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Fundamentals
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I
Fundamentals of
Semiconductor Fabrication
Fundamentals of
Semiconductor Fabrication

GARY S. MAY
Alsc.~mlnF~ntta<lnlinnPmfesror
,%b<,nl ofEleariro1 ond Cnmn1,ucr Enginerri,q
a o r c l a l m ~ f i r ~otff ~Trrhn~~logg
Atlnnm. G o r e i n

SIMON M. SZE
c~rcChoir I'rufi.?sor
&',,lbnol Cltino lirng L l t ~ i w m l t ~ )
&hri,8nnl Xnno n,vicc Lnlromforipr
Ilrincl,!r. Toilcon

JOHN WllN & SONS. INC.

p d u ~ t c s o fi&t-!t~
r pcl(illiatestudends in ph!si~s. chrmin~ye b e r i d cw*rr--rine. rI<.rn-
ic;d e#>ginrering.md nratrrial. ricncc. 'The book r a n lx, t~u.clconwlaic.nt1y i r k ;I
selncstrr-lcngtlu mum on integrated circuit fabriation. Such a arm%. ~ n ; qo r rlvd? ncA
Iw rirmarnpnnird by ~s mrequisite lnlnratol).. Tllc test can alw u r \ r xs a rcfcr<,nc~.fo#
nradicinc.. cnCinrcrr
., and scientists in the srnirun&iaor indust%
Clrrtpter I gives n brief historical o\.enimv of rnajar wrniconduaor <lr-irr-- and irr\
technolop dcvrlaprnentr. ;r\ \\,ell as an intrwluction to hmic i:~bricntionstvp-. Ch;lplrr
. .,ermvih twl~ninues.The next sc.\rd irlhimtcn nm oreanimd xn,nl-
2 deals \,it11 cnstal
ing to a hpid fnhrir;ttion .wplm& Cbapter3 presents siliror;oxid;<tian. Photolrtlwzmp!~
nnd etcllieg RrC <Lisct~ssedin Cbaplerr 4 and 5. reslxrti\.elp Chnptcrs (5 end 7 pn.'a.nt
line prilnnl). tccbniqaes lor tlte intrrvludion oidopmts: djfilstoru m d inn implxnv.~tt:on.
Thc final c1111ptcron inclili\idaalprocess steps. Clrnptcr S. cows \arioor rnrtlml~of thin
film drporition. The final three chapters focus on h m d . sornrnati\.c topic-. Clrap:,.r 9
.
tics tlnr indi\irlunl nrocrss stens toceth~r
" . - .
hv, nmmting tlw o m s flmrs for critic-.$ om-
ccss technologies. integrated de\ices. and micmelwtrid n,ech;miotl syr)slr.rnr,\IE\IS>.
Chapter 10i!~tralt1cesldcl~-le~~el iintemtedcircnit n,ae!~laawinebsarr. i n c l a d i n e ~ ~ l t ~ .
hidtesting. p~cknging, 6-ss mntrol, and )irld. Fimdl?, ~ l l ; r ~ t r ; ldl i ~ ~ m t!~r
e s fut~xre
outlook ant1 cl~dlrng~..s for the scn~icanductorindsstn,
Ench cln;eter iwCins\vith an intmludion and n list ollenminr~. rods
.- and mnclard-
with ssun>rnan;ofin~portnntmnwptr. Solved cst:lmple pml~Iemsarc pro\idrd tlrmo~h-
out. and sareested
.. l~omnrarknmhlems anwar .
. ;kt the end of the chantrr 'ill? mnwirt
of process siniulation is presented in scwml chapters. usin< the popular SI'PRE\I and
PROLITI-I sohmre p~cljlgess application \rhic!er. 3 t a ~ t ofr ~ this wtii\-arr h i n t m d d
to supplement, but nM replace. l ~ a m i n the g fcnndarncntnl rnnwptr ;~swciat<d \\it!, nticro-
electrnnic5 pmcessing.
A complete set of detailed solutions to all endd-ol-chapter prnblen~sklr hecn p r c
pared. This instntctori manual & a d l a h l e to d l ndopting k a l h 'Ill? fio~rn in tlw tmt
are also availnhle. in electronic Cornat. fmrn the puhlisl~~r at the fr>Illlo\\ine\\r.hritr:
l~t~~/~~~~~~~.~~ileyca~~nllegeI~na~.
in~l<.btrd to Xlr. S . Erdor for trcl8nic;d editins of tlte manurrcript. 51%.Iris Lin for hp-
ingtlw m:ay rc\islon nftl~edmlt.:tnd \ I s . Y. C. Y:ingofthv S~nriconductorL~hhorntary
N:tlirmal Cl~iaoTungUnivcnily\vlto fc~rnisltcdtltc hundnrls oftrxhnid illunntion~~,v.d
in t l ~ rl m k .
M Jolrn\Viley :rsd Son%.\vrwish to thank hlr. \V 7lol,rin. uhn encoum~dus to un<b..r-
tnkc tllc proirct. S. hl. Sw \rirlles also 1 0 arknm\.lr.dnc the Snrine Fo>iedationof t l ~ r
CHAPTER 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Scmimn~l~~ctor Materials 2
1.2 Sc~mimnrl!nctorDevices 2
1.3 Senlimnductor Process TecIlnolow 5
1.3.1 Key Semimndrrctor
Trchnologirs 5
1.3.2 T ~ c h n o l o pTrends 8
1.4 R s i c Fabrimtion Stcps 11
1..I.1 Oxidalion 11
1.4.2 Pl,o1olithoCnph)~
Etcl>ing 13
1.4.3 Diffusion itnd ton
Implantation 14
1.4.4 Xfetslli.,.?tion 14
1.5 Su~nlnaty14
Refrrrncrs 15
CHAPTER 2
Crystal Growth 17
2.1 Silicon C y t n l C m \ t h fmm the
Melt 18
2.1.1 Slartinp 'faterial 18
2.1.2 The Cmchnlski TechniW 18
2.1.3 Distribution of Dopant 19
2.1.4 Effective Segregation
Cocllicient 22
2.2 Silicon Float-7~neProcess 24
2.3 G'aAs Cqrtni Gro\rtl~Trcl~niques26
2.3.1 Starting Xlateriitls 26
2.3.2 Cq51.11 Cm\*l~Tccltnilues 30
2.4 hfaterial Cllarncteriz%tion 31
2.41 \\5tfer Shaping 31
2.4.2 C q ~ t nCl~ar.lcteriation
l 33
2.5 Summaty 38
References 39
Pmhlems 39
CHAPTER 3
Silicon Oxidation 41
3.1 Tl~ermalOddntion Procrss 42
3.1.1 Kinetics of Cro\eh 42
3.1.2 Thin Olidr Gm\ttli 49
3.2 Imperit?.Rrdistrihatinn r h
Oxidation 50
3.3 %larkingProprtim of Silic*
Dioxide 51
3.4 0.6rle Qu;dity 53
3.5 Oxiclc Tlricknrrs Characteni.~tron j4
3.6 Onidation S~rnt!lntion 54
3.i Summary 57
References 58
Prohlemr 59
CHAPTER 4
Photolithography 60
4.1 Optical Lithography 60
4.1.1 The Clean Room (
4.1.2 Eymsan: Tools 6?
4.1.3 hlxsb 65
4.1.4 Photorericl 61
4.1.5 Patten) Transfer i
4.1.6 Resolution Enh;mc~.rl,r~~r
Tnhniqurs 72
4.2 Next-Cencntiun Litllwraphir
>Icthmk iR
4.2.1 Elrctron B e r n Lithm,phy id
4.2.2 Extwm? L'ltr.\\iolet
L i t h ~ t p h yi6
4.2.3 X-R;)y L i l l a , w p I ~i8 ~
4.2.4 Ion Ream Litllopphy 79
4.2.5 ~ ~ ~of \ ; L ~ ~~ C ~ I B S> ~ r
L i t h ~ n p h i chlctlm& 80
4.3 P l ~ o t o l i t h o ~ p l tSin~ul.~tion
y 81
4.4 Sttmmat?. 83
Ilcfrrmcrs 83
Problrn~s54
CHAPTER s
Etching 8s
5.1 \Vrl Clte~nicxlEtchins 8 5
5.1.1 Silimn Etcl~insS6
5.1.2 Silicon Dioxidr Etcltit~? S i
5.1.3 Silicon Sitridr, ; u ~ dPol\silirnn
E t c h i n ~SS
5.1.4 .~l~tmiaant I?tcl~insSS
5 . 5 Callintn hrsrnidr Etchin? SS
 di L Contents

5.2 I)?Etchins 89 CHAPTER 8 9.5 XIELIS T o c b n o l ~2 1 lAPPENDIX 1

3.2.1 Pl;sntn Ft~n<lnmentals90
3.2.3 Elclt hlrcha~ism.Plsamil
Ili;~q~ortics. and End-Point
Control 9 1
5.2.3 Reactive Pl;~smaEtcl~ing
Trrhnhlom l n t l
E q u i p n ~ ~ n93
t
Film Deposition 144 9.5.1 Ralk >~icromach~nxn~ st;, List of Symbols 26s
8.1 EpiI;~xialGrou<h Tr.rhniqtars 144 95.2 Surf;$w >licromarl,ioin~215
8.1.1 Cllcn~icalVapor I>rpositio~~ '1.5.3 LICi\ P r r . $ r 215 t APPENDIX B
9.6 P r o w s Simulnliots 218 International System of Units IS1 Units) 2fis
8.1.2 >lolcculnr Bvam E p i l ; ~ 141 ~
9 . i Summar). 223
8.2 Stmdarrr and Defvcts in Epitaxid
Rrf<.n.nct.s 223 lAPPENDIX
La\m 152 (

9.2.1 Lqtticx.-Xlatcl~ed and Stnincd- Prnl,lrlas 224 Unit Prefixes 21

5.2.4 Resrli\.c Pl:nma Elcl~ing
I~ayerE p i k ~ y152
r\pplicntions 9 7 CHAPTER 10 lAPPENDIX D
8.2.2 D e f r c t in Epiti~xii~l Layers 1
5.3 E t c l ~
Sinlrll:~tinn 101 IC Manufacturing 226 Greek Alphabet 271
8.3 Diclrctric Deposition 155
i: !s1111111113. 10.2
8.3.1 Silican Dioxide 156 10.1 Elcclrinl Testing 227
RrSiwac~~s 103 lAPPENDIX E
8.3.2 Silicon S i t r i ~ l c160 10.1.1 Trst Stn~eturn227
Pmbl~tns103 Physical Constants 273
8.3.3 Lir>\r.-Dirlrctric-Constant 10.1.2 Final Test 228
Xlatrrinls 162 10.2 Pach@ng 228
CHAPTER 6 t APPENDIX F
8.3.4 Flig11-l)irluctric-Constant 10.2.1 D i r Separation 230
Diffusion 105 \latc,rials 164 Properties of Si and GaAs at 300 K 275
10.2.2 P;skngr T!ys 230
6.1 R z i r Diffusion Prm,ss 106 8.4 Po$silicun I)rpsition 165 10.2.3 h1t;trhment t APPENDIX G
6.1.1 IliNtnsion Eqtaation 107 8.5 hlet;xlli)i~tion 167 >lrtlmlolog$es 232
Some Properties of the Error Function f
6.1.2 Diffusion Profilrs 109 S.5.1 Pll)sic;tl \';tpor Deposition 167 10.7 Statistical Prnrss Control 237
6.1.3 Evaltvation of DiNosrd 8.3.2 Cllcnlical \'capor Deposition 16 10.3.1 Cnntrol Cl~artsTor lAPPENDIX H
Lq!vrs 113 8.5.3 Alnmien~n~ hlt:t:~llimtian 169 r\~trihtntw237
8.5.4 Copper hlrtelliz~tionI 7 3
Basic Kinetic Theory of Gases rsl
6.2 Extrinsic 1)iNusion 114 10.3.2 C m m l Cli;lrts krr \'ari?l~lcs239
fi.2.l Cor1rrnlmlion-l3rpen(Ie111 8.5.5 Silicirlp 175 10.4 St;ttislical Eqwri~ncntalDrsip 242 tAPPENDIX I
UN,ei\ih 115 8.6 Drposition Simn~latiort177 L0:l.l Comptring Distrihutic~mW.2
SUPREM Commands 2s3
6 . 2 IliN~lsianProfilm 117 8.7 Sttr~~n,:~ry 177 10.4.2 Anal!sis of \';~rianw 243
6 . L ~ t r r al)iflt~sion
l 118 References 179 IO.4.3 Fs~isto~id D r s i p r 246 APPENDIX J
4 I>ilfi8siort Sin~ulation 120 Pml,lems 180 10.5 Siel(l 250 Running PRDLITH 287
6.5 Summ;\r). 121 105.1 l.'anctionnl Yiekl 250
IicSr~rrnccs 122 CHAPTER 9 10.5.2 P:ar.tmrlrir Yirld 254 b APPENDIX K
I'rnhlra~s 122 Process Integration 182 10.6 C o n , p u l ~ r - ~ n t ~ C + t ~ l Percentage Points of the t b~nnounon
blanufald~tring256
CHAPTER 7
9.1 P~(5iveComponents 184
9.1.1 T l l r I n t ~ g ~ ~Circuitted t APPENDIX L
Ion Implantation 124 Hesirtar 184 Percentage Points of the FDimibution 3 1
7.1 R:~ngeof lnnplantetl Ions 125 9.1.2 T l l r l n t t y c t t r ~Circuit
l
7.1.1 Ion Dislril,ution 125 Cep;lcitor 185 CHAPTER 11
i . Ion . Slopping 127 9.1.3 The Iut<yratrdCircuit
Future Trends and Challenges 259
I . Ic~nC l ~ i t n n r l i n130
~ Indllch,r 187
i.2 Impl:~ntl l a n l n g ~anrl ,\nnr;llins 131 9.2 Bipolar Tecllnolng?. I S 8 11.1 Cl~allrngrsfor l n l e p ~ t i o n259
7.2.1 Implant Dnuna~e131 9.2.1 l'hr R:rsic I'sl,ric;rlion 11.I.L ~ ! l ~ n ~ s l ~Jttnclinn
~~llo~v
i.2.2 r\nn~aliag 134 Process I 8 9 Fnnl~;tlion 261
i.3 Implantation-llcInte<lProcesses 136 9.2.2 Diplrctric Isoliition 192 11.1.2 Ultr.ttltin Oxid,. 261
-.
8 ..I. I ilultipl+ Irnplantatio~~ ;tnd 9.2.3 SPIT-AlignedDoul~le-Pol!lilicon 11.1.3 Silicidr Formation 261
il:~skirtgI 3 6 B i p l a r Stn~rtures 193 11.1.4 Nva. ilatrrial- k,r
-.
3 . 2 lilt-Anel? Ion lanpl;tnt:~tion 138 9.3 hlOSFET TCL.IIIIOIU~ 196 I ~ ~ t c r m n n t ~ ~"-1
lioa
-.
1..%.3 l l i c l ~ - E ! ~ v ~lligl~-C;n~rrcnt
an~l 9.3.1 Tlw B s i c Ftthricatio~t I l . l . 5 1'owt.r Limitntions 261
Implnnt;\tior~ 139 Prcress 196 I1 . 6 SO1 i l ~ t r h ~ ~ t 262 ion
--
4
I .
In11Inlpl:ttntiiti(~n
Sumn~;rry 141
Sitna~li~tiou 140 9.3.2 M r n l o n Dr\irr,s 199
9.3.3 CMOS ' r r c l ~ n o l o e203
11.1 S!~trla-an-;t-CI~ip2F^
11.3 S n ~ r n m s204~
Ilcfi.n.nc~s 142 9.3.4 BiCMOS T r c l ~ n n l n e210 H<*G-.n~nc~.s 261
I'r~l>l,~rns142 9.4 hlESFI7I"r,~rl~nalo~ 212 l't~,l,l,~,l,s 264
Chapter 1. lnlroduction

TIlt. wort inlportant d e j i w foradv;tncrd i n t e p t r d circuits is tile MOSFET (~ner;d- Tllrw important micm\r~\rde\icrs\r,errinvcntrd or rr;li7,.d in thr
licld.mll,vt transistor). \vhirh n a s n~portellI I R~ ~ d ~ nand
g Ali~ll:~" tl,rrc ,ran,
,~yi~lr.-srlllilr~l~~I~Irt~~r fir. fin1~ I ~ \ i ~ *tlte
u =tr;u~sfemlclcdmn
~ ~Iimlc(TEI): a ~ w c ~ l n ~ ~;,,~,,di,,+,, irl;r.ntprl
ill l!)(il), 1 slloi,stllr fin1 rlr\iw t~singatl~rr~~~ally<)xidize~l
3
. Tile
silicon s~~hstmte. 13. Gllon"ill 196% TIlr TI:13 is I I W r.xtmrivrly
~ in stdcl~millinlrlrr.\,II,C applimli~ms
d,-dcr. Ira :I g:~trlrr~gl,of 20 ~ I I ;aal
I a F t r od#lctllicknrss of 100 nm (1 nln = 10-'cn1). clrtection s>Ttenls.remote mntrol5. m d microt~avctest instn~mcnts.rile S , . ~ ~ , ~ , I
c r delis contacts. and tllc top elongated a r m is the
Tllc hsrr kt.\.l>olcsarr the s o ~ ~ r :md is ill? IXIp,VlTdi~le:its oprntior~\rm~ fiat o1,xn.d jnlll~ston d.8"i n ~ x jI\I~:\TT .
alinrnin~,tt~Satt. fi:tpo~ttcd t l l r o n ~al ~mrtal ~n-k. i \ l t h o ~ ~ prestmt-rl;~y
gl~ 5IOSFETs I I I I ~ diodrs can genecrtc t l ~ rl~igllestrnntin~~o~~s-t\;lre (CT\:Jpower at millimrtcr.,varc rre.
lxvtl a-.dn!clo~mlo tltp cl~.(~p-st~l~ndcmn rr@nle.th? clloi<~* of silimn :lnd tllemidl!. pwtn qurllcies of:1ll selnimndllacrr deices. TI11.yare ~ ~ s eint lradar qrntpnls ancl a l ; s,.ite,ns. ~ ~
silicon dio\i<lcusrd in tlw lint hIOSFET rr~aninstllc innst important combination of The tllirtl dc\iw is tlre XIESFET imrtal-sm~icondta:torlielcl+llect transitor). invrntwl
n,atrri:ds. Tllr \IOSFET:III~relatctl intrgctted circuits ~lo~vconstitule ;lhont 90% ofthe I? 5,le;al"in 19%. It is a kt.?<Ie\ice for t n n ~ ~ o l i t l ~ i c m i c m
intror~tal
~ a ~ r drorits ~.\!\IIcI
wmirnnduaor d e t i c ~nlarkrt. ,111 oltc~cnlallXIOSFET \tit11 a cll;tnnrl lpngt11 of 15 nm . . ,
All IlnpOrtmt semicond~~ctor mrnmol?. cle\iw \\-a$ invented Ijv I;:iltnx and ~z,.:' i n
1l.w lrrs ~ l r n ~ o n s t c ~ t ~ u l ~ ~ ~ t I ~ " nT nl ~sm.c;u
i s d r ~Ill?
i c b;wis
r for the most nd\anwd 1967. Tl~isis thl. nonvolatile semimn(luctur nlernon. ( ~ T ' s ).~\vI,~c:I, I anrct;tin its
intrmntrd circltit cllips mnhining obrr or!? trillion (>lo1') dedws. infom.ttion \vl~ent11e p u r e r supply is nvitclml 011. ~ l t h o ~it~ i5g similar l~ to a rnn\.cn.
In 1962. Hall ct itl." lint acl~icveclI:~sinsin semiconductors. In 1963. KmemerlLand tionnl XfOSFET, the major dillerencr is tl~eadriitionof:l.'flmtinp.pte"inrvl~icl~ scmiper.
:\lfem\.a~alKsxinov" proposwl tllr itck.rnstmchlre 1:lser. These prnposds Inid the f o ~ ~ n - tnancrit ellarge storage is possible. Recause of its attril~t~tes of nor~rolatilit~ Iiigh debiee
dation Lrr nimlrn~I:~.erdindes. \vhicI~can h r oprratr(l mntin~touslyat room tcn~pera- dcmsity low power cuns~lrnption.and electrical rewit7ititbility (i.e.. thr stored c l ~ : r ~nc .n
ture. L x r r rlimlcs arc tlto key conlponents for ;I n i d r mnge of applications, inclrlrling he removed hy appl!ine voltage to the contml gate), tltr X\'S>I 11s k r n t n e the ilon~i-
<li$tnl xirlm disk%.optic:il-filler co~nm~naication. I;~terprinting. and atmospheric pollu- nant memory for portatlle riectrnnic n5tems stacll a the wllulnr nllone. nolelvnk ~~~.~ mm-
......
linn monitorinc. puler. digital camen, and smart card.
.A limitins cace of the floating-gate nonvolatile nlemoy is t l ~ cs i n ~ l e - e l e d rmern- ~~
ory cell (SElfC).u.l~icl~ is obtnined by reducing the Irngth oftlte floatis? p t e to "Itrd.
slnall rlilnrnsionc (e.g.. 10 nnl). At this dmer~lion.uhen an ~ l e c h n nm o w i r ~ t o tflmtillg l~~
gate. the potential of thegate\rili be dtrrrcl so that it uill prrvent the entnncr o f w o t l ~ e ~
rlcctmn. T l ~ eSEhlC is tile ~lllimatrfloating-gate nlernol?. cell. sinw need only one
electron for information storage. The oprcttion o f a SEhlC at mom teeprrnture15-.s Cra
(lcmonstrated by Y:~no et al." in 19% The SE5IC cxn s e w as t l ~ ebaris far the mort
advancrd sen~imnductornlmlories. \!*hie11can mntain over one trillion hits.
The cl~a%e-co~~pled dc,dcr (CCD) u a s inwnted by h y l e and Snritll" is 1970. CCD
is llsed exieosiwly ill \illen c;lnler;lr and in optical sencing applications, The resonant hm-
nrli~lpd i ~ l (RTD)
e n.a lint stulbed by Cllang el d.?'in 1974. RTD is the b:lciv for n~oct
quwtun~-rffrctdedws.~d~icl~o~~redremrlyl~i~l~ d m s i h ultnhi~l~rpnul. andenl~nscd
filnctionality. I x ~ t ~it~pcrnlits
se a p a t l y rr(lun.d na~nlwrof drtices to perforn~a given
circnit h~nbion.In 19SO. \ l i m ~ ~ c t;e~t l . ~ d o r ltheo ~5IODFETinrxl1~latio11-cl~I
l TK.I<I-
ellrct tnnsistor). \Yitl~tile proper selection of l~eternj!s~~bion in:lteri:ll%.thr \IODFET is
the fatest field-eNect tcmsklor.
Sincr t l ~ einvcntior~of t l ~ bipolar
e transistor in 1947. t l ~ enunllx=rand \ari?hofrpmi-
rnnductor devices Il:>ve i ~ ~ c r e a terde m ~ n d n ~ ~ass lad\;~nccd
y t c r l ~ n o l qno\.
, materi~lr.
anrl brnrnlrncd compmllnaion lln? lwaeell :tpplicd to tlle creation of nrwtlr~icices.I-lmrm~r.
one rnnpeIling question remains: \\lvat pnmsses are r q ~ ~ i r ctodmnstn~cttl~esewon-
drotls de\ices frnnr b:lsic sen~icondt~ctor m~~terials?

