content in air-entrained concrete ranges about 4% to 8% of of the concrete.
Mix 1
Figure 1.3 - Proportion of materials used in concrete mixtures The quality of concrete depends upon the quality of the paste and aggregate and the bond between the two. In properly made concrete, each and every particle of aggregate should be completely coated with paste and all of the spaces between aggregate particles are completely filled with paste. The concrete have some advantages compared with other structural material. Concrete is a durable fire resisting material and has the capability to be poured in any shape (Figure 1.4.). Based on unit weight, concrete can be classified into three broad categories. Concrete containing natural sand and gravel or crushed-rock aggregates, generally weighing about 24 kN/m3, is caned normal-weight concrete, and it is the most commonly used concrete for structural purposes. For applications where a higher strength-to-weight ratio is desired, it is possible to reduce the unit weight of concrete by using natural or pyroprocessed aggregates with lower bulk density. The term lightweight concrete is used for concrete with weight up to 18 kN/m3. 9
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Concrete Structures
Heavyweight concrete, used for radiation shielding, is a concrete produced from high-density aggregates and generally with weight more 32 kN/m3.
Figure 1.4 - Concrete airy structure designed by Kazuya Morita From standpoint of distinct differences in the micro structureproperty relationships, it is useful to divide concrete into three general categories based on the compressive strength: • low-strength concrete: less than 20 MPa; • moderate-strength concrete: 20 to 40 MPa; • high-strength concrete: more than 40 MPa. Moderate-strength concrete, also referred to as ordinary or normal concrete, is used for most structural work. High-strength concrete is used for special applications. It is not possible here to list an concrete types. There are numerous modified concretes which are appropriately named: for example, fiber-reinforced concrete, expansive-cement concrete, and latexmodified concrete [1],
1.2. Properties of hardened concrete

The properties of fresh concrete are important only in the first few hours of its history whereas the properties of hardened concrete assume an importance, which is retained for the remainder of the life of the concrete. 10
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The important properties of hardened concrete are: under load, durability, permeability and general, strength is considered to be the most important property the quality of concrete is often judged by its However, there are many situations other properties are more important, for example and low shrinkage are required for water-retaining structures. Although, in most cases an improvement in strength results in an improvement of the other properties of concrete, but this rule have some exceptions. For example, increasing the cement content of a mix improves strength but results in higher shrinkage, which in extreme cases can adversely affect durability and permeability. In this chapter are presented only some basic elements regarding the behavior of concrete. For more information, the definitive work of reference on the subject is Adam Neville's book [2]. This book was elaborate for both the professional and student engineer and it's a "must have" for any civil eng meer.
1.2.1. Behavior of concrete in compression
With a material such as concrete, which contains void spaces of various sizes and shapes in the matrix and micro-cracks at the interfacial transition zone, the failure modes under stress are very complex and vary with the type of stress. The concrete have a good behavior in compression (big strength). However, in some cases is important to increase the strength of concrete in compression. A brief review of the failure modes will be useful in understanding and control of the factors that influence concrete strength. In Figure 1.5 is presented a concrete cylinder under uniaxial compression. Any material compressed in one direction has some expansion on the other two directions. To explain the failure process, from this cylinder is isolated one micro-element who have a void space. Under the vertical loads, the microelement have some expansion on the horizontal direction and in this microelement appear compressive stresses on vertical direction (from the vertical
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loads) and tensile stresses on horizontal expansion) like in Figure 1.5.b.
direction (from the horizontal
a.
b.
c.
12
d.
Figure 1.5 - Failure of concrete in compression
Around of the void space appear concentrations of stresses (Figure 1.5ob)oBecause the strength of concrete tension is very small compared with the stress of concrete in compression, the crack appears in stretched area. In Figure LS.b the compression have sign + and tension have sign -. The horizontal expansion is proportional with the vertical load. load is increasing, at some point the tension stress will be equal with strength of concrete in tension and material around point 1 and 2 can't expand more. Because the bigger compression force will requiring bigger expansion, small cracks appear around point 1 and 2 (Figure l.S.c). the external force is stable, the crack will be stable too because no more expansion will be required. If the force increases, the expansion must increases too and, because the stresses around point 1 and 2 exceed strength of concrete in tension, the crack will be bigger (Figure 1.5.d). At some point, small cracks from different parts of the cylinder will be connected and bigger cracks are formed. The final failure occurs when the formed cracks are developed on the entire height and are presented in the entire mass of the element (Figure 1.6). Concrete loaded in compression have a linear-elastic behavior up to about 30 percent of the ultimate strength, because under short-term loading the micro-cracks in the interfacial transition zone remain undisturbed. It is generally agreed that, in a uniaxial compression test on mediumor low-strength concrete, no cracks are initiated in cement stone up to about 50 percent of the failure stress. At this stage, a stable system of cracks (called shear-bond cracks) already Figure 1.6 Failure cracks exists in the vicinity of coarse aggregate. At higher stress levels, cracks are initiated within the cement stone; their number and size increases progressively with increasing stress levels. 13
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In conclusion, a piece of concrete loaded in compression will fail from tensile stresses. The tensile stresses are orthogonal on the direction of the force and the cracks are parallel with it. In compression, the failure mode is not brittle because even some few cracks appear considerably more energy is needed to form and to extend cracks in the element.
1.2.2. Behavior of concrete in tension
All the experimental tests made on concrete samples loaded in tension showed that the strength of concrete in tension is very small (usually between 5% and 10% from strength in compression). Generally speaking, the concrete have a bad behavior in tension. To use the concrete into structural elements this behavior must be improved. From this reason, it is important to understand the failure mechanism in tension and to adopt the proper measures. To study the behavior of concrete in tension, in Figure 1.7.a is presented a concrete prism under uniaxial tension. The external force will start from 0 and increases until failure appears. To explain the entire process, from this prism is extracted and isolated one micro-element who has a void space (Figure 1.7.b). If the external load is bigger than zero, some stresses appear at the edge of the micro-element (notated with P on Figure 1.7.b). The value of this stresses are proportional with external force. If the stress at the edge of the micro-element is P, in the middle of the micro-element (cross-section 1-1) appear a concentration of the stresses because the area of concrete in section 1-1 is smaller compared with the area of concrete in the section 2-2. The resultant must be the same in these two sections and, obviously, a reduced area of concrete is compensated by a bigger stress (according with Navier relation). The maximum value of concentrated stress has the value around 3P (points A and B from Figure 1.7.b). As long as 3P value is smaller than strength of concrete in tension, the loading force can be increased without damaging the concrete. 14
~M1HAI
II
·f
e
2 1
2 1
:1
b.
2
1
2
1
c.
d.
Figure 1.7 - Failure of concrete in tension When 3P value reach the strength of material, two small cracks appear on the micro-element and the void space is no more a circle (Figure 1.7.c). These extensions of the shape of void space will reduce the area of concrete in section 1-1 so, to have the same resultant in the 1-1 and 2-2 cross-sections, the value of the stress increased over 3P value (Figure 1.7.c). 15
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This bigger value of the stress exceeds the strength of concrete tension and the cracks on the void space shape are extended on horizontal direction (Figure 1.7.d). The area of concrete in section 1-1 decreases again and increases the concentration of the stress much over 3P. This new bigger stress affect the shape of the void space, reduce the area of concrete and so on, until the crack is extended to the entire element. A very important observation must be made: if the failure starts, for the same external stress P, the internal tension increase from 3P to bigger values and the process IS selfaccelerated until the failure is complete. On the entire failure process the external load remains constant and the failure is very fast and very brittle. Finally, only one crack sectioned the concrete sample into two parts (Figure l.8). Figure 1.8 - Failure crack In conclusion, concrete have a bad behavior in tension with small strength and brittle failure. In this case, concrete can't carry tension by itself and must be associated with other materials capable to carry the tensile stresses.
1.3. Methods to improve the strength of concrete Because the concrete have a bad behavior in tension, its use is very limited in civil engineering (for members loaded only in compression). For this reason, is important to find some ways to improve this characteristic. Even if concrete have a good behavior in compression, in some cases it is important to improve this strength too (a good example is a column from a frame structure placed in a seismic area). 16
To improve the mechanical properties, concrete must associated other materials. A lot of materials were combined concrete one was the winner in steel. Combining steel with concrete have many advantages: ID the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to of steel, eliminating internal stresses due to differences thermal expansion or contraction; tl when the cement paste within the concrete hardens this conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials; usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel; It the alkaline chemical environment provided by calcium carbonate (lime) causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 4% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Some construction cannot tolerate the use of steeL For example, MRI machines have huge magnets, and require nonmagnetic materials. Another example is toll-booths that read radio tags, and need reinforced concrete that is transparent to radio. some instances, the lifetime of the concrete structure is more important than its strength. Since corrosion is the main cause of failure of reinforced concrete, a corrosion-proof reinforcement can extend a structure's life substantially. For these purposes some structures have been made using fiberreinforced plastic rebar, grids or fibers. The "plastic" reinforcement can be as strong as steel. Because it resists corrosion, it does not need a protective concrete cover of 30 to 50 mm or more as steel reinforcement does. This means that FRP-reinforced structures can be lighter, have longer lifetime and for some applications be price-competitive to steel-reinforced concrete.
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
The main barrier to use of FRP reinforcement is the fact that it is neither ductile nor fire resistant. Structures employing FRP reinforcement bars may therefore exhibit a less ductile structural response, and decreased fire resistance.
1.3.1. Method" to improve the behavior of concrete in tension 1.3.1.1. Using ordinary steel bars To explain how the strength of concrete in tension can be improved let's consider a simple supported beam loaded in bending. The beam is loaded with a concentrated force in the middle that start from 0 and increased until failure appear. The most loaded cross-section is in the middle of the beam with compressive stress on top side and tensile stress on bottom side. If the beam are made from simple concrete, when the tensile stress reach the strength of concrete in tension a crack appear at bottom side (Figure 1.9.a). From this point, the process is self-accelerated and the crack is extended to the entire cross-section very quickly. The failure appears for a very small load and this type of member made from simple concrete is useless in civil engineering (big beams and girders have failure only from self-weight and they can't carry any supplementary loads). To avoid this premature failure, in the stretched area are placed steel bars (Figure 1.9.b). When the concrete fail in tension and the first cracks appear on bottom side, all the stresses around the crack are carried by the steel and the member don't fail. If the load is increased, new cracks appear on bottom side but the steel bars carryall of tensions and prevent failure. To obtain the best results, always it is recommended to place the steel bars perpendicularly on the cracks. Because steel bars reinforce the element and prevent failure they are named reinforcements (or rebars). Because they are placed along the beam they are named longitudinal reinforcement. If the load is increased, the failure due to bending moment it is prevented but a new type of cracks can appear from shear force (Figure 18
1.9.c). The concrete can carry a part from the shear force but f , .h ' • or it some reinforcement IS require d,
rest of
f. Figure 1,9 - Improving the behavior of concrete in te . . nsun, With
reinforcement
Because the cracks are inclined, the most rational rei .r. llliorcem ' this case are bent-up bars (Figure 1.9.d). If bent-up bars can ' ents In an t carry the
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Concrete Structures
entire stress, some supplementary reinforcements must be used: stirrups (Figure 1.9.e). Stirrup IS a rectangular bar that is placed in concrete elements to carry the tensile stresses produced by the shear force. On old elements and structures, stirrups have the Usshape in the middle (where the shear force is small) but today the If-shape is not longer used. In theory, stirrups must be placed inclined (like bent-up bars) on the formwork. In practice, from technological reasons stirrups are disposed on vertical position and they are mounted with longitudinal bars to form a rigid cage (Figure 1.10). This rigid cage is very important because hold all the bars in position when the concrete is cast on the formwork. Obviously, from strength point of view the vertical position of the stirrups is not rational and diminishes the shear capacity with 20%. But, if the stirrups are used rationally (inclined), more bars are required to form the rigid cage and the final consumption of steel is bigger. From this point of view, vertical stirrups are an economic solution from costs point of view even they are not rational disposed from strength point of view. In some cases, bent-up bars can't be used and only the concrete and stirrups will carry the shear force Figure 1.10 - Cage from bars (Figure 1.9.f). For example, for girders placed in seismic areas the reinforcement on bottom side must be 50% from top reinforcement. In this case, all the bars from bottom side must remain straight and bent-up reinforcement can't be used. Therefore, the simplest way to carry tensile stresses is to use regular steel reinforcements. 20
1.3.1.2. Using prestressed steel bars Because the concrete have a small strength tension, the tension is removed from can improved Prestressed concrete is a method overcoming the concrete's weakness in tension. It can be to beams, floors or bridges with a longer span and bigger loads than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. To explain how the concrete can work only in compression let's consider the same beam from the previous point. Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use of steel reinforcement bars (rebars), where the tensile stress appears. In this case, cracks appear on bottom part on the beam and the concrete is not rationally used in this area (Figure l.ll.a) .
••. .~ .,>' ...,