SEMICONDUCTOR PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.3 Tltc linl t ~ ~ ~ l . ~ l - c ~ r i ~ l c . - r ~lic.l<l-a.&~rt
~ ~ ~ ~ i i i ~lr;~sri\~or''
n c I ~ ~ r ~tl,hotwaph
~~r
)I..lI l~~lnnlrm~.s.l
Key Semiconductor Technologies
\lnoy important semimnductor trchnolo@cs II~IW lwen dcri\rd f m ~ pm'ssrs n inwntc~l
centt~riesago. For e s : ~ n ~ p111" l ~ p. n l h of n ~ ~ ~ t a l l i c q sin
t ln
l sh~rnact.*:as pionct.ml try
~ fli,ins ~ tllp , \ ~ s t e n lsl~nrcs
; of~LZliP U c~t o r i lllore
~ tl1.11 ~2IXW) !rats ~?n."Tliw
p r w s s urn itred to p ~ o d n wnrlxln steel in l ~ r e l ~ r ; ~fomd-cllnfl
ted fltmaws. :\notllrr
rnultey of Pralnple is tllr litlloCnpllY p-s, wl~iel~\V;IS i n v r n t ~in
~ l1795. In tltis o r i $ ~ ~pr-<.
i~l
tllp p,ttenl, or iln;lge. ,,.-tr.\,,f~rrrd frnm s stone platr ilitho!.'' This section nltlsidrn
 1.3 Semiconductor ProcessTechnolo~4 7

,he ,,,,lrrtonrr o ~ t w ~ l l l n that ~ s ~U,PW~ ~ applied for the Ant tilne to s~lni~-nduc*orpm- Tllp odd? rnaski~gn i r t h ~ x llns drrt.loprtl by Frnsd~anrl Drrrick" in 1957. nw-?
r,,sr.,, <,r , ~ ~ Fii;cl~~y ~ l for~ s r ~~~ ~ i m1 n d u cdr\iw t o r filhrintioll. fo11n11illat an oxidr 1:1yrr c;ln p r w n t mast impllril) :ktnnlr fronl diffnsisg t l t n ~ n it. ~ lIs
~
s , , ~kc,? a,,,,irnnc[urtor tcrllnolot$.ics ; ~ rlisted t in Table 1.2 in chmeol?!ir:~lord rr. thp S I I ~ Py(>:Ir.111~.(.pil:~~iilj krox\tl~p r ~ ~ i - I>:L-(TI
s s 011 1111. chrmir:d \ . . l p r d~pnsitiontpclt-
I,, 1~,1,. c:Lwl,c,i&:' <~,,,~lo~wcl a li~luid-solid lnonon>~nponent pal11 twhniqt I?. niquc \\.i~v dr\.rInp~<I I>!.SIIC~~LI r t ill. '"Epita\?. d ~ r i v r dfroln l l ~ (;reeli\vor<L~
r cpi. me:nn.
(,;nrl,r.~ski Sn,,,r)r is tilr pnn.s~ ,,srd to most of the cnstals lion1 \dlicl~silic011 ins "on." and toxir. nlrstlitlS "ikrno~gen~c~~t." dvseribrs s lwItnitlttc of cnstal grmtilt to
,:,fr.s :,rr prwlncyd. :\notIlrr Fontl~trcbniqse \ m c de\.elopd by Rnygmw" in 1 915 form a tlrin 1;lyrr of romic~,~al~lctor inntmals on 111,. r~~rfcmcvof n cnst:d that IIX a 1;tttic-c
n,,. Rnclwt:ut twhsique been 11srd rxtensi\rly for tltr qm!tl~ ol gi~llinmaneni stnxcturrr irlcntic~lto th:~tof t11rcnst;tl. This ~ncll~rxl is immrt;lnt lor thr imnwc.mmt
.... ,. ,~.~.
<,,a<, I -I..,.UI ...mnlmlnnd
......=..
~~~~~ rcnlimnductor cnst;lls, hltl~ooghthe s e n l i m n d ~ ~ r tpmpert or of dr\icr prrfonnnnce ;tnd tllc crcation o l novrl d m i w stnldun.r. In 1959. ;t mOina-n-
t a n. intevatedcircuit \\'m mad^ I)\.. Kill>?'. It mntilin<.d onr biw1:~rtmnsisto~
s,lirnn I,..~\.~ hn , , ~ ( I ~ I Vstrldied sin; e~lrlyIWO, tllr stucly of srmirnl~ductol-m . . threr r ~ d s -
~~~~~~~

pn,,,, dsc,:,, nqlc*ed for.; lonetinle. In 1952. \ ~ r l k r i " ~ ~ o tthat e d gallium anpnidr a tom. and on? rapleitor, all lnxle in grrrnanit~nr;and c~,anrctnllx \$irr hnndine-;!. I ~. h r i d
n,l,ltcy{ ,,I.\: rn,,,pun& semimnducton. I-lr \%;IS ahlr to prr<lict tlreir c h a ~ l c t circuit. Also in i959. No!r.r" l~ro&,srdthe monolithic IC I,? tlbrinting all ~lc\icr.rin a
iaio and to thrn1 e.Trimr~~tnll!: T t ~ h ~ ~ oand l o dc\ices
g nsing tllese conlpollr r mems sin el^ slnnr.") ;and mnnc<tiiiine tllr dr*iws
sinelr s r ~ n i r n n t l ~ ~sar o~ rl a t n t(nrottr~lilirl~
Il:t\.r rille h e n acii\vly sturlird. I>\. :iIunrinu~n~~~rtalliz;~linn. I'i~!nrc 1.4 shows the first mo~~olill~ic . . rircnit
IC of a flir)-flop
TIl? dilii~sionof impurity ntolns in sen~iconductonis inlportnllt for d c d m p m s s - mntnining six dr\icrs. Thc altaninmn intrrmn~~cdtion Lines urnnhklinnl hy rtchingevap
inq %,sic difilnon 1 1 1 \\~;um ~ n s i d e r ~ I?\.
l F i c P in 1%. The idea of using clifi~don o n t r d nlonlin~~ln lawrover thr entire ori~lrsnrfam. \wine thr l i l h m . n, l ~ i clrchni<n~r. TIkrrr
tCyhniqun to *Iter tllp hp- of rnndurtivih in silicon \xudisclosed in a patrnt in 1952 inrrotions l:url tlw foendntion for the napid . .gro\\ill of tlre inicrwlcctmnics industn..
h PCAnn.' In 1957. the ancient I i t h o g m p l ~ ~ p m sapplied s ~ s to semimndlldor d<+ice The plannrprocrss nsdrvrloprd hy Hwn~i"in 19fiO. In this p m s s , an midr layer
I.hric3tion hy Andnls." He used photos~nsili\~e, etch-resistant po!\nl?n [pboloresisl) for is formed OII ;isrtniconductor sarbce. \\Ftll the h ~ l nof ;I litllom;mltv
of the oxide CITI I
.. .,.
x rrmo\.e<l;uld \rindo\\s cut in the o d e . Ilnpurity atoms \\ill r l i h s r
nrocess. m r t i n r
p t t r m tnnsfrr. L i t l l p p l l y is a key t e c h n o l forthe ~ semiconductor ind~lstlyThe m n -
tintled mo\\tl~ of the indttstn 11% heen the direct result of i~npmvedlitllogmpllic tech- only througll the eqxwxl seniimnd~storsn~&~re, and ,)-,I jrnnctions s i l l fonn in the odde
~~ol~.'Lithb o &o ~ ~ ah signifirmt
y economic Factor. currently repwsmting over 3% wiado\r. nrens.

TABLE 1 1 Key Smiconducmr Tachnologiar

Y Twhnolop. i\uthor(r)An\~ntor(s) Rrl
191s Cmhmlsli ~ s t apl v i h Czoehralski 24
1 R~idmnancnstA .
. mmtth Brid~man 29
III-\,rnmpounds \Velkpr
Diffucion Pfann
Lith-phir photomrist .&ndns
Chide ma~linq F m h and Derrick
Epitnd C\D ~ \ i h Sheftal. Kokorirh. and Kn~ilov
Ion implantation Shockley
Ilyhri<linlwatnl cirnzit Kill?
\lonolithir intrpted circuit Nn)rr
Planar pnm,rs llwrni
CMOS \\hnlmr md Sah
DRAM Dcnnard
Pol!%Iirnn self-Aimed mte Keruin. Klrin. and Samw
\lW,\D \lanam+t and Simpsnn
D n etchinx Inin:, Lemons, and Bohor
\lolm~larh a m e p i k ~ y Cho
\lirropnrccrsor i4W1 Hoff et a!.
Twnch iolrlinn Rune. >lomore. ant1 Ns&atnrho
Chemiml mcchnnical polishin< D:a\lui c.1 al.
Cnnncr inl~rmnntd Pamnmak et a l ~
 t. rip. ,,,,,,i,~cui, r,it~,rIC ilscn-;rsnl. t r d ~ s o l q 11:s nlo\wl f m n ~NXfOS (nrl~annt
,,FI. 1. I,, \ I ( I\ ,,,,,,,ll~,.,llmt,ln. hlOSFKTI. \~.lliclbe ~ ~ ~ pLx)111 k n sNSlOS zlntl PJIO
:.~. !,,,,,,.,i \~(i\l:t:T~t,, ion,l t ~ , kxjc r c~It~na.nts. ChIOS cvnept \\;rq pmpost*~lI]?
i t ,,!! <,. .,,,,I <,,I,, ,t lw;, TIl,. ;i~lx:tnka:c* c>fC:\lOS t~~clmolnq is that I ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ IKII \~ V~ ~ I I I s
< , 7 t l ~ i t . , ~ !ctnmv!at
t t ~ n htit~n~t:tl~vt~insilionftvln on<,statt, to ~1110titerl<,.g.,fro1110 to 1)
.cr,ri ,in,,,w n lxttlr. r u m n t Ix.h\rro tr.t~aitCms.itllouing po\\vr mnsu~nptionto hr lllin-
,:.,.r.,! C\IOS tvrlmnlrr,? ic 1111.c!o~sinsntt t ~ ~ l ~ 1 1 ofor l t qarh;aln'd ICs.
11, 1'H%7. :el ixt~jrni;tnth\n.eh~ln~~nt circl~it.tllr cl!~~ialaicrandom a w n I n m i o n
Dl<\ \ I . I-.~1 insvxttrtl 11, Dt.nnanl." The mrmoyci~llcontains onp SIOSFET and one
c ii.~~>.-,lr~r.~w <-.lpxilor.Tllr SIOSFET w m v s is n stilclt to c l l ; q or d i x h a ~ ttlle e clpac-
i!,)~ :\ltIt011"t 11 lIH.\\l i* \mlatik, iuld IOIIInnes mlstiw!y l l i ~ l po\%vr.l we e h ~ e c lllat
t
I>I{.\\I\ \ r i l l n,nlin18r to hr lllr lint cl~oiceanlong \ariulls st*n~iconductor memulies for
nr,llp~rl;thl~~ rllrtmnic r?sle!ns i n the &rrcswablrfllturc.
rir illq)m\t. IIC.\KY pcrformann.. the lwl~silimr~ self-aligned gate pmrrss uw pm-
pos<yI1,) i;en\it~el ;<I." in 1969. Tl~isprm~,ssnot only improwd dmin. rrliabilih blrt
.$w wlltoul pcwitir r;~p.lr<tia~ws. Alsn in 1969. the i n v h l o ~ ; e ~ i c c l ~ r ~ tnpm
n i c a ld e p
ritinn \IOO'DI inrll~al\r:r<detrlopd by >l:svaw8il :ual Si~n~son."
t This it a\.?? impor-
1.w rpii;t\ial qo?n\\il~ trclrniqnr for r ~ , m ~ w i ~scmimnducton
nd such as CaAs.
i tint. clr\im <lin~rnsions \wre reduced. the d? etcliing tecl~niqueWIS drveloped
tn n-pl:m-\rrt rllr~ni~xil rtcl~inefor hi~li-lidrlihpattemtmsfer. This tmliniqae \\asini-
tt;hlml by I n i n ~ ral." t in 1971 usinza CFJO: gay n ~ i x t ~to ~ retch
e silicon wafers. Another
imp'RxIt tc.cltniqae de\.cloprd in the same )par b)- ClioA'\\-a molecalar k n m epitay.
Tltix tt.i-lmiqltr hils tllr atl\-,rrrhqeof near-perfect vertical mntml of co~n~osition and dop-
inr rlnua to ;~to!nirr!im?nsions. It is responsiblr for the creation of numemos pllotonic
dc\ims and qaamtum-rffrn dr!in>s.
111 1971. lllr first ~nicmprwssor\t~as made I?\. Hoff r t al..*a.l~o put tile entire cen-
t ~ t pl m r i n x itnit (CPti) of a sirnplr computer on one ellip. It u x a four-bit rnicro-
pnxrssor (1ntt.l -IWl.sllm\n in F i ~ l r e1.5, nit11 n chip size of 3 mm by 4 mm. and it
mnl;~innlTXXO \IOSFETs. It \r;lr fahricatetl by a,>-cl~annelpol!silicon gate pmcess using
1111 j-pni d r s i v n ~ l rThis . micropmssor prrfonned a$well as tllosr in S30n.WO lBhl
mnil>tttrnuf tllr ~ i ~ r19~Xk--e;;rll
ly of\r.hic&needed n CPU the sizz of a large desk. This Figure 1.5 1'1. lint ~ n ~ ~ r r ~ ~ n r(I'l~otrrq;tpi~
~ s r r ~ r ' uuarirsyof lntcl Corp.1
\rxs ;I major I~renkil~rougl~ for tllr sen~icond~rtor i n d ~ ~ s Currently.
tn tl~icropmcessors
m!rctittrtc thp lap~estse:ment of the inrhlstry
Sinw tlw ri~rly1950s. many new tccl~nalogieshave been developed to meet 111 At that ntc, the n~inimumfeature length \\ill shrink to alwttt 50 nni in tlie !Far 1010.
vquirmlmts of ewr-sltrinking minimum feature lengths. Three key tecl~nologiesnr Debice miniat~rriziitionresnlts in m l o n d unit cost prr circuit funnion. For example. tltr
trenclt isolation. rl~rmicalmecl~aninlpolishing. and copper interconnect. Trencli isola cost 1x.r bit of memoly chips 11;11nl\rd s em? 2 !ran for suwssiw genrr.16011~ of DRAM
tion 1 ~ 1 , n o l o\v:s ~ . intrmhlrrd by Rung el al." in 19%' to isolate CMOS dr\ices. This circoits. r\s (levice (linlensions d ~ c r m s rtlrc . intrinsic svitclting time drcre;rc~s.Dcrirr.
:ipprnach rvrnhtally replacml ill1 o t l i ~isolation r mctl~mls.In 19S9. the chen~ic%Imechan- speed has iniprovrd I,? four orden of ma,pit,~des i n e 1959. Hiqhcr spreds lrld to
ictl polisl~in~ n~rll~wl\\:rsd~vrlopedIy Daari n al." far ~lobnlplanarilation ofthe inter- cxpnndrd 1C limctional tllrougl~putrates. I n tl~rf u t ~ t rdi@t:d ~, ICs \\ill be iil>leto per-
Lwrrlirlwtria. ntis k a 1 ; p m ~ r s - for mtdtilmrl metallization. At snd,micron dimensions. form data processing and numrticnl computation at terahit-l)er-semnrl rates. As dc\ims
a \\i~lrlyLnmvt~hilure nlecl~anisn~ is rlrctromigration. wllich is the t n l l s p r t of metal k m e s smnller. thq. consume less p w r . n ~ r r c f n r rdc\im , tniniat>1ri7~1tion:also d u c r s
in- thrnuzlr a rnn<l~tctor d ~ i to
e the passage ofanelectricill current. ~ l t l ~ o u galuminum ll tlw .. olwmtion.
.
..~- m n f used for nicli nvitcltinr!
en
-~~~~ Tltc r n r r dissipntcd
~ pcr Io*c cntc h a
h;a ht-rn used sinm, t l ~ early r 196~1sa% intrrmnnrct n~atrrial.it suffers from electromi- clccrr.lsed I)? over on? million limes sinn. 19%.
$ration at l ~ i q lrlrrtrical
~ amrrrnt. Coppcr intrrmnnect was intmd~lcedin 1993 by .r?imsro
.&,... 1 (icl,n\\r
~ l cmnllmti;~
...... . l.~~~ ~ inerras? oftllr ;tciusl DHA>I rlrrlsih%maslhr !ria
P.IRKZCLI~r t al." to rrplnw nlominurn for minimum1 fnture lengla approaclling 103 "ffint pmlndio,l fWnl ] 9 i i t o 2000. nlr rlrnsi~~incrcscs by a factor o f ? c\m. IS ~nontls.
nni. Tliis I m k mnsidrn all the trcl~nolqieslisted in Table 1.2. [ftrentk mnti,~,,c, DR,\\I dc~~sit).\~iill incn.:~sc lo 8 Gb in tllr!'car20(Li ;ulrl to 64 Ch nrmllld
1IIe 2012. l?iymrc,1.7 s l l m t~l ~eWnentiid
r incw:se ofnlicmpmswr mlllpat*io~;~l
132 Technology Trends tm,Tr, ~ ~ ~pP.cr ~ in~n.;srs~ I,?, a fador
~ o f ? c, S % yIS~ nlollt~ls.
i Cltmnt!\:
~ 3~
~.,.;.,.-1.,1 ,.Y.N,,,,:~Imlnnl,t(.r 1,;~sthe SB~IPmntpatntionnl p w r :s tlut of *ICR4Y I
Sinw htv Ixyinninenftl~rtnicrns!rdmnics e n . tllr smallest linmvirlth (or the minimun
f-.shlrr i~n?lll'
nf:al intrgalrd c i m i l Ilas I w n r e d ~ ~ mntda lilt? ofahlnt 13% per year'
 1.4 Basic Fabrication Steps 4 I 1

Fieurc 1.8 illoshtes the emnth ntmes fordiflewnl lecl~nnlamdriven:" A1 Ute hnin-
ning of tlw nuo~l#m~ ~ I t ~ lem ~ n ~ ~ . tlw bnpl~trt r ~ ~ ~ ~ s u:ts
r ~~1950-lCI:O i s t otltc
r twlt~nol.
om.
,., ~lri%r.r.I.'rnn~ 10711to I!J!XI. tllr DR,\.\l and llw nlivnrnmn.<sorl,:~wl on 510.5 ~ l n i r r r
n r r e tltr t c c l ~ n t ~ l driven
o ~ ; because of tllr npid grnntl~of p ~ n o n a cornpaten
l and

b 1.4 BASIC FABRICATION STEPS

Today planar technologv is used e\iensiveIy for IC Fnhrintion. Fiplms 1.9 and 1.10show
the major steps o f a plnnnr pmcrss. Tllrsr steps isclt~deo\idntion. p l ~ o t o l i t h o ~ petch-
pl~~
ins. ion impl;ination. ned tnrtdliwtian. This r~~clion dcscrilws tlinr steps briefly blow
detailed disrt~ssionscan 1w fol~~lcl in CI~:,pten 3 10 S: Chapter 9 describes lllc inregfit-
tion of tllcsr unit p r w s steps to Torn) sernimnduetor de\iws.

1.4.1 Oxidation
rile rlP,vlopmcnt ],igh.qanlih silimn d i o 6 6 (SiO,) 11% l l c l p l to rsti~hlisl~
the C~OIII-
inane ,,r~i in tllr p m ~ , l ~ i o l , ufmnl~n~mi;il
ICs. (anpnlh SiO, hlnctions as :minculator
 1.4 Basic Fabrication Steps 4 ID

cl
'+LA cn
Mnll

Figun 1.9 lo) A bare n-t?pe Si wafer ib) An a d d d Si wafer hy &y or ~ coddation
t
fr \pplimtiun ofn+rt, tdl Rnin flrr;ure thmqh the mark.
in a number o f d n i m s t ~ c t u r e orar
s a barrier to dflusion or implantation during devil
fahriration. In the fahriation ofap-n junction iFig. 1.9). the SiOI film is used to defir
ole junction awa.
Therr are hvo SiO, methods. dl). and \vet oxidation, depending on whetha
dl). o9yrn or w t e r \ a p r k us&. Dry oddation is usually used to form thin oxides I
a h i m . stnlmlr? h ~ r s of e its eoocl Si-SiO, interfam cl~mcteristin.\vliereas wpt or
dation is a d for tl~ickerla!~rs l m u s ~ of * its higher p \ t h rate. F i p r e 1.90 sllows
sfMon of a haw Si w f e r T C : Ifor I ~ oddation. Aftcr the oddation prapss. a SiO, layer
formed all owr the a l f e r surfam. For simplicity, F i ~ r 1.91,e shmm only the upper su
faw of an oxidi7~d~ ~ f v\lore r . details on oddation ma!. he found in Chapter 3.
Figure 1.10 ( 0 )Thr \clfer after the drwlopment. lh) Thexalcr aRer SiO, remud. (c)The
final result aftcr a complete lithngraphic pnxrrs. (d!A p-r jtnnclian is farmed in the diffusion
or implantation pmcsr. ( r )Thc >raferafter inctdlintion. (fi A p-r, junction lner the romplcte
pmcrssc's.
Photolithography and Etching
Another technology, calledphntolitlmogra~rlmy,is used to define thegeometry of thep-n
junction. ARer the fonnntion of SiO,. the wafer is coated \rith an ulha\iolet ( W l
liglit-sensitive ninterid d l m l apholnmivl. which is spun on thewnler surfacehya high-
GWPA -r
I - -
winner. ARenvard (Fig. I.*). the mafer is baked at about 80°C to 100°C to &\?
the solv<.nt oul of the resist and to harden the resist for imnpmpd ad~esion.
FigIre 1.91 shoua the next step. ~vhichis to e.xpose the &r tlvough a pttemml
mask using a Ul'light snum. The eqmed =@on of the pllotorwistcoahduder under-
- A.
&- i s c~ten~ical ~ x t i o depencIingon
a the Qpeof mist.7he area* to w ~b tm c s
p ~ l y n e ~ and
e d difficnltto remmFein anetchant. Thepohmerized e o n retnainsdnn
the \v.~feris placed in a developer. \\,hem$the unexposed region (under theopaque area)
clissolws a~ld\\il41esaway.
 FiOln 1 . l h il~mr-the \\afer nller the development. The \\?tier is agoin baked tr In this lank. each chapter dmls wit11 II k<.y IC fal,rir;~tionp r m s s strp or s~rlnlpl~n.
111l'c: I,, ISIPC for 20 minutes to enhnnw the adhesion and i~npmvet11e resistancr t~ o f s t ~ ~ )l:ncli
s . c11aptt.r is prcsrnted in a clnlrnnd cohrrent f:ahion \*tl>on~tl ~ c n rrliantr
~v
s ~ t l ~ wrtrhing
~ , ~ ~pnxrss.
~ t Then, inn etch I I S ~ I 011lk.red
I~ I~yclrofl~~orie acid (AF) on lllc original litc.r:ltnre. I l n \ % ~ ~erfew
~ r . iallxniant paprn ir? listrrl at tltc r.n'cl ofr:ach
n,rrm\r.< 11w~ ~ s ~ r o Si0:t n t s~~ l r f i w(Fig. l.lW!. h t l y , the rt-sist is stripped a\myby cl~apterfor n.frrrncr and for f ~ ~ r t lrradinp.
~rr
r c1lctnic:d wlnt~ionor an o p S r n pl;uma s!strm. F i g u r ~1.101. shn\n t l ~ efinid rs111t of a
\\?tl,o~toxide (R uindow) :titer the l i t l ~ o p ~ p hpym s s . The wafer is no\\. read!
fi,r fornlinS thrl+n junction hy a cliffusionor ion in~plantationp m s . Photolithnppl~!
.and t.trl,inc sw drsrrihrcl nlorr thnrn~l<hlyin C h a p t ~ n4 and 5. respctively.
...u^ru+ctmnlc.\lnrkef IhDo," B ~ n kElmm!~
. lnd. Asur.. \\:rhinetoa. IIC. 2MO
1.43 Diffusion and Ion Implantation Ind. Tnl~nnl.Ai5. In?l.,Il.indtu, T ' x n . ZOO.
"lltrtrd in S. .\I I. Sa,.Ed.. .%nrlurnd~~rfor
k l c n Rnvrdnc
l , senlimnductor surfam not protected by the oxide is expo!ied
I" rhr (liflwion s ~ r t l l ~tlre
to;, sonme rrilh a hiell concvntration ofopposite-typ? ilnpt!rih The impurity mo\r,s il1tO 4. R. K.Sp.Corn1,fNr Ctrirlr 10 Smllmnar,rror mmlc<r. YFCnr-trill. Scrv York 1w5.
the wnnimntlucturcnJt;il h sulid-st21te diffusion. 111ion in~plmtation.tllr intended i ~ n1u- l 5. F Dmun.-Ulxr die Stmmleilu*ngduwh Scl>>\clrlmcldc~: A n n N>yrC h m ~151.554
. (18741.
rityis intmluct~linto thr semiconductor hy awleraling the impuric ions to a high e a r'3
6. H. J , nmmd. 'A N o s on Carbmrmclutn: U'arun. l s d d . 19, SY) ilwi!.
Iewl ant1 then impl.mtieg the ions in the srrnicond~storThe SiO, la!w sen.es .u a bar-
rier to i m p ~ ~ r(liITwio~~
iy or ion irnpl.mtiation. Alter the difilsior~or in~plantationpm. 7 . J. Rmltw and \\'. H. Rnttdn. 71wTnnsislor,nSrrnlmndtnnnr Ttiodr:Pl~!,r. Rm.. 71. %NiIPllii.
m s . the .IM ,iunction is formed. as shown in Firmre L.IM. Due to lntrrd diffusion ~ , l l ~ w nof,"
8. IF S l ~ o e MThe . June d u d o n mrl lw ~unnionTmri.sfan: 8 4 syrr
t~nl>unt~e< or 1.1tecds t n ~ l ofttnplant<.d
e ions. 111,. ~ d t ohI ' t I ~ ~ . ~ ~ - r eisp solni c l ~ ttlr~v Te1t.I.. 28, 435. 119191.
tlun the \<?nclo\v openin<. Diffttsa~\;,ad ion i ~ n ~ l ; u ~ r a arc t b odisct!s5ed
~~ in C:I\;~pter 8 J. Ebm. 'Fo~~rTcrmlna1~wr-p-n TNni,torr''Pm. IRE. 40. I361 119i21.
and 7. rr.specti\vly, 10. D. Sf. Chapin, C. S. Fcrllrr mcl C.I. Pmmn. 'A Sm. Silirnn p-n Jlnnnion Pl~nlocellfor Compnirlc
Solar Rrrlirtion il~loElrrttinl Pmsrr-J. i\l~l,lPhhyr. 25.676 i I Y 3 1 .
11. !I. Kmrmcz Tllrnr).ofn\\iclr-Gap Emitter forTc~nriston: Pm. IRE. 45. 1535 (1957).
1.4.4 Metallization
I?. L Eub. " S w Phrnomcnon ill Sam~~Grrmoniu!~>p-n J~~nrlinnr.'Pl~p.
Rn.. 109. rfi3 (1931.
.\ftrr difircion or ion implanlation. ;I m~,l$lizationpmcess is uwd to form ohlnic cont;l,L,>
13. D. Kdmgand M. 51. Aldla Tilimn-Silimn Diotick S u d k ~ Dnicc:in . IRE Dcvirr Rrrrarln
and i n t r n o n n ~ t ~ oIFbe ..
. \.;*nordew%ition
~ l r L.lOr). \ktd films can Iw formed IIV d~\sic.~l
or chemical \apor deposition. The p l ~ o t o l i t l ~ o p ~phay s s is again used to define the
. Ca iTl~rp p r n n l r lo~rldin Be(. 3.1
Confirmrr. P i l ~ . h u r J ~19
14. R. Yu. ct td..'tS nm Gat? h.nmll Pimar CIlOSTmntisloi lEEE IEDW Trclrnlml mgen. \Ihhinson.
fmnt mntact. \vhich is sltmvm in Figure 1.1% A similar metallimtion step is performed on
.-~ DC. p. 937 iZWI1.
the back m n h a rrithout udne a lithmphsprorrss.
. . .. Nonnallv. a lmv-temwrahlre (<.-%I'
anneal aaukl dw be perfokecl to promote low-resistan& contacts L h w e n the mt
15. R. S. Ilrll. el al.. 'Cohewet L i ~ h Erniction
l fmm C.& Juttnionr:l%p. Rn.. It!,.. 9.366 119621.
16. $1.Kmrmrr:A Pmp im,jtmnninn InFlicrn Lwlrrrs: Pnx. IEEE. 51, l i b 2 iIW31.
Ia!rn and the senlimnductor. Uetallimtion is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
-(3,- OW.').
17.1. A l k . m n n d R. F. Ki o n d l ~ l o hr w r \ ~ i l l tElwitiol P~rrnpinx: US.S.R. Patc.nt 181.

r 1.5 SUMMARY 18.J. 8. Cunn. -~ficm\m\~w O~lllrliun~ ofCt#mnlin Ill-\'Srmirnndanun.~S~M Slnrr Cmma8m.. 1. &I
%miconductor devices h a w an enormous impact on our society and the global econom! (1Sii3).
brcause they sewe as the fnundntion ofthe largest industry in the world-the electron 19. R. L Jolmrton.B. C. Dekla. jr. and n. C. Calm.-A Sil'imn Dicx(x(, .\(icnnmr~M U ~ N : &I1 SI(*I.
i a industr). Tech.].. 4.1.369 1ILK5).
This intmducton. chapter has presented a historical r o i e w of major semicondt~cto 20. C. A. Atead. -Seholth. B,unr.r G ~ l Firld
e E a r t Trmsi~lar'P r w IEEE. 5.1. MYI:i I W ? ) .
dmices. from the first stutly nf the metal-semiconductor m n t a d in 1874 to the iabricatio~
ofan ultrasmall 15-nm hlOSFET in 2001. O f particular importann are the invention o
the hipolar trmsistor in 1947, which ushered in the modem electronics era: the devel
opnient of the hlOSFET in 19fiO. whiclr is the most important d m i n for integrated cir
cuir: and the invention of the nonwlatile semiconductor Inenlory in i%i, wl~ichha
h w n the technolog\. driver of the electronin indust? since 1990.
This chapter also described key semimnd!~ctortechnologies. The origins of tlt,ese
trchnolo$es m n h t r a e d hack as far a%hm millennia. Of particular importance are
< l w l o p n ~ e noft the l i t l ~ o p p h iphotoresist
c in 1957, which estaMished the \?sic pan,
tmmfrr p m s s for semimn;luctir deices: the in\rntion of the integrated circuit i;l 1 9 ~ ~
ulwch wu wminal to th- npid . .ero,rtl~ of the micmelectronia industn.:,. and the
.~~~
dwel ~

oprnrntt of t l ~ eDRAN in 1967 and the n ~ i c r o p m s s o in r 1071. which constitute t111

h\n Iaq-t spmnrnts of the sen~icantl~rctor industry
1' ib b duprw I.Introduction
aI
,
(
-
,
2' Fh:, ,'!,<",
I , ~ J J I-I:,,,
. -arrn
9% 21".lY1%1.
mr ~ I , ~ I I,kr
, , ~~ t i r t d l i * ; l t i o ~ ~ ~ w c I ~ ~drr

p \r R,,,(~.,,~, -c,.nvn PI,,*I,~p~mprmw sinqlcCnstdr o l m q r t m . .Antimom): Rbmufb.

.I..!I~~~,,,,
~~i.lil,lllln.
?AIC. i~nd
'Ill>.-Pnx A,,). . d . . l * r W . 60. 303 11925).
~ i n.Vetdlr.*
di~)R~i~

d 2
CHAPT

,n11 \I;.I\,.~ -i'h..sru.11Jrlritc.n~k~ \i.rhIndnngen.- Z Snllrrlomh. 7% 744 ( I s % ) .

.il . nrl. .l'rll.r DiiT~~tion.-~nn.
2 .!r c Nmn.
Nlyr Lp:. 170.59 IlW!.
.s,.mkunduaor S i ~ Tntnrlnans
d Do*..- 11.S. hllrnt ?.59:.mq iI(152). ~ r y s t aGrowth
l
,a j &nilnl,. -~.~hnc-rtmn olsrm~crmrl~mor Dt-im: US. P.1tcn13.1B.Rl7 (filnl 1s;; p n l d 1W).
3 c 1, F&, -,I 1. I)P,,~&,-SU&Y ~ k ~ r r t i o n Sc,lmiw Ulckinp duriq Diffwion in Stlimn.'
U l n n r h m . L x . IOI. 5l7 i1957).
.35 s s Sh,fid. S . Kobririh.dA.\. Kntilm,-Crm~thafSi~pl~~C~rtd in)?rrnfSllimn and
~ - . ~ , , ~ ith.-Y~pr ~ ~ ~ I'l,av; Rtrll A m 1 Sc( L~.S.S.R. Phyr Srr. 21, 140 00571.
T h e hvo most important semimnductors for rliscretr d e r i m and i n s p t e d circuits are
if, \\' SLoeLln. Tominq S~tnimncltmnr
Dniw lonk Bo!nlunlmmt.' US. P3tml2.7S7.56.I (I=). silimn and gnllit~~n arscnide. This chapter descrilxs tlw mrnnam trchniques for e r m i n e
2: 1 S. h l l h -1mmlron oltllr istqnlrd Cimtit.- IEEE Trnns. Urermta I k c F s . ED-93,646 (19761: singlr c y t a l s of t h ~ s te\ w semimnductors. The h a i c process flow frnm starting matr-
I' s P.a,.ot 3.li9.743 ~ P n lu59,
l pntrd lW1 rials t o polisllrd wafers is sho\\n in Fiarre 2.1. The startine m a ~ e r i a l s ~ i l i mdiosidr
n for
3, R S Sqtr. .Scmimndu<tor lhimmd.Lrad Slmnum.- U.S. RIcnt 2,(191,8ii (filed I s 9 ; prontcd a silimn \vafer. and gallium and arsenic lorn galli~rmarsenide anfrr--re chrmically pm-
1*11.
? J. .4. llcrmi.-Pfannr S~liconTr-ton m l Di&: IRE b r . U M m n B r i m >I?#., \Vshlngton. DC
. ,.
wssed to form a ~liell-narih~ool\mn~talline
~. . , " .
sernimnd~rctorfmm \vhiclt sinele cn.itds arc
gro\wl. The sin Jr+qslal ingots are s l ~ a p r dto define the diameter of the material and
I IW are a t t e t l into \vafers. Thcse unfers are elcltctl and plislted to p m d d c smootl~.spml-
40 F \I. \btm .md C T. S&. -sanwlrt Lqio UrillgFirhl.ENcd blrtd.O~de.%mimndunor Iar surfaces upon a.lticlt devices will be made. This cllspter m r r n tlle fnllm~iingtapin:
Ttinl-: T-1, I)I: IEEE 1.1. Ldi,l.Yn!c Cimrir Ccr?{,p. 32 (IW!.
B a i c tecl~niqursto gro\v silimn and Gu\s single-cvstJ ingots
41 R. > I Lkntunl. -Field Efft" Tnnmtor \lrmory" U.S. Palrnl3.3%7.%6(film1 1967: g ~ l l r IlW ) .
\\'afer-shaping steps from ingots t o plislted \~-fers
42 R. E. K r n ~ i n D.
. L lilcin. .md J. C. Lmw. -hlrtllal lor hfabing XIIS Slmc3arc.' U.S. Pntenl3.475.234
,1m,. \\'afer charactelimtion in tenns of its e l e a r i d and mechanical pmpe~ties
* 7 11. >I. \Isnr-il and.!\! I. Lmpmn. 7 h c Uw olMetd.Orgmie in lhc P~cpnntionofkmimnductor
>Iatc.ti~l%.I. Epitslld CrlLunl-\'Compounds:]. UrrrmrBem. S r . 116. 17% il%39I.
U.S \t. Ininq. K. E Lrmanr. and C. E. B o b . *CsPk-ma Vapor Etdkit* P m a : U.S. Paten1
D.615.W ;19711.
.&. Y.Cho. 'Film i k ~ i t i o I,?
6. n >lnlnuhr Beam T-hniqur:] I'm. W. T ' t d . 8.S31 09il).
4G lltr immlm d l b m ~ l~n o p m l o r arc W. F.. HOBF, Fogin. S. Yarar. and 2.1. Shimn. For a profile of
\I. E lloR w*. Pmtmit? In S i l h R. Shtrr. p. lii. YIT Press. Camhtirlp. 1%7.
47 R. Rune 11. Yomow. and Y~Szgahlh. TkepTmeh lrolvld CMOS Dr\icrr.- Ted,. Cfg, IEEE Inl.
U s a mhm r .!lrrt. p. 237 119'121.
45 R. D;n?m. d d.. 'A SMPlra%tintianTcrhttiqur., U11ng n Comhinllion of RlE md Chrmld
> I w h m l Poli'h ICYPI: Trrlt. D i g IEEE In,. Urnmn &,ins h f m . p. 61 (1959).
49 1. I'n~awm~k.
el d..-lli,ch Pc&m.mw Diclwirin and P-sw for ULSl lnlrrmnncdion
Xvhnolwn.' Tmh Die. IEEE lnf Flmmn D w l n , >fro.. p. 2fil (IW).
50. Tldr Inrrmnlimol Twhndoin/ Rmrlmpfm Srminmdt,dm. Srmimndt~+or
Ind. A m . . San Jmc. 1999.
51. >I=nroh:Fl*h Llrmnn.Technol~: Pnx Inr. Urerrnn Dcr<cz$Zfarpr Symp.. S. Hdndtu.
T+
. tlW1

\*;lkr
Figure 21 Pnxr.is Om*.fm~nstarting material to lr~lirl~nl
 7
2.1 Silicon Crystal Grmmh from the Melt 4 21

Nrnv, the rcnlnining \\,\.rigl~t

of tllc mclt is .\I,,- dl. and the c l ~ ~ i n ~ c o n w n t r a t in
i o tllc
n
liquid (by a~right).C,, is @\.iS11IF

Cornhining El'. 5 nnrl6 and substitl~tingC,/Cl = I ; , yields

C i \ m the initid weigl~tof the dopant. C,,\l,,. \vc can intrpnte Eq, 7:

Soldng L.,. .. .., ,-ml)ining with Eq. 6 gives

Fi,gure 2.4 illustrates t l ~ doping

r distrihetion ns a furwtion oftlle [r~ctionsolidified (l(Jf/,\I,)
for sevrrd segregation mficients?' As cr)std gmulh pmgresses, the compmition ini-
tiall? at k,,Cn\sill increaqe continually for k,,c 1 and decrease continually fork,,> I. \ \ l ~ e n
k,, E 1. R uniform impurih distrihation can be obtained.

R p a 23 XYCmm 1 I2 in.) and UW-mnl (16 in1 C7achrdslri-grm\nrilimn ineots. (I'hoto m u b EXAMPLE 1
t c w of Shin-Et-I H.mtht.i Cs..li,Ly>.) A silimn incot. which shottld contain 10'" lnmn stornskm'. is to be grmn by the C,cchr;rlrb 1 ~ ~ 1 3
nique. \\laat mnrcntration of l n m s atoms sho<~lrl bc in the melt to gitr the reqtrinvl c~mwntm-
TABLE 21 Eauililwium Sesmsation Cwfficientsfor Oo~antain Silicon lion in the ingot? If the initid load of rilimn in ihr mnril,le is M kg. hm\, mans .wms of k ~ m n
(atomic \\right 10.81 slto~xldlr iddcd? V I P density of molten silimn is 2.53 glcm'.

SOLUTlON Tal,lt. 2.1 shmvs that the s e p p t i n n melEdcnt I;., for boron is 0.8. \Vc nwlmc that
C, = L,C, thmuphout the p l h . Thus. tbr. initid mnwntntion of lnmn in tllr melt should be
lo1^
-
0.8
= 1.25x101^homn .~lom-lcm'

Sin- the amount ofhomn rnnwntntion ir u,small. thp \r,lo~!nrof mrlt can ht.wln~lrtrdfront
thc weight of silicon. filerrk,r<.. thlc \nhnrnr of ((n ksof silicon is

-=
60x10' 2 . 3 7 ~I O ~ C ~ '
2.53
The total the mclt b
Consider a cnxtal !wing pow fmm a melt hadng an initial w e i k ~ J1.witl1 t an ini-
tial dopine concvntntion C,, in the melt he.. the wriqht of the dopant per I g of ntelt).
:it a S\I.I, point of ~ r m v t hu.lten a cnlstal of weight .\I Ilaq heen ~ro\<ql.
the antaunt of
. ..v........ n'x2.37xI0'cm'=2.96~10~honm atoms

clqxu>tn.nlaj~lingin thr mrlt thy\\eigl~t)ir S For an incwnlrntal itlrlount oftltr cnstal so that
~ 1 1 \vcielbt
1 (4s)
d l . the < n m s p n d i n , qre(ltmion of the clopant fmn, 11s melt is C.r/,ll.
\vI>rrp C , i s tl~r chpine cancrntntion in the cnskll (I>?u,e$hti:
4
~nvnllamount oflnmn needed to d o y sllrll it brpe hwd of rillc~*l.
tr b Cbronr 2 C w a l Growth 21 Silicon CwalGrowth from the Men 4 23

Figurn 25 Doping clislrihtntion near the did-melt intc+ee

where D is the dopant diffusion coefficient in the melt, v is thr c n s t d p x i h velwih

and C is the lo pi rig concentration in tlie melt.
The solution of Eq. 1 1 is

Figm24 Cunpr for p i h
titnaion of the fmc(ion rolidifid.'
\\,liere A , and A, are constants to be determined I)y the houndan conditions. n i e first
houndaryconrlition is tliat C = C,( 0 )nt x = 0. The sccond honnrlnn~mnditionis lhr mn-
s r w ~ t i o no f t l ~toktl
r ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ l r r o l t ltl1:lt
o p nis.tl~es~tnioftl~cch)~.mt
nts: l l ~ ~ ~t11e
r sinter-
~t
face niust In. mro. Rw~mnri~lerine ~, tllr ~lifft~sion of~lonnnl~ t o ~ in
n -t11rmrlt .n(.eh%6ne
"
diffi~sionin the solid). \ve Imve
fmm the melt shmring the doping mnmntratian in a solid as a

Substituting these boundary conditions into Eq. 12 and noting that C = C, at x = 6giei\~s
21.4 Effective Segregation Coefficient

\\lrik the crystal is W n s . dopants rnconstantly being rej&ed into Ole melt (for I;,> 1).
If the rejection rate is higher than the rats at which the dopant can he transported awny
hy diffusion or stirring. then a concentration p ~ l i e nwill
t develop at the interface. ac illus-
trated in Figure 2.5. The segregation coefficient (given in Section 2.1.3) is k,,= C,/C,(C
\Ye can define an effrrtivc x p q a t i o n mcffident k,. which is the ratio of C, and the imp)
ri& concentration far a m y from the interfaw:
The doping mstnnrlnon in the crystal is given hy the a n t e c.,l,rt.>.nv,, .s in Eq. 9. eswpt
that k, is rcplawd !)I k,. \'slues ofk. are laqer than tl~oseolk,,and can appmicl~1 for
I q r values oftlie gm\v~liparanietrr vS/D Uniform dnping rlistribution (k. + I) in the
cqstal cm Ix obtained hy emplqving a higli pull cite and a lmv mc~tioas p n l (sinm 6
Consider a sniall. \irtuslly stapant l a y of melt \\<th uidth S in which the only flow is invrndy pmportionnl to the mtation s p e d ) . r\notherappmncli to acliievt. 11nifon11dop-
is that n q u i d to replace the cqstal k i n g uitlidra\m fmm the melt. Outside this stag- ing is to add ultrapure pol>~mtnllinrsilicon mntinuously lo tile lnclt so that the illitial
nant layvr. the dopint conwntntion ha< a constant value CI. Inside the layer. the dop- doping concentration is maintninetl.
IIIC mncvritration a n k drscrihrd h\. the stea~ly-statecontinuiF equation:
 2.2 Silicon Flost.Zone Pmcerr 4 25