WJ .•••
""
,,,_
_-
.w
-_.
••• -
•••
w<
.",
,w,'
",",'
-me
'"
•••
~ .. ",
_<.<.
of prestressed concrete
c..Figure 1.11 - Prestressing principle

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The main idea of the prestressed concrete is to apply an initial compressive stress that counteracts the tensile stresses that will be produced by external loads. Prestressed concrete is a concrete with stresses induced in it before use so, the member will be loaded in two stages: a) first stage of loading is transfer stage, when only the selfweight and initial stress (produced by prestressing force) are applied; because the compressive force applied to the bottom side have an eccentricity, a bending moment appear on the beam and the deformed shape in this stage is presented in Figure 1.11.b; in this stage tensile stresses can appear on top side of the element but they must be smaller than strength of concrete in tension; b) service stage is the last stage, when all external loads from service are applied; under the external loads and prestressing force the entire element will be compressed; the final deformed shape for prestressed elements is presented in Figure l.ll.c. Prestressing force must be carefully chosen to avoid cracks. If the prestressing force is too big cracks will be appear on top side at transfer (Figure 1.12.a). If the value of prestressing force is too small, cracks can appear in service on bottom side.
a. - cracks on top side at transfer
b. - cracks on bottom side in service
Figure 1.12 - Cracks due to big/low value of prestressing force 22
prestressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional reinforced concrete: a) section remains uncracked under service many advantages: lit reduction of steel corrosion; " increase in durability; " entire section of concrete is used; " higher stiffness; " less deformations; " increase in shear capacity; • suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures; III improved performance under dynamic and fatigue loading; b) high span/depth ratios with more advantages: • larger spans are possible with prestressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces); lID for the same span, the cross-section is smaller compared to reinforced concrete members; • smaller self-weight; " more aesthetic appeal due to slender sections; .. more economical sections; c) suitable for precast construction, with all advantages of precasting: 4) fast erection; .. better quality control; • reduced maintenance; " suitable for repetitive construction; " multiple use of formwork; • reduction of formwork; " availability of standard shapes. Prestressing has some disadvantages, compared with reinforced concrete: • prestressing needs skilled technology; " the cost of high strength materials is bigger;
classic
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• there is additional cost in auxiliary equipments; • supplementary quality control and inspection. Prestressing force will be applied using high tensile steel cable or rods in three technological ways: pretensioned concrete, bonded posttensioned concrete and unbonded posttensioned concrete. Pre-tensioned concrete is made by casting concrete around already tensioned strands (Figure 1.13). First step is to stretch the strands between end-anchorages (Figure 1.14.a). After that, the formworks and the rest of ordinary reinforcement (if exist) are put in place and concrete is cast on the Figure 1.13 - Stretched formworks (Figure 1.14.b). strands Once the concrete has hardened sufficiently the end-anchorages are released and the prestressing force is transferred to the concrete through the bond between steel and concrete (Figure 1.14.c). The protruding ends of the tendons are then cut away to produce the finished concrete member.
b.
c. Figure 1.14 - Making of pre-tensioned concrete
24
This method produces a good bond between the strand and concrete, which both protects the steel from corrosion and allows for direct transfer tension. The cured concrete adheres and bonds to the bars and when tension is released it is transferred to the concrete as compression by static friction. However, it requires stout anchoring points between which the strand is to be stretched and the strands are usually in a straight Thus, most pre-tensioned concrete members are made in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which limits their size. Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression after pouring concrete and the curing process. The concrete can be cast on factory (Figure 1.15) or on site (Figure 1.16).
Figure 1.15 - Precast concrete for bonded post-tensioned members
Figure 1.16 - Concrete cast on site for bonded post-tensioned members 25
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For this type of concrete, cast on site is applied when the dimensions of the members are very big and the transport is very difficult (usually on bridges). The concrete is cast around plastic, steel or aluminum curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete member. Once the concrete has hardened, a set of strands or wires are fished through the duct and they are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react against the concrete member itself (Figure 1.17). VVhen the cables have stretched sufficiently according to the design specifications (see Hooke's law), they are wedged in Figure 1.17 - Apply of prestressing force on bonded post-tensioned position and maintain tension after members the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the steel from corrosion (grout is a construction material generally composed of a mixture of water, cement, and admixtures). Bonded posttensioned concrete, while used extensively in new construction of bridges and transportation structures, can be and have been successfully applied to commercial building structures. Figure 1.18 -Assembling a/precast bridge This method is also used to create monolithic slabs for house construction in locations where 26
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expansive soils (such as adobe clay) create problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All stresses seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are carried by the entire tensioned slab, supports the building without significant flexure. Bonded post-tensioning is also used in the construction of various big structures, when precast parts supported by falsework are assembled together (Figure 1.18). The advantages of this system over other two systems are: a) large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements as cables cannot destress in accidents; b) cables can be easily 'weaved' (curved) allowing a more efficient design approach; c) higher ultimate strength due to bond between the strand and concrete; d) no long term issues with maintaining the integrity oftheanchor/dead end. Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from previous bonded post-tensioning by providing each individual strand permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual strand is coated with a grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process (Figure 1.19). The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the concrete. The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a cable can destress itself and Figure 1.19 - Unhanded strand burst out of the element damaged (such as during repair on the member). The advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are: a) the ability to individually adjust strands based on poor field conditions (for example: shifting a group of 4 cables around an opening by placing 2 to either side); 27
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Figure 1.20 - Un bonded post-tensioned
strands in form work
b) the procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated; c) the ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work. Unbonded system is typically used in new construction for elevated slabs, slabs-on-grade, beams and transfer girders, joists, shear walls and mat foundations. Light and flexible, unbonded strand can be easily and rapidly installed - providing an economical solution (Figure 1.20). Also, due to its ability to be stressed and then de-stressed, it can be used in the structure for a short period of time to repair a damaged building (for example by holding up a damaged wall or floor until permanent repairs can be made). 1.3.1.3. Usingfiber reinforced concrete Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers (Figure 1.21) that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers. Within these different fibers that character of fiber reinforced concrete
28
changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation and densities.
Figure 1.21 - Typical fibers and micro-fibers used in concrete [3] Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying shrinkage cracking. They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion and shatter resistance in concrete. Generally fibers do not dramatically increase the flexural strength of concrete, so it can't replace moment resisting or structural steel reinforcement (Figure 1.22). The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total volume of the composite (concrete and fibers), Figure 1.22 - Failure of concrete typically ranges from 0.1 to 3%. with fibers loaded in bending Aspect ratio is calculated by dividing fiber length by its
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Concrete Structures
diameter. Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If the modulus of elasticity of the fiber is higher than the concrete, they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increase in the aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers which are too long tend to "ball" in the mix and create workability problems. Scientists from the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor recently announced an amazing new discovery that is being hailed in scientific circles. Recent studies performed on a high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete (FRP) in a bridge deck found that adding fibers provided residual strength and controlled cracking [4]. There were fewer and narrower cracks in the FRC even though the FRC had more shrinkage than the controL Residual strength is directly proportional to the fiber content. The newly developed FRC named Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC), also called bendable concrete, is 500 times more resistant to cracking and 40 percent lighter than traditional concrete. ECC can sustain strain- hardening up to several percent strain, resulting in a material ductility of at least two orders of magnitude higher when compared to normal concrete or standard fiber reinforced concrete. ECC also has unique cracking behavior. When loaded to beyond the elastic range, ECC maintains crack width to below 100 urn, even when deformed to several percent tensile strains. That's despite traditional concrete's many problems: lack of durability and sustainability, failure under severe loading and the resulting expenses of repair. Researcher Victor Li has devoted 15 years of his professional life, to develop a safer and stronger concrete composite that would withstand damage from earthquakes and the constant wear and tear that roads and bridges are exposed to. Li, who holds appointments in the departments of civil and environmental engineering and materials science and engineering, believes ECC addresses most of those problems. The ductile, or bendable, concrete is made mainly of the same ingredients in regular concrete minus the coarse aggregate. It looks exactly like regular concrete, but under excessive strain, 30
ECC concrete gives because the specially coated network veining the cement is allowed to slide within the cement, thus inflexibility that causes brittleness and breakage.
fibers the
Figure 1.23 - Bendable concrete - deformed shape of aflat member This new form of a concrete composite not only bends and twists when exposed to earthquakes and other damaging forces (Figure 1.23), but it also heals itself, automatically repairing cracks with simple rainwater. The new concrete composite develops hairline cracks, allowing it to expand. The cracks expose a dry powdery material that mixes with rainwater, and the carbon dioxide in the air form heavy-duty glue that repairs the cracks. The repaired concrete is actually stronger than the original material, forming a virtually unbreakable seal of calcium carbonate, a compound found in seashells. This next-generation of concrete can make our buildings and bridges safer, as well as save money, as the new material won't need as much maintenance as standard concrete structures. 31
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Although the new bendable concrete costs significantly more than standard concrete, builders and communities should save money in the long run with reduced maintenance costs.
1.3.2. Methods to improve the behavior of concrete in compression 1.3.2.1. Using ordinary steel bars To explain the improving process let's consider a concrete member with rectangular cross-section loaded into compression (like a column but without bending). If a concrete member is loaded into uniaxial compression, some displacements appear on the other two directions according with Figure 1.24.a. These deformations induce some tensile stresses into the concrete (Figure 1.24.b), according with point 1.2.1.
compression
displaceme nt
Force 8.
b.
Figure 1.24 - Deformed shape of compressed concrete The main idea for improving the behavior of concrete ill compression is to diminish these deformations on transversal directions. The simplest way to do this is to use some transversal reinforcement, named stirrups (Figure 1.25.a). The limitation process of the transversal deformation in compressed concrete is named confinement and any concrete
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which has closely-spaced special transverse reinforcement which restrains the concrete in directions perpendicular to the applied IS confmed concrete. Stirrups are placed around of element cross-section must stop the transversal displacement of the concrete. Because the cross-section is rectangular, the stirrup must "arch" to reach its equilibrating reaction (Figure 1.25 .b).
a.
b.
Figure 1.25 - Improving behavior of concrete in compression for rectangular cross-sections The longitudinal bars have usually a bigger diameter compared with stirrups so, they are stiff From this reason, the fmal confining is influenced by the entire cage of reinforcement (formed by longitudinal bars and transversal bars). The confming stresses tend to bridge the gap between the stiffer longitudinal bars and a confined zone is reduced in the middle (Figure 1.25.c). In order to assure a bigger confining, more bars and stirrups can be used on the same cross-section (Figure 1.26). Figure 1.26 describes how longitudinal bars and cross ties develop confining pressure in a rectangular shape. If the number of longitudinal bars is increased, the unconfmed concrete zone will be decreased. For example, a cross-section with 12 longitudinal bars and 3 stirrups (Figure 1.26.b) have a bigger confined zone compared with a cross-section 33
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with 8 longitudinal bars, one stirrup and two cross ties (Figure 1.26.a). The most unfavorable case is a cross-section with 4 longitudinal bars and only one stirrup (Figure 1.25.c). Obviously, the effectiveness of a confined section will depend on the size and spacing of longitudinal bars and transversal reinforcing [5]. Different diameters and spaces will be reflected in different confinement grades (Figure 1.27).
confined concrete
a.
b.
Figure 1.26 - Confined rectangular cross-sections
b. Figure 1.27 - Confinement of columns by: a. transversal reinforcement; b. transversal and longitudinal reinforcement 34
a.
Obviously, the rectangular cross-section is not a rational solution confining process and a big part of concrete will be unconfined 1.25.c). A better solution is obtained if the cross-section and the reinforcement are circular (Figure 1.28.a). this case, the stirrups already have a circular shape and its equilibrating reaction. From this reason, all the concrete inside covered by the stirrup will be confined (Figure 1.28.b). Additional stirrups and/or cross ties can be provided into circular cross-section to increase the confinement (Figure 1.28.c).
a.
b. Figure 1.28 - Confinement of circular cross-sections
The main disadvantage of circular stirrups is revealed when the distance between stirrups is big and/or the longitudinal reinforcement is small. In this case, the confined concrete between stirrups is smaller (Figure 1.27.a). To solve this problem the individual stirrups are replaced with one continuous transversal reinforcement named spiral (Figure 1.29).
a.
b,
Figure 1.29 - Spiral reinforcement 35
c.
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Usually, spiral is made on factory with special machines (Figure 1.30). The reinforcement cage can be assembled manually on site or in factory (Figure 1.31). When the cage is made on factory, spiral and longitudinal reinforcements are connected by welding (it's an automatic process).
Figure 1.30 - Spiral making machine
a,
b, Figure 1.31 - Cage made on: a. site; b. factory Spirally confmed concrete is the best option to use ordinary reinforcement to improve the behavior of concrete in compression. It is, however, generally accepted that square tied confining reinforcement is 67% as effective as spirally confined cores. 36
2.2. Using prestressed steel bars Improving the behavior of concrete in compression with reinforcement was applied first on concrete pipes. pressure of the water is applied from inside to outside (Figure 1.32.a) and the main idea is to put some other forces to inside to the water pressure (Figure 1.32.b).
prestressing
s. ~ Figure 1.32 - Loads on concrete pipes To apply this external forces must be used a prestressed spiral. The prestressing force can't be applied on the reinforcement cage because it is too flexible and first step is to cast the concrete core of the pipe (Figure 1.33).
Figure 1.33 - Concrete pipe 37
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After the concrete has hardened the prestressed spiral can be applied. High tensile strength steel wire is helically-wrapped around the outside of the pipe under controlled tension and spacing which induces a circumferential compressive stress in the core concrete. This enables the pipe to handle high internal pressures and the effects of external earth and traffic loads. Last step is to add a new layer to protect the prestressed spiral. To assure a proper bond between external layer, spiral and the concrete core, usually shotcrete is used. The prestressed spiral can be used also on columns loaded in compression. The experimental studies showed that prestressing continuous spiral confining wires can significantly increase the load-bearing capacity of the columns. Prestressing spiral is the best method to improve the behavior of concrete in compression but is the most expensive too. From this reason this method is applied only then other methods (stirrups, spiral) don't offer satisfactory results.
1.4. Conceiving of concrete members Concrete can be poured in any shape but, to reduce the costs is recommended to put the materials according with stress diagrams. The process who establishes the best shape of the concrete is named conceiving. Conceiving process doesn't establish any dimensions of the concrete or reinforcement quantity. The result of conceiving is only the best recommended concrete shape from structural point of view and the position of the reinforcement. To conceive any reinforced and prestressed concrete member some steps must be followed (Figure 1.34). First step is establishing of the structural model. The structural model is a part of modeling process and is an idealization of the structural system. The idealized model is representative of the materials used, the geometry of the structure and the physical constraints.
38
I.
)f
a
e d
) "
The adopted degree of the idealization depends on the complexity of the structure and the level the required accuracy of the final conceiving process is enough establish a plane (2D) structural model, +r..1"'rYlP·rl by axis, spans and boundary conditions. Identification of the loads is the next step but only the load type is important here (concentrated load, uniform distributed load etc.). No values are necessarily to be known on the conceiving process.
Figure 1.34
Steps to conceive reinforced concrete members
Evaluation of the stress diagrams can be performed manually and the results of this step are the shape of the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams. Because no values of loads are used, no numerical stresses are evaluated. 39
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Establishing of the longitudinal profile of the element is making according with bending moment diagram. In areas with big bending moment a lot of material will be placed and for small bending moments areas less material will be used. If the bending moment is zero still some material must be provided because some other stresses can appear on the same crosssection (like shear force). Cross-sections must be established according with three simple rules: a) if bending moment is present on compressed areas must be provided more concrete (because concrete have a good behavior in compression) and on tensile areas must be provided less concrete (because the concrete don't work in tension); usually the depth (height) of the cross-section must be bigger than width to obtain a big inertial moment and to reduce the stress, according with Navier relation:
cr=_·y
M I
(1.1)
b) if bending moment is zero but shear force no, the shape of the cross-section must reduce the shear stress; usually the width must be enlarged to reduce the stress, according with Juravski relation: T·S 7:=-(1.2) b·I c) if bending moment and shear force are zero, any shape is rational from structural point of view to carry compressive stresses; the shape can be established from constructive and/or technological reasons. The reinforcement will be placed in stretched areas, because the concrete can't carry tensile stresses. Even the conceiving process establish the best shape of the members from structural point on view, in many cases technological or economical reasons can change the final shape of the element. The main purpose of the 40
g
It
,1
conceiving is to reduce the total cost of the member, not only quantity of the material. For example, quantity of materials is reduced with 15% after conceiving this is not necessarily a good thing. a of supplementary labor is consumed andlor if expensive technological solutions must be used to make the conceived shape, the final cost of member will be bigger. In this case, a non-rational shape from structural point of view will be cheaper than conceived member. From this reason conceiving process don't always establish the fmal shape of the element.
i
1
1.5. Designing of reinforced concrete members After establishing the shape of the members (from conceiving and/or technological reasons) a new process is required to establish the final dimensions of the concrete and the quantity of the reinforcement. This process is named designing. Because the concrete have a good behavior in compression and a bad behavior in tension, it may be associated with the steel stretched areas. Thus, in reinforced concrete designing process must be established two unknowns: cross-section of concrete and the quantity of the reinforcement. This situation is different compared with other structural materials (timber or steel) where must be establish only the cross-section of the structural member. The main problem with concrete is given by the bigger number of unknowns (the number of equations is smaller compared with the number of unknowns) and the solution can't be found easily. this case, one of the unknowns be imposed and, other one. Usually, with equilibrium equations, must be computed cross-section of concrete is established with some approximations and, after that, the amount of reinforcement is computed according with the imposed cross-section. This imposing of the concrete cross-section is named preliminary design. Imposing the concrete and computation of the reinforcement it is
t
)
41
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
rational way because the price of the steel is much bigger compared with the price of the concrete. Obviously, after the establishing of the reinforcement, the preliminary design can be checked according with the ratio between steel and concrete. If this ratio is too small, the concrete cross-section is too big. If the ratio of reinforcement is too big, the concrete cross-section is small. Usually, the optimum ratio between reinforcement and concrete will be 1%. To design a reinforced concrete member must be followed some steps, presented in Figure 1.35. The first step is preliminary design where the dimensions of the concrete will be imposed. Usually, for members loaded in bending the dimensions of the cross-section will be establish according with the span. For members loaded in compression with bending, the dimensions will be established according with axial force value. For all the dimensions are user relations based on previous design experience who cover most common cases. Second step is establishing of the structural model. Structural model is form by axis, spans and boundary conditions. For singular members, a plane structural model is usually enough. For complex structures can be establish a 3D structural model or can be adopted two or more 2D structural models for the orthogonal directions. Plane structural model is simple to compute but the general torsion can't be evaluated with this model and this situation is recommended only if the structure have symmetry on two directions. If the structural model is not regular, a spatial structural model is recommended. Of course, in this case the computation will be more difficult but the influence of torsion and from structural non-symmetry will be included into computations. Evaluation of the loads is made according with norms for the most situations. Loads are divided in two categories: dead loads and live loads. Dead loads are computed according with the volume of the member and the specific weight. Live loads for common destinations of the building are established in the norms. For some special destination of the building, the live load is established according with the self-weight of the equipments and with the other needs of the owner. 42
Figure 1.35 - Steps to design reinforced concrete members Computation of the stresses can be performed manually for small problems or with the computer. Usually, the computation programs use the 43
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finite element method because this method can be adapted to any structural problem. Because the preliminary design is a guesstimate method, it is imperative to check the geometrical dimensions of the concrete. To do this, a 1% of reinforcement is imposed on the cross-section and the depth of the cross-section is calculated. If the difference between preliminary design and this step is small, the initial cross-section will be kept. If the difference will be big, the new cross-section will be adopted, a new self-weight of the member will be evaluated and the static and seismic analysis will be reloaded. The computation of the longitudinal reinforcement is made very easily with classic relations for the final cross-section of the concrete and fmal stresses. After the theoretical reinforcement was found, it is necessarily to establish the diameter and the number of bars. On this step the element sketch will be made. To establish the diameter and the number of stirrups, the computation of transversal reinforcement must be made. The presence of bent-up bars will reduce the amount of stirrups. The final drawing ends the designing process.
1.6. Classification
of concrete structures
Concrete structures can be classified according with different criteria. From technological point of view, the concrete members and structures can be: a) monolith, when the concrete is cast on the final position of the finished structure; the main advantage of this solution is the complete uniformity of the structure (entire structure is acting like one piece) but the formworks can increase the cost of the building and the time for make the structure is bigger; b) precast, when the members are made on factory and assembled on site; the structure can be made very fast but joints can be weaker points in the structure;
44
concrete is cast on site not on finished structure; after the concrete is hardened the member is mounted on structure is solution is used when the formwork very to at same precast elements are difficult to transport from factory to site; like on precast structures, joints can be weaker points in structure. From geometrical point of view, the concrete members can be: a) linear members, where the span is very big compared with the other two dimensions of the cross-section; b) surface members, where two dimensions are very big compared with the third; c) massive elements, where all three elements are comparable. For reinforcement point of view, the concrete members and structures can be: a) reinforced concrete, where the reinforcement don't have any initial stresses (passive reinforcement); b) prestressed concrete, where the reinforcement have initial stresses (active reinforcement) and the stresses are transferred from reinforcement to concrete; the transfer of stresses from reinforcement to concrete can be technologically made in three ways: 1. pre-tensioned concrete when the active reinforcement is tensioned first, the concrete is poured and finally, after the concrete is hardened, the transfer is made by cutting the reinforcement; ii. bonded post-tensioned concrete when the concrete is poured first ducts in the active reinforcement position (the active reinforcement is not mounted yet); and, after the concrete is hardened, the active reinforcement is mounted In the ducts and prestressing force is applied; 111. unbonded post-tensioned concrete when the active reinforcement is mount into formwork but is 45
c)
on site, when
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prestressing forces are not applied yet; the concrete cast into formwork and finally, after the concrete is hardened, the prestressing force is applied. From self-weight point of view, the concrete material can be: a) normal weight concrete with density (unit weight) between 22 ... 24 k.N/m"; this type of concrete is made with ordinary aggregate (sand, gravel or crushed stone); b) medium weight concrete with density between 15 ... 18 3 kN/m ; this type of concrete is made with lightweight aggregate (basalt slag, expanded slag, expanded clay); the main advantages of this concrete is the improved thermal behavior and the reduced weight (at the same strength the weight is reduced with 20%) but the lightweight aggregate is more expensive; c) lightweight concrete with density between 6 ... 8 kN/m3; this type of concrete is a porous material with a very good thermal behavior; the strength in compression is around 2.5 ... 5 MPa and usually is used for claddings and nonbearing walls; d) heavy concrete with density bigger than 30 kN/m3; this type of concrete is usually consisted of heavyweight aggregates and is used especially for radiation shielding. The advantages of concrete structures are: a) Suitability of material for architectural and structural function; concrete is poured in plastic condition and desired shape and texture can be obtained with forms and finishing techniques; designer can choose any shape and size; b) Availability of materials, sand, gravel, cement, water and concrete mixing facilities are widely available; reinforcement is easy to transport as compared to structural steel; c) Fire resistance is very good and concrete building have 1-3 hour fire rating with no fire proofing (steel and timber require fireproofing to obtain this rating);
46
d) Rigidity of the structure, because greater stiffness and mass reduces oscillations floor vibrations (for wind walking); e) Great durability in f) Good resistance on chemical attack with materials; g) Costs of the concrete is very competitive and have greater resale value structures; h) Low maintenance required; i) Concrete is a hygienic material; j) Concrete offers superior protection against storms and criminal activity; a high percentage of new banks use concrete reinforced with steel, in the construction process, including interior concrete walls; k) Recycling is possible and the aggregates industry has launched studies on the recycling of construction and demolition waste that outlines the advantages and challenges for the industry. The disadvantages of the concrete structures are: a) Low tensile strength required reinforcement; b) Big self-weight because strength per unit volume is relatively low (5-10% of steel) and greater volume required; this affect the dimensions of foundation and the value of seismic force; c) Required formworks induce additional steps and costs; d) Erecting time is bigger than other structures; on monolith structures, formwork required additional time and after the pouring of concrete more waiting time is hardened concrete; e) Pouring of concrete can't be made on winter; f) Poor thermal and acoustic behavior; g) Precast concrete have some disadvantages: 1. limitations to structure design; an example would be with the economics of scale where customized building is not an option; 47
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11.
Reinforced
Concrete Structures
joints between precast panels are most often complicated and expensive so therefore require skilled workmanship; usually, joints are weaker points in the structure; Ill. for big and heavy members, transport can be difficult to made; IV. on-site installations require a crane for lifting into place. h) Time-dependent phenomena affect the concrete: drying shrinkage may cause deflections and cracking and creep of concrete under sustained loads causes an increase in deflection with time.
48
2..LINEAR MEMBERS
2.1. General presentation Linear members have the span very big compared with the other two dimensions of the cross-section. From geometrical point of view, members can be: a) straight members (ribs, beams, girders and columns); b) curved members (arches); c) complex members, formed by many straight bars (trusses and frame girders). From loads point of view, linear members can be: • loaded in bending (ribs, beams, girders and frame girders); • loaded in compression (arches); • loaded in compression with bending (columns); • loaded in compression and tension (trusses), Linear members can be made monolith, precast or on site,
2.2. Conceiving of straight linear members loaded in bending 2.2.1. Conceiving a/simple supported straight linear members Conceiving purpose is to establish the best shape and cross-sections for simple supported straight linear members. To make the conceiving process, the steps from Figure 1,34 must be followed. Structural model is a simple supported one and loads are usually uniformly distributed (Figure 2.1.a). Bending moment and shear force are presented in Figure 2.l.b, Because the longitudinal profile must follow the bending moment diagram, the best theoretical shape is presented in Figure 2, l .c. Unfortunately, curved shape presented on bottom part of the girder from Figure 2.1.c can't be used for supports. For rooflevel the girder can be turn upside down (Figure 2.1.d). For technological reasons, some other 49
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Concrete Structures
simplified shapes can be used and the parabolic shape is replaced with a polygon formed by straight lines with different slopes (Figure l.e&f).
cL
:~111111111lllJJlLlll1Di
J
;
g.
,
I
~ b~
: h.
i. c,
fJot rational Rational cross-secson in mid-span fur reinforced concrete
d,
j.
Rational cross-secuon in mm-span lor prestressed concrete
k,
RaUonal cress-sec I.ion on
!.
m.
Figure 2.1 - Conceiving of simple supported straight linear members If the girder must be straight on top side (like in Figure 2.l.c) some additional straight supports must be adopted (Figure 2.1.g). The same simplified surfaces can be adopted from technological reasons (the parabolic shape from bottom side can be replaced with a polygon formed by straight lines with different slopes like in Figure 2.1.h&i). 50
Cross-sections must be established according with rules 104. On midspan, the simplified rectangular cross-section is not rational because compressive stress is usually presented on 25 ... 30% of crosssection area (Figure 2.1.j). Because concrete have a bad behavior in tension, is not rational to put 70% of concrete with tensile stress' the crosssection. From this reason, the area with tensile stress must be reduced and the most rational cross-section on midspan result to a T cross-section (Figure 2. l.k). For prestressed members, because compression appear on bottom side on transfer stage, a double T cross-section must be adopted (Figure 2.1.1). Because the bending moment is 0 on supports, the most rational cross-section is established according with shear force. To reduce the shear stress (equation 1.2), the width of the cross-section must be enlarged (Figure 2.l.m). The longitudinal reinforcement must be provided on bottom side because on this side appear tensile stresses (Figure 2.l.k).
2.2.2. Conceiving of double restrained straight linear members Like on previous point, the purpose is to establish the best shape and cross-sections for double reinforced straight linear members. To make the conceiving process, the steps from Figure 1.34 must be followed. Structural model is a double restrained beam and the loads are usually uniformly distributed (Figure 2.2.a). Bending moment and shear force are presented in Figure 2.2.b. Because the longitudinal profile must follow the bending moment diagram and the bending moment on supports is bigger than bending moment on midspan, the best theoretical shape is presented in Figure 2.2.c. Unfortunately, shape presented on Figure 2.2.c can't be used from technological reasons. To solve the problem, the girder can be turn upside down (Figure 2.1.d). Still, the girder from Figure 2.2.d can't be used on bearing with sharp supports and some straight zones must be added on each end (Figure 2.2.e). 51
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Parabolic shape from Figure 2.2.e is not very simple to made and in practice a simplified shape is used (Figure 2.2J). The girder has the same cross-section in the field area and increase progressively on the supports. The increased parts from supports are named haunches and the member is named girder with haunches.
(fD
s.
:,
11I111j]]:IJV""
:,
,
Rational cross-section on supports for reintmced concrete
g.
Rational cross.secton
In
h.
Ratlm,al cross-secnon on suppcrts for prestressed concrete
d.
j.
Figure 2.2 - Conceiving of double restrained straight linear members Cross-sections must be established according with rules presented on point 1.4. According with these rules, the most rational cross-section on midspan is a T cross-section for reinforced concrete members (Figure 2.2.g). For prestressed members, because compression appears on bottom side on transfer stage, a double T cross-section must be adopted but bottom flange is usually smaller than top flange (Figure 2.2.i). 52
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On supports, the bending moment is not 0 and the cross-section must be established similarly with midspan. Because compressed area is on bottom side and the tensile stress appear on top side, the most rational crosssection on supports is an inverted T for reinforced concrete members (Figure 2.2.h) and a double T cross-section for prestressed concrete members (Figure 2.2.j). The reinforcement must be provided according with tensile stresses: on bottom side on midspan (Figure 2.2.g) and on to side on supports (Figure 2.2.h).