* 2.2 SILICON FLOAT-ZONE PROCESS

so that
I
11 Lu a s 4 to q \ v silimn that l e r ~ lower mntalnin;ltion than tllat
Tllrf?<xrf-:~,r>
tw~n~~.%!l\~ Ilr ~ r , ~ - I ~ r n tterl~niqar.
l & i . i scl~e~~latic srhlp of t l ~ rflot~t-zone I&=j dS
(ICn)
o!tt . , C,,P.IA -(k.s!L)
p n x r v ic .;In< n. ?.fin. A liigI~-~urih ~ n l ! ~ s t a l l i nmil
r with a sred cnstnl at
\vIlew S,,= C,,p,,ALis the antount ofclopant in the rnne wllcn it first fnnnrtl at tllr
:I,,. 1,~ttnrn IS z ~ r t c turt .I xrtiind pnsitiou ;utd mtstc~l.The md is i.ncIosr~lin aquartz enw- frnnt end of t l ~ crod. Frnni Eq. I&, w r oljtain
!,r \\ltl~in\vl!idt IVI inrlf a t r n ~ ~ ~ l(arqon) l e w b tnaintxind. During the operation, a small
n,,qr , . Ii , ~ u . ~ n t i , , , ~int m1~1ictl11 oftltr cp31:tl is kept molten I? i~ rxlio-freq~~e~~cy iRF)
Ilc.ttPr.wltirh is inn& fmnt 1111.scwl up\ranl co 1l1;1tt l ~ i s j l m t i t traverses ~ ~ ~ : ~the ~ lengt.111
tht. rnl. nlf. n~r!ltrnsilicon is wklincd hy surklff tetlsion iwhveen tbe nleltillg ar-'
v n r i r )rolid-dlirnn
~ inn?. h the floatir~qzone mows up\rnnl, single-cnstd silicon f n w
.n tI,v ronv\ retw.ttin< md x i d p \ v s :san extmsion of tbe seed cnxtal. hlaterials \vi
hiSI,,,r misli\iti~scnl Ir ohtain~y{fmm the float-zone p m s s than frnm the Czncllral!
~ n u Iw:~nre ~ q the fornler GIJI hr used to pt~ri&the cnstal inow easily Furtliern~o~
1 1 t t y 110 cntcihlr is ux'd in thr flatt-zone p m ~ s s there . ic no contamination from t Since C. (the (loping concentration in the c y t a l at the wtreating end) is given hy C. =
.rucihle (;s \\ill) C,ncl~~&liqmvih). ,\t the present time, float-zone cr)~txlsarc. us, kJSIAp,&). then
n.unlv for hinh-prn\rr. Ili~It-\nltage:edcwic~s. ultrre high-resistivity materials are wquirf
TC,r\;llrnatc tllr (lopinS dicmhution ofn flmt-zone prorrss. consider a simplified niorlel. C. = ~ , [ l - l ( l - k ~ ) - ~ " " ] 08)
;~c shrnrn in Fiqurp .'.MI. The initial trlnifon~tdoping concentration in the rod is C, ( 13). Figure 2 . i shows t l ~ edoping concentration versus t l ~ esolidified zone lengtll for\arious
\rrielttl. L is t l ~ lenzth r ofthe molten zone i1t a distance x along the m l . A is thc croFS- S li,.
V ~ L I P of
spainnd areaof thv m l . p,, ic the specific d~11sityofsilicon,and S is tlie aniolmt ofclopacnt These hvo crystal p n t h tecliniques can a l a he used to remove imparitics. A rnm.
resent in tI18e molten zone. i\s tlie zone tmverses a distance dr. the amount of dopa parison of Figtre 2.7 wit11 Figure 2.4 shows that a s i n ~ l epass in the flost-mne p r w r r
ddnl to it at 11s:~d\:,nnn?end is (: .p,,Adr a l t ~ n x Ill.? s ;llnount ofc!op.int n.tllo\.cd trc does not pmluce as much p~~rilintion nc a single Czwl~nlskip \ \ t h . For example. for
ti11 tI,e rplm~tsn?vtnl rs I , SddLI.~ I I C * R .I , a llte r&divc. ~cyrqalioll mefirtent. Tllt k, = k. = 0.1. C,/C,, is smaller over nlost of the solidified ingot made by the C d t n l s k i
grm~tli.How'ever, multiple float-zone pacses can be prrformrd on a rod muell more ear-
ily than a cnstal can hr grnvn. the end region cropped on. and rrgm\cn fmm the zs~lt.
F i g ~ r e2.8 sho\vs the itxipurity distribution for an element \ i t h b,. = 0.1 anrr a nun~lxr
of succrssive passes of the lane along t l a length of the ml.' Note tl~attltcrr is a sub-
stantial reduction of impsrity conffnlrntion in the mil after each pns. Tl~rreforr.the
float-zone process is ideally suited for c y t d purifimtion. n ~ i pmcess
s is also died tlte
zort~-,$nii~g techniqt~r.\rllirb cnn prn\idc a "3. I~igllpurity Inelof the raw materid.
If it is desirable to dope the rod nther than purify it, m ~ ~ s i dthe e r a q e in \vhicIr all
the dopants are introduced in the first lane (S,, = C,Ap&) and thr initial mtlcentratio~~
C, is negligibly small. Equation l i gives
Rf mil -0

Since C, :

Therefore, if k@L is small. C, \vill renlain nearly constant tvitl~distnncr ex* at t l ~ e

rnd that is last to solidi(v
.For crrtain mitching d~\ices,s ~ t cas l ~lti,e,lk-\olt;lge tb!~iston. large clip arms arp
quently an entire \,.;~fcrfor a singlr de\ice. This size impuses stringent mlllire.
the uniformity of the starting material. To obtain ltoo~yeneousdistribution of
I float-aoae silicon slim tllal 11:s a11 avemgc doping conceiltntion wvll I~lav
...,,,.l...,ed a~rlountis izsrd. T l ~ slice
c is then irradiated with thennal neutrnss. This pm-
t wss, c~lledt~nrtmnirmdiation. givrr rise to rractiond tnmsm~~tation ofsilicon intoplms-
1. lh) pllonrs ancl dopes the silimn 11-1)p:
RF 26 flmt-nmrbpnxvw In1 Schematic rrhlp fbl Simple, m d r l lor dopine nalt~ation
 2.3 GaAs Crystal Growlh Techniques 4 27

I
I
1
c,;c,>=
1 .(I 4 . b I..'''.
T , ,= I 6.r ull c.a~n-.r

Solidifinl mne lmptlt' df,

irnpuri? concentration rrmtr ,me lensh for a numnkr dpnrw. 1.
Figure 28 R~el:~tivr
~ l ~ ~ n othe
l c r7onr lcn#l,.'

""I / 1 I I I I l l I
(e.g., "lid, liquid, or gaseous) in which a material may exist. Al~lto.~c flingram shmvs thr
I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9
~lationsllipbrhveen the h \ a m ~ n p n e n t s .gallium and anenic. .lc n h~tlctionof tern-
Salidinrd zont. b.nsfla dl. pefilture.
Figun U Cllnr.~for ihr float-mne p-sr shm\ing dr~pin~conccntmtion
in the solid as a Figure 2.10 sl~owsthe p b a e d i a p n i of the pllitlan-:~nenic ? s l ~ n l .The ahscissa
hlnaion of wlhlificd mne ltqths.' rrpresents \-drious mlnpsitions oftlle h%'n mlnpnents ill ternls ofatomic percrnl (!rnK"?
scale) or perrrnt (upper scale)." Considrr a rrlelt that is initidl!, ofmn~position
x (e.g.. 85 atomic percent arsenic, nr sho\vn in Fig. 2.10). \\'11en tile t e ~ n p r e ~ t ~isllow-
rr
The 11;Jf-lifeo f t l ~intrrmnliate
r rlrrnrnt Si:: is 2.62h o ~ l nBemuse
. t l ~ epenetntion depth l the liquidus line is rcacl~ed.At cllr Flint iTi.x).
ererl, its mmposition will rrlnain k x ~until
of nrutrnns in silimn is alnot 100 cnl, doping is v e n lmifonn tllrnuklo~~t the slice. of50 ~ t ~ npercent
~ i c arsenic (ir.. galliuln anenide) uill I v e n to solirlifv.
F i p m 2.9 mmparcs t l ~ latrnl
r rcsistibih disirib~~tionsi n con\.c*ntionallydo~xulsilimn and
in ~ i l i ~ dojxul
,n I? neutmn irn<lintion.'Sotr that t11r rrsisti\ity \anations for the neu.
tmn-imaliatrd silirnn are lnuch smaller tllitn 1110s~for tile mnvcntio~~idly d o p l silicon. b EXAMPLE 2
riprr2.10, consiller a ~ f i n i t immporilios
~l C,. (\\vi!$>lprm,nl w;*l*,)
th;ll is nxllwl f n m ~
T*(on ill,. li,l,,i~l,,s !in<!)10 Find 11,e lctclion of IIK melt thi8t nit1
T,,. wlidific~~.
2.3 GaAs CRYSTAL GROWTH TECHNIQUES
23.1 Starting Materials SOLLmON At T,. 11, is ihr urixht of thc listlid. ,\I. is thr w i $ l t of llw wlid (i r... G.&I. and C!
C. the r,,nwn~mtions"f dopant in thr liquid and ihr rcllid. rrspvclivt.ly. !..~r.n.lort,. ihc
Tllr starlint iniatrrid%for thr s\ntl~esisn i lnlycnmmllin~gallium anenide arc the ele- ,vrieh~s,,fnnrnir in (Ilr liqurl ilnll ~ l i inns
~ AI,C,
l ;md .\l,C.. rerpcli\r.!\- Rrc*t~rr ~ I I I ' Ink11urrenic
ntrnt.d. rl~t.n~ic~lly ~ I I p~l lPi ~ ~ l ;ln<l
l r :trsrnic. B r c ~ ~ l gdliem
se arsenidr is a mmbinalion
I)( hvo t~li~tvriids, its Ivl~it\ioris ilifferrnt imm tll;d of :I single materid slncl~ns silicon.
TIM.I r l r s m r of 3 mrnl,in;tti<m mn hr dt.scriln.l I,? a p h a r cliagrarn. A ,>lmav~ is n state
 23 G a b Cvfiul GrmhTschnlguss 4 29

md I are 1l1clmgths of lh. Ix\n lines meanwed fmm C., s~the liquic
.-.,-.-...cly As o n lw swot fnrm Fiplnrr2.10. alnntt I ( ~ . o f t h mrlt
r is w,lhl

Unlike silimn. whicl~h a a relatively lo\<-vaporpr~sstnreat its melting point (apprr,r-

irnately 104atm ;a 1412'C). arsenic has much higller wpor pwssurrs at the meltingpoin~
o f g d l i ~ ~mmn i d e (1240°C). In its wpor phae. awnicllas ,\s, and&, a s i major~ ~ spreies.
Figure 2.11 slaws the vapor prcss~~res of galliu~nand anenic along the liquidus curve?
Also S I I O for ~ ~mnip.*nn is the vapor prcss~~re of silimn. The v a p r pressun, cunpr lor
gallium m n i d e are double valued. n ~dvlled r runes arc for arsenic-rid, gallium arsenide
melt (riglit side of liquidus line in Fig. 2.10). and the solid cunrr are for &Iiurn-richgal-
lium arscnide melt (left side ofliquidw line in Fig. 2.10). I! ,isa larger amount
of arsenic in an arsenic-rich nielt than in a gaIliam-licl~rn ;enic 0% and As,)

&rn 29 (olT ~ i lateral

d rerirlhiirit).m o u a o n m a eonwntionally doped silimn. fh)Silimn
dnprd neulm imliation.'

Atomic 5 m m i e Fipurs I11Panid pressam of gailitr~nand arrenic o w r rdlium m n i d c ar a fun*ion af tern.

fipnrZl0 Phaw &amm for the yallium-nmnk .sytcm.' pmtnw.' Also ~ho\vnis the partid pressnm olrilimn.
-
30 Chsptrr 2. Cryrml Gmwlh 2.4 Material Characterization 4 31

,,.il h. ,..,,,,,"A tllr arsenicrich melt. thus resulting in a lligllermpor pressllre. 1

,,,,,i~.,~ .,rru,errrt the Iliglrer \;vpor pressure of gallium i n a ~Ilium-rich
rT~ai,~
sot,.tll;+t lullc Ir,fure the mt4ting point is r e ~ r h ~the l , surface lilyen of liquid ~allios
.ir\rr)i<l,*!nil\. drmn~poseinto e;~lli~tni and arsenic. Brcnase the \"dpor press~lresof gal
hill,r :wnic:mSR.tiNerpst. 1)~.rris a preferential loss of the more \vlatile arsenic s p i e r
;utJ the liquid k o n ~ r galliutn
s ric11.
X,5~i\lltlt~siz~g:~Ilium;trsmidr, an encuated, sealed qttartz hlbe s)stem wit11a hvo
tl.aepr.li,~w htn~arris c ~ n ~ m ounsld~. Tlie high-purity arsenic is placed in a graphit$
bo:,t anrl l~eatrrlto 610DCto 620°C. \rfIlereasthe l~igI~-poritygdliue~ is placed in mothe
vtphite boat ;mid heated to slightly above the gallit~rnnrsenide melting temperaton
, I ? - I ~ L I ~ ~ ~Undrr
O ' C ~tl~ese
. mnditions. an ovprprrssore of arsenic is cstablislled (a) t~
m l s c the tm~cportofalr*nic\-aporto thegdliun~itlelt. mnvertingit intogalliunl arsmide
anrl ihr to prevent dnun~positionof the g~d1i11m anenide wl~ileit is being formed in 111,
fi~rn:~ce. \\hen the nielt cools. :t high-puritypolycqstalli~~e gallit~marsenirlr resolts. Tlti
s e w s ar tile raw matetell to grow single-crystal ~alliumarsenide.'

232 Crystal Growth Techniques

There are h\o tecl~niquesfor Cmk cqstal growth: tbe C~ocbralskitechnique and t h
Bdcrnon tt~ltnirpre..\lost gallium menide h p \ n by the Brirlpm tecl~nique.Have\.e~
Figure 212 Bridgman tcchniquc for grwing sinelr-c~~tal
gallium mnidc, nncl a trmpmturr
tllr C ~ o c l ~ d trcltniqor
sk is more popular for the growth of larger-diameter Garb ingob profile of the itln,;lc+.
For Czochralsk ero\rzl~of galliun~arsenide, the basic puller is identical to tl~atlo
nbwn Hm\.twr. tupn,\rnt drmmpition of thr mrlr cl~~ringcn.it.d p \ \ l l l , a Lqllid ennp
atlrtlon n ~ r t lis~rnmlm~l.
~ ~ ~ al . Thr ltnui~lrncansul;mtis ;I 111oltrnlmmn tnoude (R.0.1 . ,. la\?
, Figure 2.12 shows a Bridgman system in wl~icl~a hvo-7nne furnam is uspd for g m -
about 1 cm thick. Xlolten lmmn trioxide is inert to the -galliuni anenide surface and senre ing single-cnst~lgallinm arsenide. The left-hand zone is held at a temwratore (anoror-
w amp to m e r t l ~ melt.
e This cap prevents demmposition ofthe gallirlm arsenide a Ion:
a the oressure on its surface is hieher than 1 atm (760 Torr). Because boron hioxide ccal
"
~ ~

0
v .
di.wlve silicon dioride, the fieed-silicacrueihlc is replaced with a graphite cmcihle. is made ofquartz, and the boat is made ofgr~pldte.In operation, the boat is loadrd\rith
To ohtain the desired doping concentration in the grown ctytal of GaAs. cadmiun a charge of po1ycr)l;talline gallir~marsenide. \\it11 the arsenic kept at the other end of
and .dnc are commonly used forp-hpe materials. \vhere.u selenium, silicon, and telluriun the t u l ~ .
are treed for n-Qpe materials. For semiinsulating Gals, the material is undoped. The equi As the filmam is rno\~e<l tmtuxl the rigl~t,the melt mols at one end. Usuall!: tl~ereis
librium srgregation coefficients for dopants in G d s are listed in Table 2.2. Similar t, aseecl placed at the left end ofthe b a ~toestablish
t aspeeificcqstal ori~ntrtion.T l ~ p p d -
those in Si. most of the segregation coefficients are less than 1. The expressions derive, ud freezing (solidification)of the melt allm\s a single cnstal to pmpa,pte at the liqui<l-solid
pre\iously Ibr Si (Eqs. 4 to 1.5) are equally applicable to Gals. interface. Eventually, a single cqstal of gallit~manenidc b ~ \ \ I ITlie. impnrih distribu-
n descrilwrl essentially ly Eqs. 9 and 1.5. \vlrere the p \ r t h rat? is given I n t l ~ e
tion c ~ he
TABLE L2 Equilibrium Ssgmgation Costliciami for Dopant. in GaAs traversing speed of the furnace.
hp.mt k,, T!V
Br 3
b 2.4 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
1'
\I< 0.1 P 2.4.1 Wafer Shaping
Zn I x 10.' P
C 0.8 After a cqstal is grown. the first shaping opention is to remove the seed and the otlwr
'/P end of t l ~ einsot. \vl~ichis I;L.~ to solidify' The n r ~ operntion
t is to grind tllr surhce so
Si I.= x 10.' n/p
Ge 2.8 x 10-1 that the dianleter ofthe materi;tl is drfinml.After that, one or nlorc fill regionsireplllld
"/P along the lm$I~ of the ingot. Thrsr regions, orJa1.v. nrark tile specific c y t a l orienta-
S 0.5 n
.% 5.0x ~ t r ' 18
tion of tlir ingot and the ~ ~ n d n c t i \t!yc
i h ofthe inaterid. The l:qtsst flat. the prilnay
Sn 5.2 x lo'? n
f i r , allows a 111rr11anic1llocator in automntic p m s s i ~ l gequiplnent to pmitios tile \%lfer
Te 6.8 x LO-?
and to orient the dc.\in-s relati\.e to the cqstal. Othcr soiall+r fl:~ts.cded.scm~tdan~~a
n
are grotmd to irlentif).the ori~nlatioliand conducti\ih h y of the cqskal. :w sho~~m ill
Cr 1.03x lo' Semiinsulating
F i p w 2.13. For cyst;~ls\\itl~ diamrtrn rqud toor Lqcr tl1m200mm. no fli~tsare p d .
Fr 1.0 x 10.' Semiinsulating
Intrad. a small gmove is ground along the lengtll of the insot.
 2.4 Material Charactemation 4 33
-. T .

Figure 2.14 200-1,lrn (S inr.1 and 41M1-mm i i G in.) polished silieon wfen in mqrttcr.
(I'l~,tomurtrry oFShin-Etmr Ilrnth,lai Co.. ToLyo.)
IlWI ..t,l* llOOlp.hF

Figun 213 ldentihin~flats on r remimnductor \%afer.

-
TABLE 2.3 led Monocynallins Silico~
Panmete j trim 150 mm
Diameter (mm) 1%+1 I.%+ l enotl m+1
ThicAmcsr (mm) 0.60.65 O.tE4.i il.7l~,i'35 0 i.m.Ti5
Thr ingot is thrn rrarly to he sliwd hy diamond saw into wafers. Slicing deter- Prima? flat length (mm) 40-45 55-m NA 9A
mines fonr\\:ifrr pa~mrten:ntrfncro~~~ntntio~~ (e.g.. c l l I > or <Inn>):thickr~css(e.g., Scmndnry flat length (mm) 25-30 35-40 N,\ NA
O..iO.7 tnta. de-pnding on wifer diameter): toper. \vIiich is the xvnfer thicl;lless vari- Bmv (ttrn) ca 30 c3a
ations from one rnd to another: and how. \vIiich is the surf:lcc conatllre of the \Vafrr, Total ~hickncss\ariatic SO 10 < LO
mest~redfrom the wntrr of the wafer to its rdge. Sud-ce oricntntio~? 0 )+ I 0 Ssme Same Samr
After slicinc. lmtll sides of tlie \vafrr are laPprd wing a mixture ofAl,Oj and glyc- I +1 Sntnc Same Sam

7 -
and mntantinated redons can l r ren~o\wlI y chemical etching (srr C11:lptrr 5).The find
- NA. not a?lil8blr

step of nafrr shaping is polishing. Its porpse is to proxidr n snlooth, specl~lars~~rface 24.2 Crystal Characteriza"
\\here dr\iw fr;~turcscan I r rlrfined h? pl~otolitlio~rapl~ic processes (see Chapter 4).
F i ~ r 2.14r shows 2.70-~nm(8 in.) snrl 400-mm (16 in.) lmlislied silimn wnfers in cas- Crystal Defects
srttes. T.shlr 2.3 sllous the specifications for 125.. 1.50.. 200.. and 3.70-~n~n dilmeter pol- A real c ~ s t a (sacl~
l ;ls a silicon wafer) dilfen from the ideal end in iniportant \\;I:S. It
ishcrl silicon aafen from the Srmimndnctor Equipment and Materials Institute (SEMI). is finite: tll~ls.surfnce atoms are izicosipletrly Imaderl. Furthemiore. it 11s defras, wl~icl~
Ar mrntionrrl pmiowly for l a p q s t a l ( 2 2M ; i t r y ~~k~ineter), no flats nrr p t ~ n dinsirad.
; strongly influr~icethe electrical. alrcl~a~~ical. and opticd prnprrtirs of the sr~t~imnduc
.,
a m v e marlr on the edce of the \\afer for msitionine and orinitation oumoses. ..
Gallium awniclr is a more fnyile material than silimn. Altla~nghthr bmic shaping
tor. There are fourcategories ofdefects: point defrcts. line drfkcts. Rreadefrcls.and \ul-
utile defects.
oprration of gallium arsrnidc is es<entiall!. tlir wnlr ;L% that for silimn. grratrr care mu Figure 2.15 sho\rs sewml foniis ofpoint d~fccts."' Any foreigi atom incorlm~~trd
hc rscmsel ill gallium arsrnidc \\:+lr pr~pac~tion. The t a t r ofpJlinn~;trsrnide technc into t l ~ latticv
r at ritlier a s~lbstitl~tional sitr [i.~..at a regilar lattice sitr (Fig. .'.I%)]
primitiw mrnplwl with that of silicnn. Howrvcr. the t e c h ~ ~ o l of
q r n . is wl~tivrly o gg r o ~ or a s interstitial site 1i.e.. behvcen wplzl:lr lattice sites (Fig. .?.1511)]is a point dc.frct. A
Ill-V rnnipo~~nds lixs :~<hannrlpartly l u c ~ u s of
r the ad\nncvs in silimli t e c l ~ n n l o ~ , missi~~gatoln in the lattiw creates avac:1119also mnsidrretl :I point dcfect (Fik 2.1%).
 (a) 6,
Figure 2.16 (0) Edge nntl (h)screw cssloration formationin cubic cnrt;tlr?