2.3. Monolith straight linear members loaded in bending 2.3.1. Monolith beams Beams (also named secondary beams) are straight linear members loaded in bending who carry vertical loads from slabs and transfer them to other horizontal members (Figure 2.3). Beams don't carry horizontal loads like wind or earthquake.
stiffening girder
column
Figure 2.3 - Beam-girder floor 53
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Because slab, beams and girders are poured together, the entire monolith floor works like one piece. In this case, the cross-section of the beams is a T cross-section. Designing of beams must follow the steps from Figure 1.35. Preliminary design of the depth of cross-section hb is made with relation:
hb
1 I 12... 14
(2.1)
where I is the span of the beam. The width of cross-section b.; is evaluated with the relation: b =w 2...3
hb
(2.2)
Usually, all the dimensions of the concrete are rounded to 50 mm multiples. Two exceptions are accepted from width: 180 and 220 mm. Structural model is a continuous beam and the girders are supports for beams (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4 - Structural model of monolith beams The dead (DL) and live loads (LL) are transferred from the slab to beams and girders like in Figure 2.5.a. If the part of the loads transferred directly to the girder is very small (for example on beam-girder floor), usually is accepted a simplified hypothesis and all the loads from the slab are transferred in designing process to the beams (Figure 2.5.b). In service live loads can appear in any position and combination. From this reason, in designing process the most unfavorable cases must be considered.
54
According with stress the maximum bending moments on alternate (one field yes, one field no,
and the midspans, the Figure 2.6.a).
shape, to obtain loads must
a. real distribution
b. simplified distribution
Figure 2.5 - Distribution of the loads from slab to beams and girders
Figure 2.6 - Loading hypothesis To obtain the maximum bending moments on the supports, the live loads must be applied on both sides of the bearing like in figure 2.6.b. The computation of bending moments and shear forces can be made by hand [6] or with computer software based on Finite Element Method 55
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
(FEM) Finite Element Method is recommended because the computation is fastest and the results are more accurate. After the computation of bending moment and shear force, is important to check the cross-section of concrete. Because preliminary design establish the cross-section based only on span value (the loads are ignored), a check of cross-section is required. An optimum 1% reinforcement ratio is imposed and, with the known value of maximum bending moment, the depth of the cross-section is reevaluated. If small differences appear between preliminary and re-evaluated depth, the cross-section is good and the designing process can continue. If big differences appear between preliminary and re-evaluated depth, a new re-evaluated cross-section is imposed and the design must be reloaded. N ext step is to establish the longitudinal reinforcement on midspans and supports. For midspans, a T cross-section is considered because the
0
beam works with the slab (Figure 207)0 For supports, because the slab is in area in tension, a rectangular cross-section is considered [6].
a. mid-span Figure 207 - Cross-sections The area of reinforcement can bending moments and the cross-sections any design book according with specified bars can be established according with norms 0 Usually, the minimum diameter recommended diameter is <1>200 56 of beam
b. support
be computed very are known (relations norms [7]). Finally, EUROCODE 2 or for bars is <1>12 and
easily if the can be find in the number of other national the maximum
made with or without The reinforcing sketch can reinforcements, according with Figure 2.8. advantage of bars (Figure 8.a) is the possibility to carry more shear force with less stirrups but the required labor is bigger. Another advantage of bent-up bars is the possibility to carry bending moments on bearings. For example bars 2 and 5 from Figure 2.8.a can work together like one bar to carry bending moments. Each bar 3 and 6 from Figure 8.a can carry a part of bending moment so, the number oftop bars decreases.
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Figure 2.8 - Reinforcement sketch: a. with bent-up bars; h. without bent-up bars 57
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In Figure 2.8 the number of top bars are reduced from four (Figure 2.8.b) to one (Figure 2.8.a). Usually on beams don't appear big shear forces and bent-up bars can be avoided but more stirrups and/or bigger diameter will be provided on the beam. In field areas, on top side some bars must be provided to sustain stirrups (bars 9 and 10 from Figure 2.8.a and bars 5 and 6 from Figure 2.8.b). These bars sustain the stirrups in the field. Shear force is carried by concrete, bent-up bars and stirrups (Figure 2.9). If bent-up bars are missing, only concrete and stirrups can carry the shear force.
ZI.
Figure 2.9 ~ Cracks from shear force
stirrups 06/10/30
a. mid-span
b. supports
Figure 2.10 - Reinforcement on: a. midspan; h. supports To make the shear force computation, a diameter of stirrup IS imposed and the distance between stirrups is evaluated. Usually, on beams, the distance between stirrups is 100 ... 300 mm. If from computation result a distance bigger than 300 mm, the stirrups are provided at 300 mm from constructive reasons. If the distance is smaller than 100 mm, the diameter of the stirrup must be increased or 58
be used. Usually, small loads on beams double stirrups double stirrups. On support, closed stirrups must be used and in stirrups can be used in midspan. Experimental tests confirm a better behavior for beams with closed in the field area. Therefore, is recommended to use only closed stirrups on the entire beam (Figure 2.10).
2.3.2. Monolith girders Girders (also named main beams) are straight linear members loaded in bending who carry loads from slabs and/or secondary beams and transfer them to vertical members (columns). The main difference between beams and girders is that girders carry horizontal loads like wind or earthquake. Because slab, beams and girders are poured together, the entire monolith floor works like one piece. In this case, the cross-section of the girder is a T cross-section. Designing of girders must follow the steps from Figure 1.35. e'd Preliminary design of the depth of cross-section on field is made with relation: hfte1d =
g
h:
1 10... 12
(2.3)
where l is the span of the girder. The width of cross-section b; is evaluated with the relation:
b=w •
hg
.3
.4)
Usually, the dimensions of the concrete smaller than 800 mm are rounded to 50 mm multiples. The dimensions of the concrete bigger than 800 mm are rounded to 100 mm multiples. The longitudinal profile of the girder must follow the bending moment diagram and a girder with haunches is recommended to be used. In 59
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Concrete Structures
many cases, from technological andlor architectural point of view the girders are made without haunches (usually on small spans, under 8,0 m). a girder with haunches is used, the depth of cross-section on bearing is evaluated with relation:
«=
(2.5) Between girder and column is a restrained connection but the structural model can't be a double restrained girder. A double restrained girder has displacements and rotations of the ends equal with zero (Figure 2.ll.a). In fact, because the frame can be deformed under loads, the ends of the girders have some displacements and some rotations, according with stiffness of the elements (Figure 2.l1.b).
a.
b. Figure 2.11 - Structural model on girders: a. wrong; h. good Therefore, a double restrained girder is not a realistic choice and structural model for girder computation must be a frame, composed by girders and columns.
60
The distribution of loads is according with the floor system. floor have beams 2.3), the loads are transferred from like concentrated loads (Figure 2.14.a).
Figure 2.12 - Floors with girders
r-----
i
I
Figure 2.13 - Distribution of loads on floors without beams 61
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Concentrateci load from beam
Reinforced
Concrete Structures
a.
T rapezoida 1 loa ds / from slab Seisrnic road
...--cfJL
.....-f1111-rrll"""'-j 1 "r-r-1l-r-rll ~
nr~·
~~
r---'------~
Unlform~y distributed load (self-weight)
b.
Figure 2.14 -Loads
on girders: a.floors with beams; b.jloors without beams
If the floor has only girders (Figure 2.12), the loads are transferred from slab to girders (Figure 2.13) like triangular or trapezoidal distributed loads (Figure 2.14.b). The self-weight is uniformly distributed in all cases. In service, live loads can appear in any position and combination. From this reason, in designing process the most unfavorable cases must be considered. The live loads can be distributed on the entire structure or in chess distribution to obtain the most unfavorable stresses on midspan or on supports. 62
Is very difficult to make structural analysis by hand (a lot of is wasted) and computer software based on Finite Method IS recommended. Bending moment and shear force diagrams are presented in 15 for vertical and horizontal loads. Usually, the biggest bending moment on midspan is obtained on fundamental group of loadings (without earthquake) and the biggest bending moment on support is obtained on special group of loadings (with earthquake). Usually, the tensile stresses appear on bottom side on midspan and on top side on supports (Figure IS.a). In some cases, when vertical loads are small and the earthquake is big, some tensile stresses can appear on bottom side on the bearing (Figure 2.15 .b). This case is very important because the reinforcement must be provided on bottom side on supports (usually is on top side).
-earthquake
a,
Figure 2.15 - Bending moment diagrams on special group of loadings: a. bigger vertical loads and smaller earthquake; h. smaller vertical loads and bigger earthquake After the computation of bending moment and shear force, is important to check the cross-section of concrete. Because preliminary 63
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
design establish the cross-section based only on span (the loads are ignored), a check of cross-section is required. An optimum 1% reinforcement ratio is imposed and, with the known values of maximum bending moment, the depth of the cross-section is reevaluated on midspan and on supports. If small differences appear between preliminary and re-evaluated depth, the cross-section is satisfactory and the design can continue. If big differences appear between preliminary and re-evaluated depth, a new reevaluated cross-section is imposed and the design process must be reloaded. Next step is to establish the longitudinal reinforcement on midspans and supports. For midspans, a T cross-section is considered because the girder works with the slab (Figure 2.16.a). For supports, because the slab is in area in tension, a rectangular cross-section is considered (Figure 2.16.b).
CI.
mid-span
Figure 2.16 - Girder cross-sections
support
The area of reinforcement can be computed very easily if the bending moments and the cross-sections are known (relations can be find in any design book according with specified norms [7]). Finally, the number of bars can be established according with EUROCODE 2 or other national norms. Usually, the minimum diameter for bars is cp14 and the maximum recommended diameter is cp28. The reinforcement sketch can be made with or without bent-up bars, according with Figure 2.17. The main advantage of bent-up bars (Figure 2.17.a) is the possibility to carry more shear force with less stirrups but the required labor is bigger. 64
Another advantage of bent-up bars is the possibility to carry bending moments on supports. For example bars 3 and 4 from 17.a can a part of bending moment number of top bars will decrease. If the structure is placed into seismic area, on support cross-sections 50% from top reinforcement must be provided on bottom side. If the girder doesn't have haunches, usually the ratio between top reinforcement from supports and bottom reinforcement from midspan is around two.
1111
Z_ I
a.
11111111
I1II
IIIIIJIDl
~
-r-;
4018 PC52 i
1/\1
\1
(D 201
4 PC52
05014 PC52
b. Figure 2.17 - Reinforcement sketch for girders without beams: a. with bent-up bars; b. without bent-up bars 65
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Reinforced
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In this case the 50% requirement is satisfied with all the bars on bottom side" From this reason, many times is not possible to provide bent-up bars because on bottom side doesn't remain enough reinforcement to assure the required 50%. In this case, only the sketch from Figure 2.17.b can be adopted. If the girder has haunches, usually the ratio between top reinforcement from supports and bottom reinforcement from midspan is around one, and some reinforcements from bottom side can be bent-up. Therefore, haunches are more rational because the quantity of reinforcement from top side is smaller and bent-up of bars can be provided to reduce stirrups.
Figure 2.18
Cracks from local shear
Another situation appears on floors with girders and beams. Because the loads are transferred from beams to girders like concentrated forces, some cracks can appear on girder from local shear (Figure 2.18). Cracks start usually from the corners of beams and are inclined on 45 degrees" To carry this local shear force, some supplementary reinforcement must be provided. Because the cracks are inclined, bent-up bars will be used (bars 7 from Figure 2.19). On top side of field area some constructive bars must be provided in theory to sustain stirrups. Because on girders can appear plastic hinges, minimum two bars from supports will be extended on the entire length of the girder (bar 5 from Figure 2.17 a, bar 2 from Figure 2.17.b and bar 5 from Figure 2.19). Shear force is carried by concrete, bent-up bars and stirrups (Figure 2.9). If bent-up bars are missing, only concrete and stirrups carry the shear force.
66
2014 PC52
Figure 2.19 - Reinforcement sketch for girders with beams and bent-up bars The design shear force result as maximum value from two hypotheses: a) the maximum value of shear force from structural analysis (usually from fundamental group of loadings); b) the shear forces determined in accordance with the capacity design criterion, considering the equilibrium of the girder under the appropriate transverse load and of a rationally selected adverse combination of the actual bending resistances of cross-sections; this hypothesis is provided to prevent brittle failure from shear force on earthquake. To make shear force computation, a diameter of stirrup is imposed and the distance between stirrups is evaluated. Usually, for girders located in seismic areas the distance between stirrups is between 100 ... 200 mm. If from computation result a distance bigger than 200 mm, the stirrups are provided at 200 mm from constructive reasons. If the distance is 67
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
smaller than 100 mm, the diameter of the stirrup must be increased or 4-1eg stirrups must be used.
~~-
''''."
-~:o~
Il:-~~ double stirrups double
a.
010110/20
b.
0'10/10/20
Figure 2.20 - 4-leg stirrups If shear force is very big and bent-up bars are not used or if the width of the girder is at least 400 mm, 4-leg stirrups will be used. Two types of 4-1eg stirrup are presented on Figure 2.20: one type with two different stirrups (Figure 2.20.a) and one type with the same stirrup (Figure 2.20.b). All the stirrups used on girders are closed.
2.3.3. Monolith stiffening girders Stiffening girders are straight linear members loaded in bending who carry small vertical loads from slabs and transfer them to vertical members (columns). Stiffening girders are not necessarily in the structure to carry vertical loads but are provided to carry earthquake and to stiff the structure. Stiffening girders appear on floors with beams and girders and they are parallel with beams (Figure 2.3). The main difference between girders and stiffening girders is that stiffening girders carry small vertical loads and big horizontal loads (earthquake). Ordinary girders carry much higher vertical loads than stiffening girders (Figure 2.21). Designing of stiffening girders must follow the steps from Figure 1.35. Preliminary design is made with the same relations like ordinary girders. Structural model for stiffening girders is a frame composed by stiffening girders and columns (Figure 2.22). 68
e
:S
It
).
Figure 2.21 - Distribution of vertical loads to girders and stiffening girders
Figure 2.22 - Loads on stiffening girders
69
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Dead and live loads are uniformly distributed on the stiffening girder. Because vertical loads are very small is not necessarily to distribute live loads in different combinations (chess distribution). The influence of vertical loads is small and the main part of most unfavorable bending moment result from seismic forces. Is very difficult to make the structural analysis by hand (a lot of time is wasted) and computer software based on Finite Element Method (FEM) is recommended. Bending moment and shear force diagrams are presented in Figure 2.23 for vertical and horizontal loads. Usually, the bending moment in midspan is like vertical loads: small. On supports, tensile stresses appear on top and on bottom side. Ordinary girders have small tensile stresses on bottom side of supports because vertical loads are big. In this case, tensile stresses from bottom side are very big on supports. Therefore, more reinforcement IS required at the bottom side of the girder on supports. After the computation of bending moment and shear force, IS important to check the cross-section of concrete. Because preliminary design establish the cross-section based only on span (the loads are ignored), a check of cross-section is required.
vertical loads
eartllquake
Figure 2.23 - Bending moment diagrams on special group of loadings An optimum 1% reinforcement ratio is imposed and, with the known values of maximum bending moment, the depth of the cross-section is reevaluated on supports.
70
If small differences appear between preliminary and the cross-section is good and designing process can differences appear between preliminary re-evaluated depth, a new re-evaluated cross-section is imposed and the designing ",rr'H'"'''''''' must be reloaded. Next step is to establish the longitudinal reinforcement on midspan and supports. For midspans, many times the reinforcements result from constructive reasons because bending moments are very small. For bearings, because the slab is in area in tension, a rectangular cross-section is considered (Figure 2.16.b). The area of reinforcement can be computed very easily if the bending moments and the cross-sections are known (relations can be find in any design book according with specified norms [7]). Finally, the number of bars can be established according with EUROCODE 2 or other national norms. Usually, the minimum diameter for bars is ~14 and the maximum recommended diameter is ~28. The reinforcement sketch is usually made without bent-up bars (Figure 2.24) from two reasons: a) the reinforcement result on bottom side from constructive reasons on midspan and from big positive bending moments on supports; if some bars are bent-up, some part of the required reinforcement on bottom side of the bearing IS missing and the member can fail; b) shear force according with vertical loads is very small.
(2) 2022 PC52

(1)4022 PC52
Figure 2.24 - Reinforcement sketch for stiffened girders 71
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
On top side of the field area some constructive bars must be provided in theory to sustain stirrups. Because on stiffening girders can appear plastic hinges, minimum two bars for supports will be extended on the entire length of the girder (bar 2 from Figure 2.24). Obviously, these bars will sustain the stirrups in the field too. Because shear force from vertical loads is small, the design shear forces will be determined in accordance with the capacity design criterion, considering the equilibrium of the stiffening girder under the appropriate transverse load and of a rationally selected adverse combination of the actual bending resistances of the end cross-sections. To make shear force computation, a diameter of stirrup is imposed and the distance between stirrups is evaluated. Usually, for stiffening girders located in seismic areas the distance between stirrups is between 100 ... 200 mm. If from computation result a distance bigger than 200 mm, the stirrups are provided at 200 mm from constructive reasons. If the distance is smaller than 100 mm, the diameter of the stirrup must be increased or 4-leg stirrups must be used.
2.3.4. Monolith ribs from coffered floor

Ribs are straight linear members loaded in bending who carry vertical loads from slabs and transfer them to other horizontal members (Figure 2.25). Ribs don't carry horizontal loads like wind or earthquake. Unlike beams who are distributed in only one direction (Figure 2.3), ribs are distributed in two directions (usually on 90° angle), forming a mesh (Figure 2.25). Ribs can be parallel with girders (Figure 2.25) or arranged on 45° (Figure 2.26). All the ribs have the same cross-section. Because slab, ribs and girders are poured together, the entire monolith floor works like one piece. In this case, the cross-section of the ribs is a T cross-section. Designing of ribs must follow the steps from Figure 1.35. Preliminary design of the depth of cross-section hb is made with relation: 72
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Figure 2.25 - Coffered floor with ribs parallel to girders
Figure 2.26 - Cofferedfloor with ribs on 45° 73
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
h =_1 I
r
20
(2.6)
where I is the span of the rib, The width of cross-section b.; is evaluated with the relation: b
w
..«.
2... 3
(2.7)
Usually, all the dimensions of the concrete are rounded to 50 mm multiples. Two exceptions are accepted from width: 180 and 220 rnm. Structural model is a simple supported rib on girders (Figure 2.27).
I
Figure 2.27 - Structural model of rib
Figure 2.28 - Nodal forces on the ribs
74
The dead (DL) and live loads (LL) slab are transferred to the ribs simultaneously in two directions. If the total load in a is P 2.28), each rib carries only a part of it (Pi for direction for the second direction). this reason the cross-section of the ribs (equation 2.6) is more economical compared with the cross-section of the beams (equation 2.1). The total load P is know but, for designing process of the ribs, must be evaluated loads Pi and P2. Because the ribs work together, the displacements in the same node u, and U2 are equal. Finally, a system of equation must be solved: (2.8)
The distribution of loads can be made by hand [8] but, for accurate results, computer software is recommended to be used. Therefore, each rib is loaded with a uniformly distributed load (selfweight) and with concentrated forces PI or P2, according with direction of the rib (Figure 2.29).
self-weight·
rUllllJJllllUlIlll1 [IllTIL
Figure 2.29 - Load') on rib Another problem can appear on ribs provided at 45°. Because all the ribs have the same cross-section, short ribs (red ribs from Figure 2.30) are more stiff compared with longer rib in the middle. From this reason, shorter ribs act like partial supports for long rib and the concentrated forces in the 75
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marginal nodes appear with changed sign (from bottom to top) like in Figure 2.31. Ribs parallel with girders have tensile stresses only on bottom side (Figure 2.29) but for ribs provided on 45° the tensile stresses can appear on top side too (Figure 2.31). In this last case, the reinforcement is required on top and bottom side.
Figure 2.30 - Stiff short ribs on coiJeredjloor In service, live loads can appear in any position and combination. From this reason, in designing process the most unfavorable cases must be considered. The computation of bending moments and shear forces is recommended to be made with computer software based on Finite Element Method (FEM) to obtain accurate results.
76
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Figure 2.31 - Loads on the longest diagonal rib After the computation of bending moment and shear force, is important to check the cross-section of concrete. Because preliminary design establish the cross-section based only on span (the loads are ignored), a check of cross-section is required. An optimum 1% reinforcement ratio is imposed and, with the known value of maximum bending moment, the depth of the cross-section is reevaluated. If small differences appear between preliminary and re-evaluated depth the cross-section is satisfactory and the design can continue. If big differences appear between preliminary and re-evaluated depth, a new reevaluated cross-section is imposed and the designing process must be reloaded. The longitudinal reinforcement, the transversal reinforcement and the final reinforcement sketch can be made similarly with beams (see point 2.3.1).
2.4. Precast straight linear members loaded in bending 2.4.1. General presentation Precast members are made in a location which is not [mal destination (factory) and, after the concrete is hardened, are transported and
77
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
mounted on the structure. Structures made with precast members are erected very fast and concrete can be cast on winter but joints are weaker points in the structure. Sometime, the transport itself can be an issue. Usually, the structural mode for precast members is a simple supported one and the most rational shape is presented in Figure 2.1. Precast members are used in the structure like: girders, beams, roof purlins, girders for overhead crane, trimmer girders etc. For reinforced concrete members the span I is usually up to 15 m but for prestressed concrete members the span can be more than double. Preliminary design of the precast members is made according with the relations: 1& the depth of the cross-section in the midspan: o for reinforced concrete members: (2.9)
for prestressed concrete members: (2.10)
1&
the depth of the cross-section on supports (for simple supported members): (2.11)
1&
the web width of the cross-section: b