(c) (d)
FigM 215 Point defecb. ( 0 ) St~I>stitutional
impuriy (b)Intemitial impurity (c) httice
\ l e n n ~(. d )FrrnlteI-h~xdefect."

.4 host atom that is situated behveen regular lattice sites and adiacent to a vacancy
nlled 3 Fwnkeldrfed ~ F I Z2.1511. . Point drfrcts art. particularly itlllwrt;~ntsubjects i
t l ~ eh e t i n ofod(l.ttion ;tnd (IrNt~r~onproxsres. Thesr topin arr mnsirlerc(l in Chnpte~
3 and 6. respecti\~ely.
The neb class of defects is the line defect, also called a dislocntion." There are h\,
hpes of dislocations: the edge and screw types. Figure 2.16a is a schematic represer
tation ofan e d ~ dislocation
e in acuhic lattice. An ednplane ofatoms AB is inserted int
the lattice. The line of the dislocation \auld be perpendicular to the plane of the p.age.
The scre\rsdislocation may ire mnsidered as being produced by cutting the crystal p#art-
\vaytl~mughand pushing the upperpart one lattice spacing over. as shmtn in F i p r e 2.:161,.
Line defects in desices are unclesinhle bemuse they act as precipitation sites for me.*..IL
lic impurities. \&ch mayde,pde dexice performwcr.
A m drf&f~r e p e n t a large-area dircontinaih in the lattice. T ~ i defects
d are h
and grain Lmuntlaries. ?icinnin,o represents a change in the c y t a l orientation acro
plane. A gelin houndan isa tmsition behveen cly~talshavineno particular orientati,
rrlntionslt~ptonne motla.r. Sl~cln(lefrch aplpnrd~~rine,cnst;J m v t 1 ~,\nother
. 3n.a cIr
is tl~e.~nrkir~pfo~tb
. ~, 'In t h ~ drfw.
c thr aachne wnucnrrofnu
c? , aton~iclmpr
~ ,~~
~~~ ~ir intrrnln
--.~~.~~~,
In Fiprre 2 . l i the sequpnce of atoms in the stack is ABCARC .... If a part of layer
missing. the defect is rdlrd an intrinric stacking fault (Fig. 2.170). If an e d n plane A is
inserted behvees layers R and C. it is an extrinsicstacking ranlt (Fig. 2.lib).Such delects
rnay appear during cnstd gro\\th. Cqstals having these area clefects are not usahle for
integrated circuit nlanllfachlre and are discarded.
(a) 61
Figure 217 Stacklng kalts in srmicond~xforla) Intrinsic stxljnq Fault ihl Edrimic ctcklng
fi,nlt."
Precipitates of impurities or dopant atoms m&e up tile fonrth cl;~<< of defeas: col-
Iriiled/ccls. These defects arise beause of the inl~errntroluhilify of the irnpurih in the
host lattice. There is a s p ~ ~ i fmncpntmtion
ic of iolporit). that the lrost lattice c.m x m p t
in a soli(l solution of itself and the inlpurih. Figure 2.18 sho\\s solubilit\.\?nus temper-
atrw for a mrieh of elements in silicon." The soluhilih of most i~npurities(~r(.reue6
with decreasing telnpmh~re.Thus, iran imparit!. is intmduml to thc n~;r\im~~~n mn-
centntion allo\ved hy its soluhilih at a given tempemture, imd the cpstal is then cwkd
to n lonvr tralper.ltore. the cnstd can only achirvr ;an eqailibrion~st:ttr I!, precipitnt-
ing the iolpurih atoms in excess of the sohhilih Ir\vl. Ilo\\?\rr. the \ululnr nlislllatcll
behveen the host latticc and the precipitates resalts in dislor.ltio!~s.
hlntetial Properties
Tal>le2.4 mmpares silimn chandrristin md the r~yuirenlcntsforillte~ltc(1 cimiit trdl-
nolo9 I~nvingrron. tllnn 10' mmpnnrnts. \vlliclt is referred to as el:rn/n~~~-~rn/r
irl:r-
gmlioa (ULSI)."" The remimlaludor mntrrial prolwrties listed in Tcahle 2.4 C ~ I be I
n~r;m~rnl by \;~riotamptltnls. Thr rcshtitih is III~UIIWIly th~fm~r-p~irlt
l~ndn.1nt~t~ln1.
 24 Material Characterization 4 07
TABLE 24 Cornpariron ol Silicon Material Chanmerlulm dRaqulmntr lor UlSl
CI~:~mcl~ti~lim

Hesirtibity (antimony)t t - h p (ohmentl 0.00,%10 - 0.f~1t-0.02

Hcsisti\4h (Inran)p - 1 9 (nhm.cn~) 0.OILi-50 144M 5-50 and np
Renirti\ity pndicnt (fi,ltr-pint pmlr) (%I 5-10 20 <I
!4isolity m~rricrlifc.lime ips) XJ-300 ,W-UKI -IM
'. O
Ox>xcn ipp~nitl 5-25 Sot cktcdnl Unifom
c~mln>llnl
Carlxm (ppmal 1-5 0.1-1 <().I
DisLrntion (lrfom processing) ( v r cm') I; 500 5 .UKI <I
Diameter (mm! Up to 200 Up to 100 Up to 300
Slim Imvfpm) 5 25 I; 25 <5
Slice laper (pm) I; 15 I; 15 <S
Sltrfac* flihtnerr (pm) 55 55 c I
Ilr!:lry!netnl intpltrities (ppltn) 51 5 0.01 <(IIX)I
ppma. p r F r znlllmn atom$ ppha parts p r billton atoms.

a aos w e formation of clefrcts. Ppical oqxen mnmntrations range fmm 10'' to 10''
ntomslcm'. Oygen, ho\ever, has 11otl1deleterious and kneficid eflects. It can act as a
donor. <bstortine ,, t l ~ cresisti\itv of the c n s t d caused h\f intrntional doninr. On the other
L 7

l~and,o q e n in an interstitial lattice site can increasr the yield strength of silicon.
In addition, the precipitates ofo.yp;en due to the solubility rffvct can lx i w d for
gettering. Getfenng is :I general terlll nleaning a proct*ssthat removes harrnf~~l inlpuri-
ties or defects iron>the rr$on in a svafer \vltere de\ices are fahrimted. \ \ l ~ r nthe safer
is sn1)jrcted to 11islr-temperature treatnlent (e.g.. 105O'C in S,). oygen evaporates from
the surfam. This lo\vers the oyo,en mntent near thc surC,ace. The treatrncnt creates s
defect-free iorden~lded)zone for dmiw fabrication. assl~ounin the inset of Rgrrc 2.19.'
Additional thern~alc!.cles can he wed to promote t l ~ ionnation r ofoi?xen prrcipitatrr
in tltr interior o f t l ~ \er ~ ~ ffor
e r getteringof impnrities. The depth of the defect-frre zone
depends on t l ~ etime and tenlprratrlrc of the tlkcnnal nl?,clcand on the diff!~ri\ihofon..
gen in silicon. hle;~ct!rrd r r s ~ ~ lfor t s the den~tdedzone nrr sl~o\\ni n F i y r e 2.19.' It ic
possible to obtain Czocl~mlsLicqstals of silimn that are \irtnaIly frrc of dislmtions.
Comtnerci:d melt-sro\\m n,alerials o f g a l l i ~ ~arsenidr
n~ are 11ea\ily(vnlitniinat~~l by
the cn~cihle.tlmvever, for pl~otonicappliwtions. moct wq~tirelnrnbcidl forhca\iIydoped
~ carbon in silicon n n be wal!7rrl by the secondat
:u~rltnaw impurities stlc11n<o x y p and materials (brhveen 10'' and 10'" cm-'i. For integrated circnits or for discrrte MESFET
ion mms spwhmmpic (SIXIS) trchnigtr d r s c r i k l in Cl~apter6. Note that dthoogl~cu~ devices. undoprd gallil~n~ an en id^ n n be used ;I,, the StartillR tnntrrial with a rrsisti\it).
wnt ~ip~hilitirs cm mwt inmtoftl~eu d r r rpffificltions listed in Tahle 2.3, manyi!npm\v of 10"R-cm. Oqpen is an ondesir.~hleimplllityis C : k Lrcal~seit a n fonn aclffpdonor
~rirnts:arc nrrdrd to satisfy the rtrincent requirements for ULSl t e c h n o l ~ . " level. \vhicl~mntlibutcs to a trapping rba%p in the balk of the substrate iu~dincrr.lsc5
Thr ni?:ca and n r l m ~
cnncrntrations
~ irrr s~~hstantially liigl~erin Czocl~rdsldcq: its resistiuity Oxygen mnt;tn~innlioncan ~nini~nizcd by using p p h i t r crucibles for
talc than in floiat-zonr cr)stak 1wn11srofthe dissnl~~tion of o y s e n from the silin c n melt grovll~.The clisloc:~tioncontent for C~ocI~~~lsld-grn\m galb~rr~rarsr.nidt- cnztals is
el,lc anrl t m n p r t nfclrhon to thr mrlt fmtn t l ~ ~r x p l u t srLurptor
e d~~ringciytnlpvtl nhoat hvo onlen of mapit~zdrItigher than that for silimn. For Bridgman Club cl).st;~ls.
T t p i d nlartmn ~enwntrationsm g e from 10'"to a l ~ o IO"ato~ndcn~'.
~~t and c,~rhonnton the dislncation <lensityis abut an or<brrof m ; t ~ n i t ~ lower ~ d r than that for C./.ochr.&Li-
ill ~ilicon n m ~ p ysuhmh~tionallaltirrsites. TIIPprpsrnw ofnrlwn is ~~ndesirahlr 1m11r ~ o t v nGiAs cn~tnls.
 Problems 4 39
A r r i ~cr)rt;d
l has clckcts l l ~ a it s f l ~ ~ e nthe
w elc~utric;~l.
mrclts~timl.:~ndoptir;~lp n p
rrlirs o f t h r s r m i ~ o l l d l ~ d oTlwsr
r. clrfrcts arc p i n t rlrftctr, l i n ~clcfcrts, arc;, ileG.rts.
:~nd\nlclna. (l~.i,,as. Tllis chapter a l u ~disrtrsa.<l trtcans t o nrinimin. st~cltd,.ii.ris. F ~ j r
tllr more clrln:tn<ling LiLSl :~l>plirntions. y hr 1c.n tln;ns 1 p r r
1111. dislrmtion ~ l r n s i ~must
sqtuan' n n t i a l r t r r . O111t~rimlwrl;ml rrqltirrmrnls a r c lislrd in Td,lt. 2.4.

b REFERENCES
.
I. C. \I:Pr.tm... *Cylsl Crcm.11~ctnd \\il,.r Pn.pr.lllon'sl~rl-Eplt*r): in, S. \I. Sr,.. Ed \7.51
Trrl$ndoc!,.Yd:r.nv-llill, SnvSnr4. 19%.
2 T Ah,. 'Silimn Cr)\ld* for Cim-Ril Snlr Intr~ntios: InT. S. 5Ims. Ed,.Ilondlmlnr
Smtimndt~rc~~n. \bl. 3. Elmirr Cipnw 13.V,.AnnacnlamSllu.Sol*. 1IF)I
3 \\'. R. R!m)sn. Slllnd Scmlmnrltddor TrJ8ndqY. \IGm~~~.llill.
Sw S,&. IV(15.
4 \\'. C..Phnn, &nr ilrlrlnp, 2nrl Ed.. \\?It7 S~rnvSol*. 1%.
5. E.\\' n,d \I. S Llmuller.-Phorplooms Dqinqof Silimn by 5lraaof X'ulnln lrrxli;~li,n:
Tmnl €l<nrun Dnlws. ED-23. W:3119761.
6. \< Ilm-rn. Conalfafina"[Biwry A&nlr. 5lcC.r~~v-Illll.
ScaSork ID;',
7. S. K. ChsndLi. \'LV F01,Hmtion PHlltil,let. \\ilr): Sw Sol*. I'l's3.
R. Arlhur.-bpor Prrssumr and Pha<cEqullihria in lhr C d s S>slcm~].Plop Chml .W&. 28. 225:
8. J.
Il~X,71.
9. 8 . El-Krrrh. F~~ndn,?vnInlr
oJSrmlconrlr,dor Fmrrr(,ag T<cbnnlog.y.K1tnrr.r .Ao&~~uie.
Rnrton. IVI5
10. c A. \\'en n. u. PIdy* O J S ~ ~ M\ICCW.II~II.
~. s~.~sorliI(M.
It. F.A. Tnmmhorc. 'Solid Snluhilitier oflrnp~dtyElrmmt~m Crnnanitm md Silime.-Brll Syn Twlr I..
39. 205 1 ISCS):8 . Iiull. P r q ~ ~ H i n ~ f C ~ r l o N
Stlimn.
i n r ISSPEC. Lnndnn. I!r51.
12. Y Sfnlnrdlitr.7 r m d of Silimn Suhslmlc Trchnoloxicr for 0'5 pru Dnim.- Pnx. lrLS1Tmhnd
! l ' ~ l t " , ,llrrnolulu (1996l.
2.5 SUMMARY 13. 'Thr lr~lmmllnnnlT r r l l d o p l Rmdrl1~111
JOT SO)tIrndt~do~~.
Srmimnduaor Imlurtry Anacl~linn.Sm
Jou.CA. ?MI.
Se\r,r.d trc$nirI~wsarc inxilahlr to p \ v single cnstals of silirnn a n d gallit~mmenide.
1.1.\\. F I k ; ~ l lI.~ C.
. C. Tui, and R. D. Plt~mmrr.Edc.. pltkl Rrf~mnm~lnnaaiJorEnglnrm. \lit%
For silicnn mst:ll<. sand (Si0,l is n ~ r to d p n x l l ~ c cpol!.cnstallinr silicon, r\.lriclt l h ~ sen?sn Yvrk, I!W.
SCW
as tllc nta. m:tt~.ri$ in a CxoclmilrLi ppellrr. s w d c n s t a l x i t l l the desired orientation is
tlrerl to ~v n l a q e incot fmm the melt. ( h e r W% of silicon c n s t a l a r e prepared I I ~
this twllniq~le.Dlvrin: c n s t ~ l ~ l o \ r t h the
. dopnnt in the c n s t a l \till r r d i s t r i h t ~ t A ~ .hy b PROBLEMS
p ~ f i ~ n ~ eist ~r IrI Pswrczation co(.flicirnt. that is. t h r ratio of t h r dopant m n c r n t n t i o n in
l l ~ or l i d to that in tltr 111eIt.Sinw most of tlrr cwflicienh arc I s $ t l ~ : u1. ~ d ~ lrlelt
e lrconles SECllON 2.1: SILICON CRY-AL CRO\\TII FRO\l THE MELT
pmfrrscivrI\- enriched \\it11 th? dopant .2c 111r cnstal . . m\\s. 1. Plot the d~rpinsdistril,ation of a m n i c at distancvs of 10. ?0.30.4tl. and 15 cni fmm the
t ~ esilicon ic t h r float-zone prncpss. I t offrrs lmvcr con-
. ~ n o t h r ,r g a ~ i l tir c l t ~ ~ i q for surd in n silicon Ingot 50 em long that hm h~rn ptollrd fmm n molt \\ith an initial loping
taminatior~tlt;m t h t nonrr:rll\.ohtained frorl~tlw C.mhralslj t r c h n i o t ~ eFloat-zone ~ ~
. ~ ~~~~
cn5-
~
mncerttratior>of 10'' mn-'.
tals a r r (llrnl nl;linly for hiell-po\vc.r. Iriolr-\alla<r (1c~drr.swltere I~ip11-rcsistivih materiais 2. In silicon. the Isttiw mnrhnt is 5.43 A. ,Lsnnnr s 1t;vd-rphrre m<xlrl.(1)Calmlstc the
arc rrquirecl. nditls of n rilimn alom. (1,) Delrrnrin~the drnsily of rilic~nnatoms in ;~tovns~on'.
lcl U c
To m:kv GI&<. chrmic.dly p u r r <allit~mand arsenic a r c used a<the starting mn the Awgadrn mnst;mt to find the drnsity of rilim,n.
ri.11~that arc , > ~ ~ t l ~ e ~tioz form r d pn$cnstallinr C;rAs. S i n d r cnstals of Gar\s m a 3. Asuming that a 1O.k~p a n silimn c h ; q c is e s d . \vhal is lhr ;tmount of hnmn t l ~ l mtul
l
w n n l hytlie (:znclindsh ltrl~niqw=. I Imn*r,\rr. a l i q u i d e n n p s ~ ~ l n(nct. g . BIO,) is requi h,;td<lcrlto prt thr lx,ron-dolxd silimn to hnre r resirtivity~~fO.0L R.r.8" ahm onr-htlf
to pn-vcnt cl8.mmprition o f (:~L.\s at tlw pm\vtl~tpmpw;ttttrc, :\notl>rr trchniclae is 1111 of the ingot is p \ n P
Rridcm;m prr~r.sq.wltirlr urrs a hrrrzorlr hrn;~cvfor grathl;rl solidilicatioa of the melt 4. ,\ silimn \eafer I mm lltick 1n:lrinp a diameter of 11K)rnm ronln~inr5.41 ntgofhn,n mi-
.\rtt.r t i cn-la1 is gro\\n. it llsuzdl? S w s thmlr~ha:ifrr-sllapinS operations t o five a1 ~ ~ n lFind ( a ) dlr lnron mnn.ntralion in :aluslr'cm'
lormly distril,nlrd in n ~ h s t i h ~ t i oritrs.
t%n<l p r h l c t of hieI11\ polished n~tI;.rsuitll a s p i f i e d cliam~trr.thickr~css,a n d surfno md 11,) the ;m.r;yr dirlntrr ix.hrrcn imron aloms.
oricnl.~tinn.For r~.t!~,plc..2IKI-!nm silicon \vairrs for a M O S F E T falrriration linr sl~otlld 5, ~ 1 %.e~, ~cMtd ,,scyl in tllr c ~ ~ I ,p m~ c rI s sis itn~dh ~ ~ nwktrl dm,n to a snvall dio~n.-
11:nr :i ilinmctcr rrf?rNl t 1 mm. :I t l t i r b ~ r c soflJ.725 .ifJ.01 mln. ;tnrl ;I snrLrct. orirntzt- trr (5.5 m,ni ;a to i,,itia~cdislmti~,n.frcc p ~ i l n Iftllr . critinl.)idd stnm!tl~
tmn oi I ( Y j l i 1''. \\:+fin v i t h diarnctrrs I n r ~ r than r 200 nlm ;Ire lwing man~lfactorcd silicol, is 2 x I@ ptcm'. cJcal;ttr the il~syirnun~ lm@h of r silimn isgot 1(Xl 111111 in di.111~-
for futt~n.i n t w ~ t c rirnrits. ~l r ! Tahlp 2.3.
Tllrir s w i l ; m t i o n < a r e l i ~ l ~ in trr that e;nn he nrpp,nnl hy stnelt r XYYI.
 ~ ~ i t c/c,,\illae
~fc,, 1 1c,,lrt h ~ for k,,. 0.05 in the Cznchdsk tmhnirlac.
,i ,, (-nrl,d,~i.p,n
at tllr i.ul r ~ x of
m3,.rl h do+ ~ i t h>mn
h
l the m-td than at the scwl i.nd2
\\It). is the lw,n,n mnrrnlntion isrg

9. trh, is the innputinmnrrntr~tionIsqt-r in the cvntcr of the s;~frrthan at its pvrinwt

S E ~ O 2N
:. SluCON FLOAT-ZONE PROCESS
g, \Guu the flwt-mnr pmm- to pt!rifva silicon inpt that r~mtainsa uniforn ydliun~ Silicon Oxidation
,yImntrati~n01'5 x 1U"cm~'.One pss ir mndr with ;I moltrt>zone 2 cm long. ( X r r

10. ~ n , mE,I. I$ find the C/C,,tdnlur at .dLr I and 2 >\it11k, -

N+I.,~ CI~\PAKVis the rrrulting g;dlium wnwntntion h.lcnv5 x 10" cm"?

0.3.
I I. Ifpr.n ah~upt.jtmdiovtdicdcs we iabtinted tising the silimn mncridr sbovn in F i p
2 Y. find the pncntilqr ch;tngc (of hmskdmw~\nlt;agrr for the mnvmtionnllydopd si
clrn and the nrutmn.irr.uli~tdsilicnn.
SECTlON 2.3: G M S CRYSTAL GRO\Wli TECHNIQUES
2.10. ifC. ir 20%. \\hat fme(ion of thr liquid will remain at T,?
12. Fmm F i ~ m
13. Fmm Fimm 2.1 1. rrplain \vhy ihc C:L* liquid alu-a!~ hcromes gdlium nich.
S E C n O S 2.4: S1ATERI.U C 1 l N i . 4 ~ R M l l O N
14. The eqtzilihium derityof\rr;myn, is giwn by N exp(-E,lkTj. $\hem N is the densit
rrmimnd~rctoratoms and E, is thc enewof formation Calmalate n, in rilimn at 2i°C.
SM'C. md I2MVC. .<<solme E, = 2.3 r!'.
15. Am~meihc e n e r p of fornation (E,) of a F r e n k c l - h ~d e f m to be 1.1 eV and ertirnat
the <b.fertdcntih at 27'C and IXnDC.Thr e~l~rilihrirnm density ofFrrnke!-hpe defca!
giwn by
hlmy difTcrent kin& of thin films arc used to hhricnte discrete dr\ires m d i n l e p t e d
Orc~~its, inclt~~lingtl~cnndoddcr, dielectriclayen, polycr)ddlinc silimn. and mrt:~lfils~s.
Figure 3.1 slio\r.t a sclie~natic\imv of a mn\.cntion;kl silimn n-cltannel XIOSFET tlrat
lrsrs d l four p u p s of films. n i p first important Illin film from the thertnal oxide grot~p
is thr g:lte oxide in)~r.under \vl~iclla mnduding chmnel can In. formc~l*ln.hveeo t h ~
source and t l ~ drain.
e A related layer is the firlrl odrle. whidi pm\i(les isolation from otl~er
devices. Rot11 gate and field asides genenll!. arr p n by a thennal oxidation p m r s s
lwcause only tl~crmaloddation can provide t l ~ hi~hestq~ndity
r oddcs I~a\ingtile lowest
interface t n p densities.
This chapter m v e n the follmsining topics:
The thermal oddntion process used to fonn silimn dioxide (Si0:)
Inipurit). redistribution during oxidation