w
..»: 2 ...3
(2.12)
the web width is minimum 50 mm for horizontal pouring of the concrete and the minimum 80 mm for vertical pouring of concrete; 78
the top flange width is established according with requirement of supports for floor members; usually top flange width be at least 200 mm; • the bottom flange width is provided usually on prestressed concrete members IS computed to the stresses at transfer. Sometime, the precast members have holes on the web to reduce self-weight and to pass the equipments.
lID
2.4.2. Precast members. Examples The most rational shape for precast members is presented in Figure 2.1 and 2.2. In practice, from technological and/or functional reasons, precast members can have various shapes. The simplest shape adopted for precast members is rectangular (figure 2.32). Rectangular shape is very easy to make but is not a rational shape and the consumption of material is bigger. From this reason, other shapes presented in Figure 2.33 can be used.
Figure 2.32 - Precast rectangular member 79
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
Simple supported reinforced concrete members must have a bigger cross-section in midspan because the bending moment is bigger in this area (Figure 2.33.a). The cross-section must be a T cross-section on midspan and a rectangular cross-section on supports. In practice, the T cross-section is assured on midspan and many times is not made a rectangular cross-section on supports. To carry shear force, a wider cross-section is made on bearing, but the cross-section sill remains a Tone.
ccc:: T
1- 1 3-3
[1
---------------------[1 ~ ~ a.
2-2
~
,
Y
, /
,
4-4
b.
Figure 2.33 - Precast girders from: a. reinforced concrete; h. prestressed concrete For prestressed concrete members (Figure 2.33.b), the most rational cross-section in field is a double T because on transfer compressive stresses appear on bottom side. On bearing, a wider T cross-section is used to carry shear force. In practice, a lot of various shapes can be adopted from structural, functional or technological reasons. For example, in Figure 2.34 a prestressed concrete girder with T cross-section is presented. 80
Figure 2.34 - Prestressed concrete girder with T cross-section
Figure 2.35 - Prestressed concrete girders with wider bottom side 81
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Reinforced
Concrete
Structures
Because the prestressing force is not very big, is not necessarily to put more concrete on bottom side and the cross-section result a even the member is prestressed. In Figure 2.35 is presented a prestressed concrete girder with a very large bottom flange. Top flange appear too small compared with bottom one and the girder seems to be un-rational.
Figure 2.36 - Reinforced concrete members with L cross-section
Figure 2.37 - Reinforced concrete beams with inverted T cross-section 82
o e
y
The reinforcements from top side of precast girder assure the of precast concrete with monolith concrete poured on top side. top flange is wider than precast flange because of monolith concrete and girder becomes rational. In Figure 2.36 is presented a member with L cross-section. This cross-section is not rational from structural point view but is imposed from functional reasons. In figure 2.37 a beam with inverted T cross-section is presented. best cross-section for the beam is T but is easier to mount the blocks on the inverted T beam. In this case the cross-section was imposed from techno 10gical reasons. The roof members can be inclined on top side and the bottom side can remain straight. The easiest member with inclined top side is the girder with one slope (Figure 2.38).
11 ,
a.
1 -1
2-2
c.
d.
Figure 2.38 - Roo/members
with one slope
One-slope member is not very rational from structural point of view but is easy to make from technological point of view. To assure the bond 83
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
between precast and monolith concrete, some transversal reinforcements are provided on top side (Figure 2.38.b&d). To obtain a rational shape, the number of slopes can be increased from one to two or four. When the number of slopes increase, less material is used for the member. In Figure 2.39 are presented four girders made from prestressed concrete. The girders can have transversal reinforcement on top side to assure the bond with monolith concrete (Figure 2.39 b).
~t3"_3
f4 b. [3
::',t
Is Is
[6
c.
~t··B ~.w
[a
Tit
5" 5
d.
17
Figure 2.39 -Roofmembers: Q. two slopes without external reinforcement; h. two slopes with external reinforcement; c. two slopes with holes; d. four slopes with holes Precast members can have holes on the web to reduce the selfweight and to pass the equipments (Figure 2.39.c&d). 84
For structures with overhead cranes, can be made reinforced (Figure 2AO.a) or from prestressed 2AO.b).
11
a,
12
13
12
1-1
b.
2-2
3-3
c.
ct
Figure 2.40 - Girders for overhead crane: a. reinforced concrete; h. prestressed concrete
2-2
3-3
Figure 2.41 - Precast purlins
85
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Concrete Structures
The precast purlins can be made from reinforced concrete according with Figure 2.41. Because the width of the web is small on midspan, to carry shear force the width is increased on bearings. Sometime, is necessary to remove a column from the structure according with functional requirements. In this case, a trimmer girder must be placed on the structure (Figure 2.42).
beam [1 beam beam
<l.
11
[2 beam beam [2
beam
~-~
b. beam
/
12
beam beam
12
[3
c. beam 2-2
[3
beam
d.
e.
f.
Figure 2.42 - Trimmer girders: a. from reinforced concrete with beams on top side; h. from reinforced concrete with beams on bottom side,' c.from prestressed concrete
86
The mam requirement for trimmer girders is to maintain all beams at the same level (Figure 2.42). very big spans and loads, the usually cross-section is a Figure 2.43 is presented a precast box (channel) girder a bridge.
In
Figure 2.43 - Precast box girder According with specified requirements, any other shape can be adopted for precast linear members. If is possible, the shape must follow the rules from point 2.2 but the final decision is take according with structural, functional and technological reasons at the same time.
2.4.3. Joints on precast girders Joints are weaker points in the structure and they must be made carefully. The quality of the labor on site is lower compared with factory conditions and the bond between precast and monolith concrete is not always satisfactory. The connection between members can't be made along 87
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Reinforced
Concrete Structures
on the entire height of the cross-section like welded steel. Usually, they are made on points from bottom and/or top side of the cross-section. The joints can be made with dry technology or with wet technology. To use dry technology, some steel plates must be embedded into the element. The connection is made by welding the steel plates of the members (Figure 2.44).
monolith concrete
Figure 2.44 - Pin ended joint

stirrups
anchorage bar
steel plate weldings \
/
welding
1- 1
_~!~~!P~<:l~/ __
_sti!!l:Ps ~\y//
anchorage bar
Figure 2.45 - Anchorage of steel plates 88
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Steel plates must be welded by stirrups and supplementary bars for anchorage must be provided to avoid pull out of them from the member (Figure 2.45). The joint from Figure 2.44 is a pin because the monolith concrete can't carry tensile stresses. This type of joint is sensitive on torsion and bending moments perpendicularly to the girder because on top side the members are connected only with concrete. A better solution is presented in Figure 2.46 and the precast members are connected with welding on bottom side and with reinforced monolith concrete on top side.
Figure 2.46 - Joint on roof level- marginal columns

weld
precast.
r
precast column
Figure 2.47 - Joint on roof level- central columns
89
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Concrete Structures
Because the reinforcements from top side don't have enough length for anchorage, this joint connection is still a pin. To make a restrained connection the bars from top side of the girder must be anchored on columns like in Figure 2.48 and 2.49. The main disadvantage of these restrained connections is the bigger amount of monolith concrete poured on site. To reduce the quantity of monolith concrete top main reinforcement bars can be welded.
monolith
concrete
Figure 2.48 - Restrained connection - transversal girder
monolith concrete
precast " 9
umn
Figure 2.49 - Restrained connection - longitudinal girders