hlaterid properties and tl~icknnessmensuremmt tecl~nir~ues
for SiOi films

",=@t-~,"'
\%hereX k rhc atomicdtm"tyof silimn (em"). and X'is the density of awilnhle intea
tid s i t s [em-')and is represented by A" = I x I F c
'
"' 'Tcm".
16. llmv many chips of m a 4M mm' em k placed on a wafer 3M mm in dinmctcr? Explair
!our arsumptionr rrganlinq the chip shape and t t n u . 4 u d c r perimeter
 3.1 Thermal Oxidation Process 4 ID
The s i l i m n ~ i l i w ndioddc intrrfaw nlovrs into tlle silimn (luring the orirl;itiot~prow<<.
3.1
b. ~
THERMAL OXIDATION PROCESS This creatrs 11 frrsh i n t e d ~ r region,
r aitll sudacr contamination on t l ~ orictinal
r silicr,n
Srn,imn,~urton lW oddized by ,srious methods. These include thermid oxidation. en(1in.q up on tI~rosi~l?s~lrfaw.T l ~ cb.nsitirs
r anti molrrul;~r\ v r i c l ~ rrf
t ilimn anrl sili.
,~l,an,,.la.r,,ir;,~ a t , ~ i m t i o n;,nd
. pl;rcma-~nl~anml c l a m i d wpor deposition (PECVD. con dioside are use11 in tl~rfollon,ing vr;tmplc to shmnv tlrat gro\ving an orhlr of tltirk-
-, ~ ] , : ~5;. ~ hrnullq
t ~ . ~tllrsr n r t h a l s , l l ~ r n ~oddation
~nl is I)? far the Itlost imprl;lnt nrss x consunles a layer of silirwn 0.44.r thick (Fig. 0.3).
fi,r silims dr\im. lt i s l keyp-s~ in n ~ o d e nsilimn ~ intrgrat~dcircoittcclmoluv. For
cdli,,,n :Inenide. I , ~ ~ ~ thern~$ \ . ~ . ~ o. s i h ~ t i results
o ~ ~ in g e n e d l y no~stoid~iu~netric RIIII! EXAMPLE 1
TI,,. ,,\irl,? pmfidP prrlfftric;ll inrul;~tionand w n ~ i c o ~ ~ d usurf.acc d o r prntection: h r n n
~ t , , ,,\idCI
. ~ ~ aw nrPI!. in ~ d l i u mm e n i d e t r c l l n o l o ~ Consequently.
. tlris clmple If n silirnn nddr layer of thickness x is Lmnnn 11sthrrmal oxidation.what is t l ~ vthickncrs ofnlicl,n
Ix.ise; m n s ~ ~ m nThe
l ? inoln~tlarweight o f Si is 25.9 g/m/mol,and the denity ~ r Si f is 2 . 1cIcm'.
m n r m t ~ t t on ~ c the thermal od11.1tion of silicon.
The roncsponding \alurr krr SiO?are Cfi.09 g/rnol :~nd2.21 C/cm'.
basic thenn;~1oxidation apparatus is shown in Figure 3.2.'The reactor mnsbi
of a y p s i ~ t ~ I I ~ t - - lf~uen: ~ tm~a.IO.lit~dridf ~ l - q tube ~ acontaining
~ the silicon w d e ~
SOLUTION The wllrnrnc of I mol of silimn i~
hrkl t r r t i d l ? in a slotted qu.uh 1m:tt. and a soclm of either pure (I? o q g c n o r pur
uatrr\-npor Thr loadinr: rnrl oftllr fum:~ceh t k protrudes into a wriical flourhood \viler Molecular weight of Si -
filtrrr,l flmr.or.zir is m;tint;tinecl. Flmv is dirrctrd as sho\\n by the arrmv in Figure 32 2R.9"mol = 12.06 cm'/mo~
Dznrityof Si 2.33 g/em'
The. haxl duct-sdust and particulate matter in the air surrounding t h e n & n :md mir
Thr \nlt~mcof 1 rnol of silicon dioxide is
itnizes oontamination durine \\-afrr loading. Tlre Oxidation trmper.~tureis generdly i
the
.~~~ m e c of9M'C to 1EOO'C. ;md the hpid .. gas - flow rate b shout 1 Wmin. The ox Molrmlsr wcicht of SiO, - M).h9 glmol =27.18 m'/mol
cL7tioo {stem uses micmpmcesson to replate the gas flmv sequenm, to contml the auk Dc,nsih of SiO, 221 glrm'
matic inwrtion and remmd of silicon \\dbrs. to mmp the temperature up (i.e.. to increa.
Sinoe 1 mol of rilimn is mnvrrted to I mol of rilicon dimide.
tile hlrnaw trmpenture linearly) from a lo\\. t~tnperatureto the osidation temperatut
wr that tht- xclfrn \rill not \ r q due to sudden tenlpenture change, to maintain the ox Thickness of Sixarea -- \'olumc of l mol of Si
&tion t r ~ m p n h r r eto within +1"C, and to n m p t l ~ temperature r down \vl~enoxidntia Thicknrsr uf SiO: xarcn \'olameof l mnl of SiO,
is mmplrtvd.

3.1.1 Kinetics of Gmwth 'Ihiekmesofsilirnn = 0.44(tbicknnr dSi0,I. For c~xmple.t o p v a silicon diooac l;i>rral 11x1nln.
The follm\+ngrhrmical reactiom describe the thermal oddation of silicon in o x e n (I a In!-r of W nm of rilinrn is w,nrumed. 4
oddation) or \rater \apor (\vet osih?tion):
Si (solid) + 0, (gas) + SiO? (solid) (
internuclear distance is 1.6 A. and the oqge~e.-to-oq'ge~~ internucleardihu~cris 2.i?i(.
Si (solidl + 2H10 (gas) + SiOI (solid) + 2H2(gas) (1 These tetra11edr.1are joined at tbeirmmen I,yoq$en bridges in a \?riehof\\TI>5 tu fonn
the various p11;ies or stntctures of silimn dioxide (also ridled siliro). Silica h:i se\.crd
cqstalline stnlrtlrres (e.~..quiutz) and an anlorphor~sstmcturc. \ \ l ~ r nsilicon is t h e d y
ovidized. the silicon diodde structare is an~orphous.T)pic;llly an~orphoossilia~11;s a den-
sity of "2.1 g/cmi. compared nit11 2.67 girm' for qaartr.

EJlal0.t

R#om 32 Schematic m*wiion ofa nristanrr-heated oddation filmace

 3.1 Thermal Oxidation Process 4 45

Figurn 3.5 Raic mdcl for the thermal avidatinn of rilimn.:

At the silicon surface, the oxidizing species mcts cl~emicaaly\~th silimn. Assuming
the rate of reaction is proportional to t11c concentration of the sppcies at the silimn rur-
(c) face. the fllu F, is given I]?
Kgun 3.4 (01 R:~sir\tn!rtnrd unit of silimn dinedr. (1,) T~~wlimensh~nal wrrpst~nl:tlionof s
,tv4rvz cnxt.<Ilatfirv (rlT\mdimcnsion.<lrrrpreseotatinn of tllr nmorpl,ous stntcturr of silirnn
F:=< (4)
,l,<,,i<lr,' \rrllere xis the sudxe reaction nte mnstant for odrlation. At tl~estead? state. F, = Fl = F
Combining Eqs. 3 and 4 gives

T l ~ h;lricdifTrrence
e hrh\w~l the cnstallinr and nmorphous struch~mic that the fol
nirr ic a primlir stn~ctun..edmdingover nlan~molrmles.\vI~erex~ the h e r has noppn
nlir anniIln, at dlII. Eiqtn? 3.d)is;\ h~vdzner~401d wllen~aticd i i m ofaqllartz cqstdlin- The reactior~of the oxididng species ~4t11silimn fonns silimn dioxide. Let C, be
ctnlctum nurle upof rinqs witll sixsilimn atoms. Fipre3.kicn hmlimensional schematic the rntmher of molecules of the oxidizing species in a unit volume of the oside. Thcrr
dism.1111of ~ I I Iamoml~o~a stnlctirre sl~o\\nfor m~nnariron.In the arnornhous sm~cture. am 2.2 x 10" silimn dioxide molwaledcnl" in tllr oxide, nrld add one oqxen molrcule
then. is still :a lentleny to frmn cha~~cteristic rings !vitll six silimn atoms. Sote that the (OJ to each silimn &oxide molecule. \!,hewas we add htv \rater molecules (H:O) to r;tcl~
dmnlpho~~s stnlctnw in Fig~re3 . 4 is ~ quitc oppn 1m11seonly 43% of the spqw is ~ I I
SiO, niolecule. Therefore. C, for oxidation in d v oqsen is 2.2 x 10" cm-'. and for od-
pirrl I>? silirnn dioxide moleo~les.The rrlnti\el?open stmatt. accounts for the lo\c~rden dation in water v a p r it is hsice this nomher (4.4 x 10'cm-'). Tl~t~s.
the gmtth nte of
sih and :~llmrrn mrirhof imp~~rities (sucl~;L?srxli~~m) to enterand diffiw readily tl~rnug the oxide layer thiclinrss is given by
tlw silims~~liosicl~~ la,~r.
Tlir hinrtics of tl~ernlaloxidation of silicon mn he studied hated on a simple md~lc
illnstnted in Figure 3.5.' A silimn rlicr mntacts the osidizinp species (oqxen or \rate
\npur'l. rc~s!t~tin~ in a srldacr cnncentratinn of C,, n~o!en~lrdcm' for these sprcies. TI1 \\'e om solve this diKerenti$ eqlmtion s11hjrc-lto the initid condition. x(O) = d,, %\llere
~namlit~~cle of C., rqtjlls tlcc equilihri~~m balk concentration of the species nt the oxida rl, is the initid oxide tl~ichmess:(1, can also he r e g ~ r d da the thicLness of oxide layer
tion tr.mIrr.lttlrc-. The rqllilihri~~m mncentmtion gr~~erally is proprtiorial to the palti; grown in an earlier oxidation step. Solving Eq. 6 )ielrls the general wlationship for the
pnsntrr of thr okidaflt ntlj;lc~ntto the oside srtrf:lo?. At 1000'C and at a pressure of oxidation of silimn.
:ttm. tIw mnc~mtr.~tinn C, is 5.2 x 10"' molmulerlcni' for dry oqyen and 3 x 10' , 2 0 ZDC,
molrr~~lrJcni ' for \v;atcr vapor.
.r- t-.I=-(rtr) (71
h. CI
The oxi~lizin~ y c i r s diffi~sest l ~ m ~ ~
the
c hsilicon dioxide Ia!pr. res~~lting in a mn
c~~ntratinn C~:tt tlw sttrfam, of silimn. Tltr flclr F, can he \\7ittrn ac afl~erer e (d 5 + ZDd,lr,,/~)C,C2DC,, wlticl~represents a time modinarc shift to ~ I I I I ~
for the initial odd" l : q ~ dv
r
The oxide thicknrss after an oxidi7jng time f is @wn hy
- 7

\vltem D is tltr difft~sioncwNicknt ufthr oxididnx Species. and x is the thickness of the
mirlr 1.w-r aln-arl!. prrsrot.
48 F Chapter 3. Siccon Oxidation 3.1 Thermal Oxidation Process 4 40

IMOlTiK-1)

Fipun 3.7 Parabolic n t c constant versm temperature.'

,Althoud~oxides p \ m in dr). o q x e n h a w the best elearical properties. mnsider-

ably more time is required to grow the same oxide tl~icknessat a given temperattlre in
d n a n r e n than in\\.ater tapor. For relatively thin oxides s u c l ~as the gate oxide i n a blOS- Odhlion finsr r ~ r r
FET (hpi~111yS2O nm). dr). oxidation is used. However, for thicker oxides such as field (h)
oxides (220 nm ) i n SIOS integrated circuits, and for bipolar debices, oxidation in water
\apor (or steam) is used to pmridr both adequate isolation and passivation. Figura 3.8 E ~ ~ ~ i m c nmrults
l a l oisilimn di06,ic thickmess s a fimrtion of rraction time rnd
F i p r e 3.8 shm\s the e v r i m e n t a l results of silicon dioxide tlrickness as a function tcmpcr~turefor two n ~ h r ~ norirntatinns.
lr i n ) Crwtih in d ~ a y ~ ~mh Grcmth
l. i n slrrm.
of reaction time and tempratare for h\v substrate orientations." Under a gives oxida-
tion mn~lition,tlre oxide thickmcss grown on a (111) suhstrate is largt-r than that grovn Sine ,I,, = 0 196 pm fmm thr fin! rtcp. \re haw
on a (100) suhstrate l m u s e of tlte larger linear rate const'mt of the (111) orientation.
d: + A4. -
Xotr that for a given t e m p m h l r e and time. the oxide film obtained usinswet oxidation r = (di +2D4, W)C, PDC,= - B - 0.067 h
is a b u t 5 to 10 times thicker than that using dry oxidation.
~h~ final drdnrl t l l i c ~ e sis = (1, + 0.1 ilm = Oe96 film. Ilsisg lhrre pann1c.h.a in Eq. 11. \w
obtain ;madclitiosi~loridation tin)? of
4
A $limn
smple is oddiad in dry 0, nt 1200'C for 1 hour. (a) \%at in the thickness of the oxide r = 0.76 h = 4.53 nbin
pmn? (h! Ilm~.mt~ch
additional timc is required t o p 0 . l pm more oddc in \ b e t 0 2 a t 1200''C?

SOLUnON (a) Fmm Tahlc 3.2. lhr %alaes

of the n t c constants for d ~ 0
y:at 12009Care 3.12 Thin Oxide Growth
.A = 0.01 pm B = 0.045 pm'h R e l ~ t i \slow ~ l ~Cro$vllbmtrs nwst lrr used to repmltlcihly ~ r n uthin . mid? filllls of pw-
and r = 0.027 h. Using these panmcten in Eq. 11. \vr ohtain an odde thickness of cise tllichrss. \T:lrionsapproacl~esto a c l ~ i ~surlt w slo\v p a i l l n t r s 11mrbwa rt.lmrtcd.
inclu1]inxgma*l, i n (IO. 0:at inmosphrric prcssare and lo\v~.rtrl1qwntan.s IstN"C 10
r = 0.196 pm g m 0 c ) :pro,,tl, nt prrsst~n.: grn\til~in rr(111dp~rtiill
tllan ilttn~spl~cric
prrssurrs of^, I?\. dilarnt incl-t g.~,such X\.2.Ar, or He. losctlt~.r-it11 lhv 3-
(hr Fmm Tahlc 3.1. the \dtler of the rate constants for wet 0: at 1200°C are m n t ~ , , i r , stllr. o\idiinx sprcil.s: and thr usr ofcr,n~~msitrmidr films. \\it11 thr q;~tc.c~icll'
fillnSn,,lsisti,lg of lil!vr 01. tlwrnnlly grn\\n SiO, ;a111en o\-rrli~yerof SiO: Sro\\n I>!
A = 0.05 um B = 0.72 unlZ/h
.SO * haonr 3 Silicon Oxidation 3.3 Masking Propanies of Silicon Oioxida 4 51
rhrrnirrl \alnr rlcpositios (CVI)). Ilmrr\rr. the inxinstreim~nl)proncl~for gate odder 10
t t n 1,; ntn tl~ickis tu cm\v the oxide liln~at iatn~ospltt.rirpNhSS1lN' and lo\ver t c m p r a t t ~ w s
, \ r x ~ < : to tnrvcI. \\ill, tlti.; apprn.~cll.pnm.ssiag using m ~ l r trriirnl n ~ odd:ttion fur-
-
rl.tn.r c;ur rnnv n~nnrlt~cihlr.
It $)is
.. .
Ilicl~-<~ualit\.
. 10-nm odrlt,s to \\illkin 0.1 nnl acmss thr \rnfrr.
tlkat for Jn odrl;!tion. then, is i1n apparently mpid oddation tllat
nntrd t.;~rlit.~.
@r.s r i r to an initi.tl nxi,\c, thickst~ssd,,of nholtt 20 nnt. 'Tl~errfore.the sirnplc mwlrl
l m ~ c ~ n t vindSwtiol~3.1.1 is not \:tli,l for ~Ino~iclatinn \\it11an n d d r thirl;nws lrss than
o r C Y ~ , , :to~ 20 n n ~ For
. IILSI. tl~rability to ~gm~m\v thin (-5220 ntn). uniform. high-quslity
n.pnxl~lcihlrpak oxi~lrsI t i s h m m r inrrea-in~k.in~pnrtsnt.Illis stxiion lrriefly cnnsidpn
thv Lmn\tlt inc~ltanklt~r of s11r11tllin oxides.
In t l rtrly
~ stact. o f q o \ \ i h in r l n oudntion. there is a large conlpresive stress in
thp o<d<. lmrr that n ~ l u c r sthe o n' s. e n cliffusion mflicient in the oxirlr. 11s the o d d r
I r m m r r thicker. the t m s r is mdtm-rl hrr:ttnsr of the viscous flmv of silica, and the dif-

of ll!ret:~~
..
fusion rwflktmt ill :,onrnach its strrss-free wltte. I l t e r e f o ~for
Ir. sl!flici~ntlysn~allthat \w GIII nrgIect the Ann
~ . thin oides..~
t h \PIIIP
~
in Eq. 11 ant! olttain

b 3.2 IMPURITY REDISTRIBUTION DURING OXIDATION

Dop:mt impurities nrlr the silicon s11rfacx2\\ill Iw redistrihut~dduring thermal odda-
tion Thr m l i ~ t r i h ~ ~ tclrpntls
ioe on sc\.cral facton. \Vhm hta solid p l ~ z r are
s brought
tqether. irnpv~rityinonr solid d l redistrib~~te behvern t l ~ hru
r solids until it rearlles r (pml r ipml
eq,tilihrium. This is similar in the pretious discussion in Chapter 2 on impurih retlistri- (4 (dl
o rc~n s t d ~ \ V I I fmm
h ~ ~ t i in I t l ~ inelt.
r The ratio ofthe eqsilihriam conmsntntion of the
ilap~~rity in the silicon to that in the silicon dioxide is callt~lthr srgmgotio 381
Figum 3.9 Four dillemnt rues nf impurity redishihation in rilimn duc to therntd od<htion'
and is rlcfinnl
Equilibri~nnconcentration of inlpurih. in silimn increases the amount ofdepletion: an exan~pleis homn-doped silicon heated in a h d m .
1. =
Equilihrit~nnconwntratio~~ of impurih in SiO, gen ambient. becnnre hydrogen in silico~~ ~lioddeenh.ulws the difhsi\ity of bomn. In
in~pnritydistribution is thqt the impuriv m y (liffuse
.Isewn11 factor that infl~~enrrs
~. .
m a r , 2. I; is <. .
s e a t e r than mihi. so the odde reiects the i n ~ n ~,~ rlftlifitsion
ih: ofthe inmu-
r i v through the silicon diodde is relatively sfoiv, the impurih piles up near t l r silikn
rapidly thro11~11 the silicon dioxide ant1 e s r a p to the ~ W W I I Samhient. Tftl~elbffusi\ih snrfarr: ao exan~pleis phosphoms. with k :~pprndnlntdyequal to 10. \ \ l ~ c ndiffusion
of t l a inlpllrih in silicon dioxide h inr-ge. this fador \\%I1h~ important. A thin! factor in thmugh the silicon dioxide is rapid, so much impurity may escapr fmtn the solid to the
the ~ ~ i s t r i b l l t i oprim-5
n is tllilt the o<de is .w\ing. ant! tllus tltr i n u n r t l n behveen gaseous ambient that the overall effect ,rill he a depletion of t l ~ impurih r rmmple
the silicon and the ndde is a r l \ m r i n ~into t l ~ silicon r as a function of time. The relative is gallium, with k appmdmntely equal to 90.
cttr of tl~isial\ance mmpawd \,it11 the cliffa~sinnmtr of the impurity thn1p11t l ~ eoxide The redirtribatecl dopant imp~ritiesin silimrt cboddr are selrlont elec+ri~illl\.active.
is important in r l ~ l ~ n n i ntllr i n ~r t e n t of the N-<listribr~tion.Xotr that even if the segre- Ho\ve\.er. wtlistrihution in silicon IBCUan import;mt rlTect on processing and d w i w per-
ptinn m f i c i e n t of :UI i~np~nrihequals u n i h ram? r ~ l i s t r i b ~ l t of
b e the impurih in the formnnce. For eu~nmle.nonuniform clovant distribution \rill inodih the interpretation
silimn will still lakc: pl:~rr.As indicitt~lin F i g ~ r 3.3. e thr oxidr layer will Iw ;tlnut hviw of the mensurnnents of interlaw trip prnprties. and the ch.wge of the snrf.~cecon-
thirk :lz tlrr silimn layer it repl;~mi.n~erefore.the same amount of imptwity\\"ll nmv centntion will nnodib tllc tl~resholdvolt:tpe and deiire contad resirtancr.