90
Many other types of joints can be adopted [9] be easily made and will easy and safe
the chosen
2.S. Conceiving of straight linear members loaded in compression and bending Columns are vertical members loaded in compression and bending at same time. In theory, columns can be loaded only in compression (without bending) but in practice always appear bending due to small imperfections and tolerances. According with the number of them, columns can be classified in two categories: CIl singular columns, when only one column is used for sustaining of equipments or for lighting; III columns from structures, when more connected columns are used to sustain other structural elements. According with the ratio between axial force and bending, columns can be classified in two categories: columns loaded on big axial force and small bending moments (axial force have a small eccentricity); in this case failure appear from compressive stresses and destroy the entire element (Figure 2.50.a); III columns loaded with small axial force and big bending moments (axial force have a big eccentricity); in this case failure appear from bending moment at the ends of the column only (Figure 2.50.b); in this case, failure don't destroy the entire element but plastic hinges appear at the ends of the column. For singular columns, the failure type is not important because the climb-down of the column induce the failure of the entire system. Columns in structures can have a big advantage if the failure appears from bending moment. If plastic hinges appear at the ends of one column, the entire structure still can carry vertical loads and general failure doesn't
II)
91
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Concrete Structures
appear (Figure 2.51.b). Damaged column can be retrofitted to improve the bearing capacity of the structure. If the failure of one column is from compression, all structural members above column are going down (Figure 2.51.a). In this case the structure can't carry vertical loads and general failure appears. Retrofitting of the structure can't be made and the building can't be used anymore.
a.
h.
Figure 2.50 - Failure of the columns: a. due to compression and shear; b. due to bending
8.
b.
Figure 2.51 - Structural behavior when columns fail: a. due to compression,'

b. due to bending
In conclusion, columns from structures must be always designed to fail due to bending moments. 92
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2.5.1. Conceiving o(singular columns To conceive singular columns, steps from Figure 1.34 must be followed. Structural model is a restrained bar with vertical loads (from selfweight and equipments) and horizontal loads (from wind or earthquake). The axial force and bending moment diagrams are presented in Figure 2.52.
I,
j,
9~
(self weight)
J J
I
c.
d.
I\
e.
I\
a. b.
f.
Figure 2.52 - Conceiving of singular columns The longitudinal profile must follow the bending moment diagram and the shape result a truncated cone (Figure 2.52.e). This shape is according with axial force diagram too and more material will be provided on bottom side. Usually the bending moment is small and the columns are loaded mostly in compression. From this reason, because concrete works well in compression, any shape can be adopted. The best cross-section is annular because the material is positioned away from neutral axis and improves the bearing capacity on bending. Most used shapes are presented in Figure 2.52.f 93
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Reinforced
Concrete
Structures
The reinforcement must be provided horizontal force can appear from any direction.
on all sides
because
the
2.5.2. Conceiving of columns from structures Columns from Figure 1.34. Structural vertical and horizontal are presented in Figure structures are conceived according with steps from model is a frame (according with point 2.3.2) with loads (Figure 2.53). The bending moment diagrams 2.54.
../
\
Seismic load
Uniform distributed load

(self-weight)
\.
::z-
Figure 2.53 - Structural model and loads for columns
vertical loads
earthquake
Figure 2.54 - Bending moments on columns The longitudinal profile of the column must follow the bending moment diagram and the best shape result like in Figure 2.5S.a. The cross-section is established according with stress diagram. When the compressive stress appear, more concrete must be provided in the
94
corresponding area because concrete work good compression. If tensile stress appears, less must provided because can carry tensile stresses. If earthquake force act on transversal direction like m 2.55.b the proper cross-section is a Tone 2.55.b). the earthquake force act like in Figure 2.S5.c the T cross-section is rotated with 1800 (compressive and tensile areas are changed).
h
lS
c.
+
e.
f
f.
h.
a.
Figure 2.55 - Best shape for columns
structure
L.
Because the earthquake on transversal direction act in both ways (Figure 2.55.b&c), the proper cross-section result to be a double T (Figure 5S.d). The same reasoning can be used if the earthquake act on longitudinal direction and the proper shape for this hypothesis result to be a double T in Figure 2.55.g. Because the direction of earthquake is unknown, the final crosssection result from combination between Figure 2.55.d and 2.55.g and is presented in Figure 2.5S.h. This shape is very used for steel columns but for
95
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reinforced concrete the formwork for this cross-section is very difficult to make. From technological reasons, simplified shapes will be adopted in practice (rectangular, square, circular etc.). Tensile stresses can appear on any side of the column, according with direction of the earthquake. In this case the reinforcements must be provided on the entire perimeter of the cross-section.
2.6. Designing of straight linear members compression and bending 2.6.1. Designing of singular columns
loaded in
Designing of singular columns must follow the steps from Figure 1.35. Preliminary design of the cross-section is made with relation:
Ac=--0,7· fed
(2.13)
where Ae is the area of the cross-section, N is the axial force and/ed is the strength of concrete in compression. The cross-section can be circular, annular, rectangular or square. For rectangular and square cross-sections, the minimum width be must be bigger than: (2.14)
where H is the height of the column. For the circular and annular cross-sections, the external diameter D; must be bigger than: (2.15) Usually, the dimensions rounded to 50 rum multiples. of the concrete smaller than 800 mm are
96
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The dimensions of the concrete bigger than 800 mm are rounded to 100 rom multiples. Usually, the shape of the singular columns is imposed from functional requirements (to sustain the pipe, equipments etc.), In Figure 2.56 are presented the most usual longitudinal profiles and in Figure 2.57 the most used cross-sections.
Figure 2.56 - Longitudinal profiles for singular columns
Figure 2.57 - Cross-sections for singular columns Structural model is a restrained bar (Figure 2.58) with vertical loads (from self weight and equipments) and horizontal loads (from wind or earthquake). The vertical loads are usually dead loads. The live loads, if exist, is usually very small (one man who check the equipment). If the column has corbels, some supplementary concentrated bending moments appears (Figure 2.58.h). 97
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The computation of bending moments and shear forces can be made very easily by hand or using computer software based on Finite Element Method.
H
®
I
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
g.
It ..
Figure 2.58 - Structural model and diagrams/or
singular columns
After the computation of bending moment and shear force, the amount of longitudinal and transversal reinforcement must be established. The area of reinforcement can be computed very easily (relations can be fmd in any design book according with specified norms [7]). Finally the number of bars can be established according with EUROCODE 2 or other national norms. Because bending moment is bigger on bottom side and smaller on top side, more bars must be provided on bottom side (Figure 2.59). 98
To carry shear force, stirrups or spiral can be used. Spiral is a better solution but will applied only on circular shapes. The shear force has a constant value on the entire column and stirrups or spiral must be provided on the same distance from shear force point of view. Because the transversal reinforcement confine the cross-section and improve the behavior of concrete in compression, usually the distance between stirrups (or the step of spiral) is smaller on bottom side, according with axial force diagram (Figure 2.59). Some cross-sections and stirrups distribution are presented in Figure 2.60.
Figure 2.59 - Reinforcement on annular column
Figure 2.60 - Cross-sections and reinforcement for singular columns Usually, singular columns are made on factory (precast) and are mounted on site because they cover large distances (for example lighting columns) and is not rational to cast the concrete on site. 99
Petru MIHAl
Reinforced
Concrete
Structures
Precast singular columns have many advantages. The annular crosssection is easily obtained only in factory and the columns are made using the centrifuge force (Figure 2.61). More, is very easily to mount the spiral factory using special machines.
Figure 2.61 - Centrifugal
machine for lighting columns
Because the column is a solitary member, no monolith concrete is required to assure the complete uniformity of the structure. Because columns are linear members, the transport is not an issue. Therefore, singular columns can be made monolith in theory but in practice they are precast members.
2.6.2. Designing of columns from structures Columns from structures are designed according with steps presented in Figure 1.35. Preliminary design of the cross-section is made with relation: (2.16)
where A; is the area of the cross-section, N is the axial force and.fed is the strength of concrete in compression. The coefficient n; take into consideration the type of the column into the structure and his value is:
100

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Petru MIHAl

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Editura Societatii Academice "Matei - Teiu Botez" Iasi

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Bur) Khalifa, 828 m height 6

1 ..BASICS OFSTRUCTVRAL CONCRETE

Reinforced Concrete Structures

1.2. Properties of hardened concrete

Reinforced Concrete Structures

1.2.1. Behavior of concrete in compression

Reinforced Concrete Structures

loads) and tensile stresses on horizontal expansion) like in Figure 1.5.b.

direction (from the horizontal

Figure 1.5 - Failure of concrete in compression

Reinforced Concrete Structures

1.2.2. Behavior of concrete in tension

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced Concrete Structures

f. Figure 1,9 - Improving the behavior of concrete in te . . nsun, With

••. .~ .,>' ...,

c..Figure 1.11 - Prestressing principle

Reinforced Concrete Structures

a. - cracks on top side at transfer

b. - cracks on bottom side in service

Figure 1.12 - Cracks due to big/low value of prestressing force 22

Reinforced Concrete Structures

c. Figure 1.14 - Making of pre-tensioned concrete

Figure 1.15 - Precast concrete for bonded post-tensioned members

Figure 1.16 - Concrete cast on site for bonded post-tensioned members 25

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Figure 1.20 - Un bonded post-tensioned

strands in form work

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Figure 1.26 - Confined rectangular cross-sections

b. Figure 1.28 - Confinement of circular cross-sections

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Figure 1.30 - Spiral making machine

Figure 1.33 - Concrete pipe 37

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Steps to conceive reinforced concrete members

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced Concrete Structures

RaUonal cress-sec I.ion on

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Rational cross-section on supports for reintmced concrete

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Figure 2.3 - Beam-girder floor 53

Reinforced Concrete Structures

and the midspans, the Figure 2.6.a).

shape, to obtain loads must

<D 41316 PC52

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Figure 2.9 ~ Cracks from shear force

Figure 2.12 - Floors with girders

Figure 2.13 - Distribution of loads on floors without beams 61

Unlform~y distributed load (self-weight)

Figure 2.14 -Loads

on girders: a.floors with beams; b.jloors without beams

Cracks from local shear