h.di.;tril>~ttr<l in 3 lawer volamr. n * r t ~ l t i in n ~depiction of the impurity from the silimn.
Fo~rrpos.;ihlc n.~Iistrihution prn1Trv.r a w ill~~rtratpd in F i p r r 3.8.' n ~ c w pmsses
mn in.rlmsilird into h v o r n ~ l p s Inone . p o p , the odde takes !lptlle impurity (Figs. 3 . 9 b 3 . 3 MASKING PROPERTIES OF SILICON DIOXIDE
and 1, for I; < I I. ; ~ n in d thr otltcr 1I1ro\icl? rrjrcts thr impurity (Fig. 3 . 9 and ~ d for I > 1). A silicon iliodde layer can also pmtidr a selrctivc nlwk again.1 t1ie diffusion ofdopan;altl
In c;lrh mv.ull:lt i1aplr.n~rleplals on llmv ~lpidlythe irnpurihcln diffuse thrnltgh the at clr\atnl tenlpmhtrcs, e ~ 3usehl . pmpn?. in IC hbrication. Pdcporition ofdopu!ts
nxirlr.. I n gmop I . 1116.silimn sr~rf:~cv is ileplrtnl of impuriticr: an ex;tmplc is inmn. \sit11 (see Chapter fi). \vhethrr it lw I,? ion ilnplantation. d ~ r n ~ i c dillusion.
-d or .spin-on trrh-
I i~pprnxir~~.~trly rq!rnl tr, 0.3. Rapid &lTnzsion of the in~puritythrn11~1~ tllc silicon dinside niql~es.hTicdly resalts in n dopnnt source at or npar the surface ofthe odde. During ;I
 -
52 b Chapter 3. Silicon Oxidation 3.4 Oxide Ouality 4 53

stdscqrsnt high-tenIperarureuriw-itt step. ~Iiffusionin oxide-ninsked regions must I
sI0\v rnouCh nit11 reslrct to diITusion i n tlte silico~tto prewnt dopnnts from difl~eil
thmtteh tlw oddr lnnsk to tlte silimu surface.The q u i r r d thickness 111t1yhdctennin~
rxF"nlcntally I?,. n~e;auringthe wide tllickness nccesai? to prevent the illersion ol
liclttl\. doFd silicon substr.ltc of opposite ~~~tchtcti\ity at a particular tempcnlhlre at
t i ; ~ ~ ~ . ' ~ ~oxides
~ i ~ used
: ~ l lfor
y ,m;ukng coolmon in~puriticsare 0.5 to 1.0 pm thick.
T l ~ e\Tllrues of &Nttrion mnstw~tsfor \n"oun <lopantsin SiO, depend an the m
centn~tion.pmpertirs. anrl structure. of tlze oxide. Talrle 3.3 lists <liffi~sion mnstnnts f
\Niour cotntnon dopants. and Fipn. 3.10gi~i\~s the oxirh?tlticLness requir~lto ttiask Imn
and pltosplrontsas function of cliffusiontime and tcrnperature. Notr that SiO, is !nut
morv eff,~rti\rfor nvaljng baron than pltospl~on~s. Xevertltrlesr, tlte diff~tsiviticsof
Sh. As, and 13 it1 SiO?arc all ortlrn of tnapit~tdeless tlian their corresponding val~as
silicon. w the!. ;uc all comp:atil>lewit11 midr mnsking. Tlds is not t ~ eI~owcver,
. lor (
or Al. Silicon nitride is itsrtl :zc an alternative mnrking mnterial for these rlements.
- Romn
w 3.4 OXIDE QUALITY
Oxides I I S C ~for mucrking are usually grow, b y \ r ~oxiclation.
t A gpical g r o u ~cvcle
l ~ mn-
sists of a sequence of dg.\vet-dr). oxid:ltion%.Mcxt orthe prmvtlt in strclt a W I ~ I P ~ C Vr ;n q j r n
in the \vet phase, sillce tile SiO, growill rate is mllcll higller when water is uspd ar. thl.
oxidant. Dn. oxidation. hou,ever, res~~lts in a Itisher-qualit? oxide that is denser and 1~;~s
a ltidter brcak(lo\~nwltage (.%I0 M\'/cm). It is for tlirsermwns tltnt the thin gate oxirln
in h!OS dexicrs are us11;tllyforn~edusing dry oxidation.
hlOS devices are also affected Iry charges in the oxide and traps at tlte Si0,-Si inter-
face. Tlte ba%icclwification of these traps and cl~argesis shrnvn in Figure 3.11. T l ~ q
are the interface tnpped charge, Lxcd oxide charge. oxide trapped cltarge. and mol~ile
ionic cltarge."
Interface trapped charges (Q,) are due to tile Si0,-Si intrrface properties and are
dependent on tltr clletnical composition of this interface. Tltr tnps are located at the
50,-Si interface, with ener~ystatesin thes
densih (i.e.. number of inteaace tnps per
<, .
den 1)ande;rn.Tile interfant trao
~d p r c.\.\') k orienhttion depr;.
llrnt. In silicon uith a c1lXb c y t d orienta~,~.a. .,#terfacetrap densih is ahout m
order of nlapiturle smaller than Illat in tlte <I1l>orientation. Present-day \IOS dmices
with tlienn:Jly grown silicon dioxide on silicon have most of the interface t r a p p l charges
passimted by low-temperat~~re (150°C)hy11rogc.n annealing (see Cl~npter7). The \due
of Q,,for <IN)>-oriented silicon can he Im\.as 10"'cm-'. wl~icl~ :unonnts to about one
interrace trapped charge per 10' s~triaceatoms. For <Ill>-orient~lsilicon. P,,is ahout
10" cm-'.
Tlte kxed cltnrge (Q,) is located within approximately 3 nm of the Si0:-Si interhce.
This charge is fixed and very dimcult to charge or discl~arge.Generally,Q, is positive and
depends on oxidation ant1 annealing conditions and on silicon orientation. It 1 1 s l ~ c n
s a ~ e s t e dthat wllen tlte oxidation is stoppd. some ionic silicon is left near the inter-
filce.These ions. along\vitll uncompleted s i \ i ~ bond5
n (e.g.. Si-Si or Si-0 hanrk) at the
surface, may reslrlt in the positive interface cltarge. Q , m he repnled .u a chaqe sllrct

0.1 1.0 10 IM
ntlT,sicm time (I,,)
Figun 3.10 Thiehnr orrilimn dio.ridr nredcd to maqk lnron and phrxphoms diffi~sions
a
hamion <ddifiusion time :and lcmpcratm=.
.U c Cbnom I SlLcon Oxidetion 3.6 Oxidation Simulation 4 55

Irratrrl at t l ~ SiO,Si
r isterClm.. T>?ic:ll k~edoxide cl~arpcilnuities for ;I n ~ r r f ~twatc ~ll~ TABLE x4 Color Chon for Thenallv Cmrm SIO, Film Observed Perpendicularly undn Dayligk
s,o,-siilltrrf;l'y. s,dm~an- illnut In'" cm-' for a <100> sttrf;ar and alnllt 5 X 10'" cnl n~omrcedLightinn
fi,r ;t <I I I> starf,~c~.. R m u s r of the lo\ver \~1111rsnf C),, a ~ Q,. ~ t11e
d <100> orientation
pn-frm.i fbr silimn hlOSFETs. Tl~irhes<
( h t l r t ~ arhnrgrs ~ ~ I Q~, . ~an~as.;ociatrd
l uith defects in thr silimn dioxide. The: Color 2nd Co~nm~.sts Ipn) (idor i m ~
L_IJT~IIIII.~,LS

Ix. c r e a t d . for c*x:~mplr.I>? x-ray radiation or 11igI1-eorrg rlrctron 1m11

C ! I : I ~ I ~X-RII
hanln>rnt.Tl,r traps art*dirlril,tttc-tl insidr t l ~ ori(lp e li~!rr. h.lost procrss-rr!at(~dQ, T:m 0.GS "nlakb- (11n1lllna. I ~ , Ilnnl,.dinc
Ilr,~\vr~ l u 4 a ? n t tiolvt ;mcl 1,ltlc. grr,rs:
IF n.nto\wI hv Lnv-trn~p.r;~ture anneding.
\loIriIe ionic cl~arst.s(Q,!. \vhirl~r r s ~ ~flmt ~ ncontiunination from sodium o r nth, Dmk \iolrt to r-I \ic~lct ;~ppc.arrmorr lckr a i l ~ i x t t l n .
R q d blue Iwtnv~ntiold rwl and I>ltw~~~~~~
;~lli~li inns. are mohilr \\ititin tltr oridr t ~ n d r ctismlr trmpcnilrlrrr (e.g., >100'CI and l ~ i g l ~ :twl lc<>k\ gn>>i<I3
rlcyirir field oprraticm~s.TRIWmnt;nnin;~tionI,? ;dk:di n~rtnlions may cause stahilit?.prob- Light I,lttc to mrt;dlir blur I

>lt.IRllie 10 \.PVIi~ht 0.72 liluc pn.rn to gncn lrluirc llnwdi

lrrlls in <t.nli<nn<luctorclr\icvr o p m l t < ~tlndrr l l~igI~-hia%and high-tenlperat~~rr mndi- rl.ii "Yt.lltn,i~lr"
yvllr~ngr~.ce
tionx. Untlcr thew mnditinns mol~ilzionic cll;~rgr.:can n ~ o hark v ~ iind fort11tl~rougl~ the 0.54 Onnsc lr;~tb<.rbroad fix ocmgc)
I.irl>tgold ctr )rllmr.:
nxido l;aycr :m<lr:luw t h r e d ~ o lvnltap ~l s l ~ i l tTl~mrrfore.
. scpci;tl altrntion mtlst In. p i Ori2 S;oln~rn
sliql~tlyrnc~t.nIlir
the rliteir~ationof ntohile ions in iit.\icr C~lnic:~tion. For ~ ~ ~ r n pthe l er. k t s nf sadit~l 0.&5 DDI. liph~n,<l\iolct
(:old nitI> 5li~ht
met.~mio:ttion r;ln lw n-drlucd by addillg cl~lorineduring oxidation. Cl~lnrineimtnob y<.llcn\.<,mr,r" 0 . Vsnlr,
lkes hlr sntliu~ni n ~ ~As .s~n:~ll n n l o ~ ~(6%
n t or lrss! of ; u J ~ \ r l r o ~llCl
~ s in the ori<lizinc,~.
<c:
. Omnpc to inrlnn 0.hi R l s a &let
n n accnmplislI tl~is,hut th I, pn.scnncvofchlorine during dr).oridntion incre;ws I~otlttl Hrd \iolrl 0.69 BInv
linear ;an<!parilholic nh nnnstants. leading t o n highrr ~ro\r.tl~ r:$tr. Bluc to \iolrt l,Ita: I Illuv gn.m
Blur 1)))s Dtdl yvIlo\\,p - c n
b 3.5 OXIDE THICKNESS CHARACTERIZATION Rita to blue w e n 0.9i Yt,lLnv to "!rll<n\i~b'
I.icltt p e n 0.W Oritnp
Prrltap<tlte sitnplrst mrtl~mlfor drtermining tlw t l ~ i c k n rof ~ san oxidv is to mmp:tn 11 Cn.m to )rllmnv prcm 1.00 Carnation pink
mlnr of t h r uxf8.r aith a w6.rrnn. rwlnr rh;trt. cltcl) .AS tlw O I L Pin T.~hl(* 3 - t L \ \ l ~ e n3 Scllmv prerrm 1.02 \?otrt n:d
o n i d r - m l ~uafcr
l is illunlinatcvl \\it11 white liellt
. wrpendiallar
. . to the surface, the l i ~ h t Crt..l.n y,llow 10.5 R C \ioIct
~
prnctnltrc tile oxide ;mcl is rrllcctcd hy the u~~rlerlying silimn \\afer. Constnlcti\.e intcr- Y?llrn\. l(K \lolet
k.rrnw It.ntLc to ~ n l ~ m c r m e on ft a wrtiun ~v:~vrlrnetl~ of rrflected liel~t.
,- and the mlor Liqlnt orange I.0i Rltw \inlet
of thr wafer mrrespnnd~to that uavrlrngth. For example. a \safer witl~a 500-am sili- C;trnntinn nink 1.10 Cncn
m n dinride I a y r uill appear
.. hlur m r n . \'icrl~t n~ 1.11 Yvllmv crrcn
Clearl!: mlor chart <omparirons i r e suhjcctive and nrr therefore not the most ace, Rvd ,ir,lr 1.11 Crwn
nlte m ~ c l ~ ; ~ nfor
i s ~drtrrminine
n oxide thicknrss. A more aceorate measurrtnent w n t \'i"I"t 1.18 \5ol<~t

Prnjlr~~nrrnj ir a wr). mnnnon methwl of film thicknrss menwrrment. In this trcl

Ill...,
.,.,.L ..,,...
.<"I 1.19
1.21
R n l \iolet
\Fcdrt m l
Blue
nique. a sten fri~turein the mown<-
o r dt:msited lilm is tint r ~ a t r ~. r l pitl~er
. ~
lw n~nskin Rlt!e g r ~ c , ! > 1.24 Ctrnation pink to ulmon
during drposition or ln.rtcl~ingaftrnwrcl. Tllr pmfilometer then drags a line stylus acm: C h c n (l,ro:td) 1.25 0r.tnge
lltr filn~snrfll~'(see Fie. 3.12)'. \\lien tllr stylrm e ~ ~ r a ~ ~ n step. t r r s a signal variatiu Yvll<nvg"Y.11 1.23 'T,~ll,n\isl,-
intlintes t l ~ cstep I~eigbt.This infom~ationis t l ~ r ndispln?ed on a ch;lrt remrtler o r CR C w m )r.llmn\, I . Sk, bhtr to p v nI~lls
scrrrn. Fil~nsof tl~icLnrssesof less than 100 nm to greater t l ~ a n5 pin can I* nnlrnsnrr Ycllmv t r l "!rlln~~ish"(not ycllrnv h a 1 1.0 Ornnev
with this instrument. u in thr position tvhrrr !vllmv is tr, 1.45 \'iol~t
Ulipwmr?nj ir anothrr tridrh used measurement tcclmip~ethat is hxwd on the polar- k.eqwctvd: at tinlcs b8ppc.m to 1%. 1.16 Rlur. !ioh!t
ization rhangrs that m a r \vhm ligl~tis reflected from o r transmitted tl~rouglra medi~am. light cwrlny gri~vor mrlrlllc) I.i(l Hit~c
Change* in polari7~tionare a f~lnctionof the. optinl proprrties of the mat~rial(i.e.. its Lieht orangr o r )r~llcnrto pink 1.54 l1,dl yvllcm- smrn
m m p h ~ srrfr;lrtive inrlircs). it$ thirLnrss, anrl tllp ~ w v ~ l m gand i l ~angle of incidcnrr of C;urnution pink
t l ~ lieht
r lwan) relative tn the sl~rf:~ct.n o r n ~ dT. l ~ r s(li&.rencrs
r in politri7ation are I I I ~ ;
~ l an ellipomrtcr. and tl~rc~xirlctl~irkncsscan t l ~ r nIw r a l c ~ ~ l ; ~ t r d .
s t ~ r r hy

c 3.6 OXIDATION SIMULATION

AT trend* trnr~tnlminiaturiirntinn mntinup ancl the s a l e olintegntion of ICs incwasr
amlratr b ~ m v l c dofonr-.
~r hvo-, and thrrr~limensionnlr t n ~ c t m dininnnation rep;ar<li~ir
t it:^ appo a q u! mqlr~wbmu!srun~ldsoq~l"11 s ~ ~ ! d aPIE p 111dM O J O SWJ
-y.'!qr .vpo ~IRIIJ s sorv-xpu! q~!t,.w ' ~ 1 . a~lC?!d
c U! I M \ O ~ San! SqnS.II 3 1 1 'alwl'iqns
~ lla>![!s all1 0111!
tq111.7~ JO 110!1311"J n sc T : I ~ ~ ! I ~ J I mt>qds(tqd
~ ~ . U L I O J17111 1 ~ 1 PUP!
d luud a n .alrlldlttu7 k? UO!IPP!X~ J-)IJY
,lun!qarr sa5nlr!a e
s! pauuoJl.~ixl.m auop dnrrd pur <Indurn nqL .pna "'PI* 3.m 01y ~ s q*~nn!mn,oz- Ir *,%"p
tlum qnrnwnql r:pmmXt~y~:rmd~o'du!t1tn$x1 q lr 3.~1101amnu!~rg,(nIC dn dm= a~lnuu!m-n~
P .ml:m n; .p.vxa! s! ~.,jn?n\ aql u a t l . ~
n,,~lfi ~ O Im: s t , .mrtunj aqr autnsm
JO ~ J ~ I P J J < ! < ~an,!

dOLS
LOld
lNI8d
WISIlJJIO
lN3Ma3
wIsnJJxo
JN3hW3
NoISIlJJIO
lN3Ma3
WISnJJIO
lN3w3
WISIIjJIO
lN3W3
3ZIlVILINI
lN3M*)3
31111
 Problems 4 59

PROBLEMS
,\,.I~,i'k$ dIfl0,lf ,3",l,l,.,,,<.
,/C!,C>~<~

I. h 12-t\y <IIYl>-aril~nt?c~ \ilmvl w r k r uilll 81 w*i\ti\ily nf 10 Q.cnt i<plirc~,~lin it \I~.Im i -

cl:ttion y ~ t r , l nto F t n r a fic,lcl odd,. of1145 pxn r t ln3l-(:. I)c.~,.minr tlr. limn,. n ~ ~ t l i n10.~l
F"". 1I>V ,,rid,..

'2. hflcr 1111.linl ohi<l:llirm\I; *vvn in I'nd,l~,ln I. aaindclu. ir opcnlrl in lhr "\idc. to qrm a
w t r oridt, at IIWMl'(: li,r 211 tnisnxtt.r i n cly ~,nd:xti<,n.I'md tla. ~ l ~ i r b t nfthr
~ - \ ~g.,tl
.~
<~\~dc.tmd lhr tolnl l i r l c l orirh..
3. Shcnv thrt Eq. I 1 tc~!um\to I' = RI lor lr,n~tin,?< nncl lo r = UIAil + ri for rhr,rl lirnv\.
4. I>rlrnninr the t l i f l ~ t ~ i ownr l l i r i r n l D for (13. oddrlion ol<l(Yh.orin~ltrlsilimn mtrnpl(.r
nl 9\Oe(: :m<I 1 xlm.

6. A~s!~mr lhal the Ca mncrntmtion in tile SiO: I n y r i s 5 x 10"alosdcrnl' sf1c.r \;llx,r

pL.ur dclmrition and ir rnranrnul with atomic dxorption .pramrnrty. Thr Car <r,nccn-
1r;tlion in thr Si I;tvrri< 3 x 111" atom$cn>' uftrr IIF.'l1.0.
. .<lis$olt!lion.Calc?d;!t*. l l l c . %T.
n q l l i n n m l t i c i r n t of Cu i n SiO/Si Ia)rm.
'7. I\ I u r r ;utcl i ~ n d o p n<l l W > silimn snrnplr is oridiznl for 1 hour at II(YI"C in d y 0: I 1 i.
tllcn mrrrcd mcl hxr the odde n*mo\vd over hall llrr \rafv.r Next, il is w-odrlind in \vet
0, :at I(YNI°C li,r YI rnisatn. Ilsc SI!I'IIE\I lo tlt.ti.nninr the. thicla~errin Lhv t\m
nyilln$. IIc,\v h i ~ are
h tltf step on lhr rt~rCncv.and lhc. r l r p in tbc. .i!dntcttr5

: ~ r\\.rll. Finall? t b r prowss sim~ll:ationa~fhtare

<lr~rrilr<l pack~ilrSl:PRE\l \%:a i n t r
dtmrl. Tltr wr niSI:PIIE\I. III)\VP\.PT, is not lit~,it(.d t o olridation, and it \till hc r ~ \ i
itrcl i n sn~lwcqsrntrll;lptcn.

b REFERENCES
1 E 11 srmlli.,n:.nd J R R-. JIOS Plillrin ond Tl.ihnd~lq.
\\ilry. Scu. Yo*. 199-2
2 R E m-.,I ,~,,d,a. s cnnr-C*.n,.rdlirl.,rltmdllp lor thr Thl.rm:II (fitLt1ion aiSllimtn:] .Apld Phys .:
;-,,, LIW>,.
R I D Slrlndl *.r .d . .sO,n~nE p i ~ .md , ~ Oxi&,hun: in F. \'.I" dr \Iirlc.. \I: 1. En!$ and P 0.
Jrqwv.
FII. . P n n v owl 1 h 1 r r>f,rb.iln:ifiir In,~orr~rrdC~m,ftDtv<n. SmrlmR Lr\~lr.rn.1977~
I .\ s C m r ~ h . , . ~ l , mEcI,NJ,,~~
d ~fsrminmrbrfsrIX.roh-,. \IiL-. S w Yo*. 1%:.
5 R E Lh-11.~St..niilnll,nl K.minolw lor Oodr Clt3ql. Asw.idwl urlh Th.~rmdl?OddmdSilic~m"
lEEE Twnc El.,nn,.i I,..! irr., ED-27. FJ6i I'JVI:
6 \V R,-bn .m<tE (:m~r.,ll. .S,,nll,.tnsrnxv Mcnnmation oiThicblrn mncl Rvfr;n.liw Indm ol
Tr.~7v.cmr,tb-dr>w.18JIJ R n D.~,,lhf,, S.43-51 41kW>l,
r s \I,,li.tnd R T.,nI.r Si!am F m n v l ~ / l r r b r \%S1Ern. larlirr Pn.-. Sl~nu.1R,.xlm. CA. Z M D .
\ CI'I'PREI1.I I'.rrl Jfonnnl, S l I \ y n l n b m i , t s ~ ~Sonla
~ ~ l CX.ICI
. C.I. 1%;
,I 11 \ ~ . n u ~ ~<:, l . 11s.m,l J ~Iwn~l;~.r !n J rl\ttnnlt.r. Fcl . Conzytrrr ~ul,.dDtricn oflnacmrrd Cimril
~ d . - , . . , ! :rn..e~t,.,
,~ $, s.I'\I n7:,.,.%, St,u,ior,l ! ' n , , ~ . ~ ~ ~ T v ~ R,.pn.
l x ~ , , ~S~.,n(or~l,
~l (:%, lcl9-2.
 Photolithography

I
Figure 4.1 \:~riouc na)s i n wl>ivlnduet parficlrs can it>trrfi.n.\\itln pl~rto~nr\L
prtt~.mr

i ~ ~ gPartirle 2 is Iwatnl nrnr a p:tttcnt rdec :lnd in:t?cmrsv

a pinhnlr in the i ~ ~ ~ d e r l !layer
n mnstri~iianof<vnr.nt flcnviu a n~rtalntnnrr Piirtielc.3 cm Ienl to a sltori ~irL7litirhvren
T l t r iwprt;tnw oFn rlpat~r w m fnr lithopphy the h w ~%,~al!!clinq regions and r~n(1c.rt l ~ ecircuit i ~ s r l ~ s s .
; ~ WEOI~I-
Thr moct \tidcly ttscd litIiqctphic ~ ~ t ~ t l ~ ~ I - - ol iptthi co ~~ ~p lI ~ ) ~ itc nd In ;I rl<.:m rwm. thr tot;d nambrr o f d t ~ sir:wticlr.s
t per unit volt~rnrmttrt In. ticlttl\.

.tton ~ n l ~ : m n n , c ntcrhniqitrs
t cnntroll~~d. ;>long\!it11 llw tr~npratttreand ilulllidih Iiimlrr 4.2 zlrmrs tltr p:trticle.-si~~!
distrihutiort rtnwrs krr ~ l r i o u clsses
s ofclean rooms. T\r.rr swetns ;are usrtl to ~CFIII,. ~ I I P
:\<l~~~lt.tztv
old lintitations o ~ o t h e tr i l h ~ n p h i methci!s
r
cI;rwes ~Ccleanm0111.' In 1 1 1 ~Enslish ?stml. thr ~ I I I I I P ~ ~dA~ Is i ~ i t t i o01t )tl1(. CI:L<S
is
tnkr~iFrnt~~ line inaximttrrl nllounhlv namllrr of partklrs that nrr 0.5 prn ;~srll;trgcr l r r
nlhic foot ofair, 111tlte tn~trics>st~m. 111celms is tnkrn fmm thr lqarithln tl,.lrr 10101
b 4.1 OPTICAL LITHOGRAPHY thr rn:~~imum nllo\vablr nwnhrr nFp:t~tidrst l ~ ; ~nrr t 0.5 p n ~.tnrl 1;trpc.r 1x.r ruhir invtvr
Thr \-at m a j j o r i h o f l i t h ~ p l ~ i c r q ~ ~ i p m
forr nIC
t fiahrintion is opti<alrclnipment using For rx;amplr. a cl;as 100rlr;m rmm (E!,elisll n s t r ~ nI)t s n dust munl OF l1Ml ~~;~rtirlrdft'
~ ~ l t n \ i olieht =
b t itrarrlrnflh nr A O:?-0.4 prni. This section mncidrn t l ~r.qnsure r twls.
mask, rrsisti. and mwl!tlion eshannment techniques u s ~ for l o p t i d lilliogc~pl~):It
.al<r, <nnsigltxsthe pattern t r ~ n s f r~mcess.
r .
wI>ichsen.es i ~ a1 basis for other litllocm~hic
\xtt.ws. Tltr scrtinn first bricfly dscuwrs the. clran m n l . Irc;~esrall litho~.tpl~ic
,.
pro-
0.5 p!n or !;~rpr.Sincr 100 p~rtirlrdft'= 35lNl l ~ ; ~ r t i r l ~ as ~c ~l ~n w
syt,,tn cx~rrcs~mncls 10 ;t ~1;~'s&I 3.5 in thr nwtric s!slrn~.
' 1lKJ
, in t l r 12tqli~l1

mwc* ~nllrti r prrfomrd in an idtr;acl~nnentirnnmrnt. Hccanrsr the n l ~ m l rofclust

r pmiiclrs incn.;nm ;r$p;miidr sirr <!<.c'XFL'S,~ mon.strin-
grnl mntml of tlrr clp;~nrmtn c n \ i n ~ n > c nist mqui~vd~ . I I P I I l h minin~ttn~
~ F~al!!rvIc!~etl~'
of ICs are r~<lum,dto thp d r r p sul,anirrnn r;nngc. For aorl IC i;ll,ricotiur~art.;r<. :t ~ 1 ; ~ s
4.1.1 The Clean Room I00 clra~lr w m is r~qairrd:that is. lhp dwst cntlnt i n l ~ dIx- rlwnt four urrlrrs of rn;lSni-
4s IC f;shriration f:lcilih r r q u i m a clrnn prnwssing rmm. especially in the area I L V ~ tude lonrr tl~itr~tlwt ofordinan. nnw air llo\vrvcr. for tllr litltograpl~y;~n~n. dm.; 111
I;)r pltotolitllc~r.tpl~y. Thr n r . 4 for such a clrnn rmn, arises k , a u s r clust pnlticles in the clr:m nvnn or on,. wit11 a lnapr <l$lstmunl is ti.<lltirrd.
:ur c:ul wttlr nn wmirnnd~tctnr\rxfrrs and litl~ogntpl~ic , n a b mcl can c;msr clrfects in
tlw < I ~ \ i w s\vhicIt
. w v l t in circuit Fiailt~rr.For cntrnplr. a <Illstparticle on a srmicon- EXAMPLE 1
cluaor xnrf:tn. cm dicnapt thc. sincl~~-c~.it;~l ~m7o\\il~
of an cpitxrial film. cansins the for-
r~,;ationa l dililmtions. :\ <lust particle inrorpontecl into the cate oriclr can resal*
~nl,.tnmlcnn<lurti\itymd cruse d ~ \ i wf a i l l ~~r ~I I to P IIW hwa$la\\m wltaw. Thr !;ih!-
. ...'-
atlon 11. ~ P I more
I critiml in thr. litlttqraphirarct. \\Iten dart particlrs adlrvrc tu tltr sur-
. . psttmls
f . 8 ~ - OF:, phntntn;~&.t l ~ mI r l ~ a :ru ~nl,;atjur . on thr maql;. and tltpsr nattrtrls trill
Ir. tnn&.rrcd to t l l r undrrhinc Inyr alnns\\ith thr cirr~lit p t t r r n s on thr mxrk. Fis
I I <licm.it h n r rlurt yrticlev on :I ph01oni;r~k.'Particle I may rrsult in tltr F<,nnnlio
 4.1 Oplicel Lithography 80

ligl~ttlirn~~gh the back of the 111a5klor ;I f i n 1 titne. n~r inti~natpmntila lrrhv<.r.cnr r s i ~ t ~

and m i d l>m\iclc.sn rrmbtion of ;~pprori~nalrly 1 fim. 1lmvrvc.r. mntart printisg r,lf.
rers n n~ajordc~\vhnckn t ~ s aI)? l rlt~stp;~rticlrs.I\ d a ~ p:~rtielc
t or a speck orsilinlrlglllrt
on tlir \v;~frra a i In. i n ~ l r < k l ninto l i tlw ni;~\km:ikcr mot;a? r r i t l ~I I I I . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .
l tlrt, ~ ~ t ; au?len
T l ~ in~lwddr<l
r particle citltsrs pmliaar.at dsnrnge to lllr mxqk ;o~rlrrwlts it) (11.Fces in
thr w f r r aitli each succt.c.di~igCqWSLLr,.
'ti1 ~niini~ai/e rnilrk damaee. thr prclsiznityeqmsttre metllnl is tnsetl. F i p m 4.31SII(MT
the 11;~cicsetup. It is sin1il;ir 10 t l ~ ?mnrlci p r i s t i n ~mtsllt~l.cxcept ll~attlwrr is a small
gap (10-50 pnr) bchvren t l ~ wvafrr e and lltr n~:skd ! t r i s ~ e v r ! ~ r nlr.
r . sn~~all
gap rc$ults
in optical (clillfi~ction at feature rdprs on tbr pl~uton~a<k: tl~atis. Am liql~tp&-.wr tlte
edges of on opnqt~rmwk feature. fringes itre fonnrd xnd some light pe11~1rnte into tile
sl~n(lo\vrcm$on.As a result. t l ~ cresol~~tion is dcgnderl to tllc 2 to :-par ranee.
In sl~adnwprinting, the minima~nlinewi(lt11 lor critical dimr~nion(CDI] tlnt n n
IF printed is mtrghly
CDE& (1)

-
wilere h is tlic \ ~ \ ~ I ~ n ofthe
@ l i ~ P O S U T P radiation and g is the gap hrhvecn tile m a k
and the ~rmfrrand inclu(les t l ~ tl~icLmess
r of the resist. For h = 0.4 pm and g = 50 p n ,
tlir CD is 4.5 fim. If \\,r rcdllc~h to 0.25 pm (n wavrlen$tl~ranse of 0.2 to 0.3 pnn is in
the drr-p U\: spcctnl rrqion) and g to 15 pm. thr CD h m n ~ e ?s pm. Thus, tllrre is an
s d ~ ~ m t a gine rrducing b t l i h and g. Hn\vevrr. for a given distane g. an? cl~~st particlc
wht; a diameter larger th;m g potentidly c:m cause mxsk darni~ee.
To avoid tlie mask damagc p r o h l ~ massociated !villi sl~ado\vprinting. pmjection-
001 0 I I to
r.,n~rh~ u~~
lpm!
orintine .
*. e,msure tools ha\.e been dewlowd to proiect . , an i~n;tcnof the mask patterns
onto a rrsist-coated \vafer many cmtimetrrc aur?\. from the n~cuk.To incrcw rcsol~~tion.
-
Figun 4 2 P;ertidr.sirr <licmhutioncunv for Engliqh (- -1 and #r~cttir
(-1 dacw1 of only a snldl nortion of the m a 4 is rmosal at a time.
~ ~ ~~~~~ n~r
mlall inlacc area is s m n n l or
<I,.,,,, m , , , s a ..
s t c ~ ) over
~ d tlw \ d e r to m r the entire \\,nfer surface. Fiourc 4.47 slxo\n a 1:I xd'rr
\cat, pmj~cttons n t r ~ "- n ;\ n.lnou: arc-sl~apt.ditnasr fiekl appruxi~natt.ly1 8nln it1 ni1\111
seri:,llv tr.~nsfrrsthe slit imncr oltltr ni;lsl; onto tltv x>it,r. T l ~ unncc
e srlm on t l ~ n:afer
r
ll,r nu~sl*.roidlzrt prrticlcs (0.5 jlrn anrl l:~qc!rrlcontaincd in thc air \wltnme is . S O x 0.512 =
lurtirl,.r.
ThcwA,w. if thcrp are 4IXI IC chip* on thc \\alcr. Ihr partirlr munt amounts to one paltic11
r.lrh of S?T n f l L chip*. Fr,rtnrnlrl!: onlya fraction of thc. particles that lanrl adhere to thew
mti:xr. n><lof tbrm.onkn icstiun arc at aciro~ithrati~merilicdenotqh 10 O~IISCil r."ltt~. Ilmw
the. elln~l;tlionin<licrt,.rIhv isqwnmcr oi the clran mm.

4.12 Exposure Tools

.~. e w m r e tool. '
h\. urinrr a litllwapt~ic
TIN. ~ , t t e r ntransfer p r o w s i.; arron~plisl~ed
perf,;nrtanw o i an r+sun. t m ~is <~btern)ine;~ in. titree pamnlrten: ~eso~ntion, rr
tr.ttiaa. :tad tllmtndln~~t. Rnohrfion is tltr minitnuln f r a t l ~ rdimrnsion
r tl~;ltman k In
..
o i h o ~~ c ~ ~ l m tpixttrms
el? on sacw<si\.r mz~rl;~ can IF a l i p r d (or o\.rrlai(l) \rith resl
to nrr\iousl\ ~lclinrtln:tttma 018 tlir aafrr. Tl~rnselmtt! - , is tlir number o f uafers I
em Ic r y x ~ s c dV r Itour for a Gym mxk levrl.
Tllvn ;trr l,asinll\ hvn optictl rsposurc rmrthnls: slradow printins and projw
prinlinc.'" SI~:~rkn\pri~~ting ta:n- Il:~\.r. tlrc. m;irkan(l\wfrr in dim+m n t a a \\it11 one anol
I;O in n,lltnrl ),"n!ir,~i or in closv prosinlih. I%< in ~nn.irnift,. .~,rit~!ir~c). . . 4.30 sll
.. Fimjrr
:I h:~ricwttip k'r cvnt.~ctprintine. in ~vl~iclt a rrsist-mate11 \mfrr is bmngllt into ph)?
rrtr81.td \rill$ a in:~<k,:~n(ltllr n.sist is c . \ ~ s r c lly a nnrl? m l l i a ~ a ~beam d of ultnl\i
 4.1 Optical Lithography + 6%

u;llere ii is t l ~ cintlpx of refraction in tltp im:spr ii~rdium111st1nIIyair. \vlirn. ii = 1). ilnd

Ois thr half-anglr ofthr mnr of ligl~tmnvrrgiag to n point image at th? \v;~frr.ar s l m ~ ~
in F i p ~ r r4.5." Also sho\\ii in 1111. lipn is tltr depllt of fnctts (DOFI, u,lxich cln IF
rxprc~'srrdRS

\t,lirrr k, is another prowss-dependent factor.

Equation 2 indimtes that resolution a n Iw iinprov~l(i.e.. smdlerl,:) IT either nrduc-
ins t l ~ cn~:a\~Iengthor incrcaqing NA or lmtli. tl~nvevt-r,Erl. 4 indicates that tlw DOF
c s inore rapidly by incrcacing NA tllan hy drcrrrning A. This explains the
~ l ~ g r a dmuch
trcnd toward shorter-\wvelengtl~sourecr in optical litliegraplty
The high-presurc mero~ry-arclamp is tvidelv usrd in cmostlre tools I m u w of its

405 nm. and 365 nm, rrsp~cli\~r!y I-line litl~ogmpliy\+itl~

5:I step-and-rrpst prnjwtion
a n offer a resolution of0.3 pm with rcsol~~tion rnhsncrment techniqt~t-sisw. Sr~tion
. . s.n t r m urine a KrF
4.l.fi). Ad\nnced e w s u r e tools sucli .~rtlir 248-nrn lithomnpl~ic
Rwrs 1.4 Imnpl. pmtioninq terhniqucs lor projection printinq. (n)Anau:al-field \\afrr sm). cxcirncr laser. the 193-nm lith<rgrapliics)strm using an ArF rrci~ncrIm-r. and tltr 13i-
$1,' I:1 strynnd-rq~:t~.
tr) \I I n~luaionrtt~p-:md.n~pr;lt,
id) >t:I nrhaion strp:url.rr~~~." : nrn litltocctnl~icm t e n i usinc a F, excitner layer have k e n drvrlonetl for m a s nmluc-

Thr st~v.illi m n s ~firld can also he stepped ovrr tllc surfacr of the \ a f e r by hrn- 4.1 3 Masks
dimensional translatiom of ~ I I P\\nfrr only while tlie mark re1n;dns statinnay Mter the
h.ktsk.5 used for IC manufachlrinc are ~ist~allv reduction reticles. n l e first step in niask
rqmsurr of one cleip site. the \taler i~ n~ovedto the nest chip site and the process is
t l r a k i n ~IS to !IS(.
: ~ ~ ~ n ~ p ~ ~ t ilt~iqn
e r - . i IC:\l>)
t ~ I ~ I?st(.~nin %$IlicI~
dcsiencn mn r%,~nplvtcly
rrprxtrd. F i ~ l r e 4.41,
s anti 4 . 4 ~rho\\. tht- p~lrtitioningof tlic safer image by sfq,-and-
n'j~<wfpn,irrtion uith s ratio of 1:1 o r at a drmapificntins n l i o ofill:l 1r.g.. 10:1 for a
~ l c v n l x tltc
~ ~ . circuit nnttrnls rl~~rtricallv
~ ~~~
. tlat;i protlt~<t.dIn thr (>D nxtrnl
Tlte 0~eil:tl
10 times rrdudion on the \wfrr). rt.sprctirrl\: Thr dema@ific:ttion ratio is an impor- thrn driws npnttem grnentor. a'hicl~is an clrcimn lxmn lilbogmphic?stcn~(see Swtian
4.2.1) that t m s f e r s t l ~ epatterns directly to clcctrnn-scnsitiwd ni;rsk. The m a k m ~ ~ s i s t s
ofn f~1wd.sili~.1 s u h s t n t ~co\.ered \sit11 a cl~m~niunl layer, The ~ircuitpattern i? fitst t m s -
lion ?Jtcms. hltl it is tn~ichmore dificult to prndliw (Irfrct-free 111rnk.5at I:I than it ir frrrerl to the elrctrnn-sensitiirrd layer (rlrctrnn resist). \r.hich is tmnsfrrrcd nnrr rnorr
at 1 10: 1 or a Z l rlenlapification ratio.
Rrrlaction prnjwtion lithovaphy can also print larger \wfrrs withol~tredrripir
thr strpprr lens. ns lono ns t l ~ eliclrl sizr (i.r.. thr eqmsurr a n onto the \v;ifer) of 11
lrnc is 1;iqe rnoush to contain one or more IC cldps. \Vhm the chip s k c exweds 11
firkl sizr ofthe lrns. fiirthcr pnrtitioningof the image on tlir reticle b IICWSW~: In Fig11
.I.&t!. l ~ imaqr
r firld on t l ~ rrticlr.
r can hr a narrow arc sham for .\l:l step-and-scan pn
jrction lithogmplly The strp-and-scan ?stem )ields hvo-dinier~ionaitr,~nslstionsoltI
\\afcr aith SIX~YI 1,. and one-ditncnsional tr;insl;ttion offlte mwk \ri111a snecrl .\I ti
that of thr ~ : d r.sped.
r
The rrsolution o f a projection Fsteni is @\.mby
\
Irll. 14s
DOF

Figure 4.5 Simple in~ngrqscm.'

66 Chapter 4. Photolithography
4.1 Optical Lithography 4 fi7
Slink r revs h? t l i l k t ~ l , ~ .

Figure 4.7 :\n it~trgntc.~l

cirnait photornak.'

rnarck on a.hic11pattenls ofprnrnrtric shnpm h;we l w n fonnel. A frw s v c ~ , n r l : ~ d sitt.s.

~ip
IIS<-I~for p m . s se\aluatioti. ;trr also inclt~~lrdin tltr nnmk.
One of tile lrtajor m a i r m s about mmks is elrfrct r l r n i h Alak il~fc~cts can lw intro-
cl~tredcluri~ijitllr manl~fist~ire of tlte mask or rluring s~I)se~~r~<'nt
I i t l ~ ~ ~pnmssrs.
~ ~ ~ ~ l ~
Evrn n s111:tllrntak-dcfrct densih Ilm n profo!tntl eflrct orb tlle final IC .rirlrl. )?clrl is
defilled RS 111e lillio of scad cllips prr \vafer to tI1e total nllnlllfr of c h i p prr aafrr (sr.t.
Cliapter 10). :Is a lint-order apprnd8n;ttion. the yield l' for r given ni:rskns IrwI ran b r
mprcsseell is
yze-C* 151
tvl~rri.D,, is the a\rrnpe nasnlwr of "Lltal" defects lwr onit arc,;,, w d A, is tllr drfect-
sensiH\.c arc1 (or "criticnl area") of the IC chip. If D,,rcmnins the saillnc fnr it11 inlzsk It?.-
rls (e.g.. A' = 10 levels). tlleli tlw final !irkl lxwmrs
V"4
Ysr- (fi)
into tllr undrrl?ing chromiu~nlayer for tllr finished rnzck. Tlte details of pattern traIns- F i p ~ r 4.S
c shows tllr nt:~~kli~nit!it4iI for a 10-IewI l i t l z ~ ' ~ p lpr<xrss
~ i c ;IS21 frloctioa
fcr nrr m n s i d ~ r r in
~ l Section 4.1.5. orcllip sire for \clriaas talurs of ilrfrcl dntsitirs. For mnnplt,. fi~rI),, = 0.25 rlrfdcm'.
TIie pilltcnls on a t n ; ~ ~rrpresrnt
k onr lcvrl nf an IC design. Tile composite l ~ ! t l ~ )irld
e h 10% lorn chip sir*. ofW innr'. ;utd it rlmps to:dn~~t 1% fi~re r.llip si/e of 1 Yl n~m:.
is brokrn into mack lrvrks that mrrrrpond to the IC p r m s s srqorncc. s!rcl~8 s tllr Tlsrrfore, ir~spcctiott~ n rrlraniop
l of al;rsks nrr i t n p n i ~ nto
t acl~irvrIliqll ) i ~ l d on
s inqt*
lation re$nn on one lrvrl. thr gatr rrsion oe ;tnothcr. nnrl .w on. T>~icnlly,15 to 20 cltips. Of mt~ni,,;In oltr;slrnr~pnxrssing ;lrra is rnnndato~?.fol- l i t l ~ ~ ~ p m l ~sisr i ~ ~
fcrrnt nliak It-vrls are rrqsirrrl for a mrnplrte IC p r m s s cycle.
The stanrlanl-izr rnz& snl~str,iteis a hrsrrl-silin~pl;ttr 1.5 x 15 crn .qrlarc. 0.6 cm 01 4.1.4 Photoresist
The size is nttdcd to aixorntnakt(. t l ~ lcns r f i ~ l dsizes for 4: 1 or 5:L optical expsure ti - .
\vI~errastlw tllicLness is wqrsirr~lto tninitili.,e pattern placemrnt erron doe to suhst nttr
clistorlion, I l ~fi~rrrl-silic2
r plntr is nrrrlrcl fix its low wfificirnt of t l ~ i ~ n rrpansiori
nl I, its

l~ielltlii~~r!~li.;don
: ~ ht o r l r r \r.:nplrnqths. nnrl its n~rchnnic$~l strrnqtlt. F i p r r 4 . i slto!rs n
 4.1 Optical Lithography 89

Smtav w d ~ t

'
I
$1 0 40 RI Y(1 lln 1211 140 If* lu1 2MJ
CI,i,>,i,. r,,,,,>21
Rgun 4.8 Yivhl fnr n. LO-rnwk lithwr;~pltirpnxr.ss \4lh \nlious drkw rlmsitir~per lcvrl. (1,) 61
Rguw 4.9 Eymsrxre rrslxmw eumc and cmsr section of thc rcrirt im;qe akcr dw'~lopmcnt.
( 0 , PodIRl. pl~oloresisl.
( b )N~pIivcphotorcsis~.
nct rr.ct~ltis ll~atllw p,tttm~sfontlrtl (:~lsocidlcul inlaps) in the p s i t i w r~,sisIare tl
r;tntr ~ . r tlhe eapnsetl regio~lsI~rconlrless 4
;LX tlvo~eon IIIP mask. For , ~ ~ g o / irr*i.s/.~. .".~. \vI~errE, is the energv ohtained hydr;iaing t l ~ etangent at E, to reach lOO% resist tl>ick-
Idr. anrl 1111. p:rttrn~sfi>rnledin t11e ncgltin~rcsist arr tlw rr\.rrse of t l ~ mask r pattlems.
Rlritiw. pl~utorcsktscwaist o f t l ~ r c o~m~ p n e n t ~n: photosensitive m m p ~ t n d ;I. haw ness. ILF s11o\w1 ill r i o t r e 4.90.,\ l a v e r y ihnplirs a lligller soltdlility of the resivt uith an
resin. ;lnd an org:tnie solvent. Prior to i,ywsltrc. t l ~ pl~otosmsitivc e r n n l p u l ~ dis insolIh~blr increhnental increase ofc.vposure e n e r p ant1 res:~~~Its ill shaqxr ima~es.

in 111,. ~lvvelo~wr solution, hfter erposurr. thr photon.!~sitiv? c n m p e n d :hsorlls 1: The irnnge cross section in Figure 4.90 ilhlstratrr thr rrlalionslbip i w h ~ ~ thr endeer
tinn in thr r\posCd pnttrnl arras. changes its cllelaic~l~ stnlctrtrr. ;and i?econlrs sol of photnmack image and the currespontlin~e(lges of the rrsist imsees dter (levelon-
in tl~r~ I ~ ~ v e lsolution. ~ q r r ~\fterd ~ v c l o p t ~ ~~rItI~C,t:.\ ~ X ) Sarc=
L . ~ are ren~owd. ment. T l ~ edges e of tl!e msist image arf.ggcccdly not at tlleve~ical~projrdrrlpsitions
S r ~ ~ ~ pl~ntnrrcists
tivr arc- p l ! ~ n r n cwn~hinrtl\\it11 e photosrnsitive c o n ~ p ~ ~i n d . o l tile I I I ~ cL (~l ~ e because
s ofrliffrortio:~.
,, T l ~ edee
r of tlre resist imttec mrresmnrls to
cympon~rc.tlrp pl~oto~rnsiti\~c c o n ~ p u n d~ h s o r l ~ s optical e n r r p and cor~verlsit into
the tllc position udlpre thr Intill ahsnrlrd optical r n r F eqanls thr tl~rrsllolrle n c r p E,
clac~nir~l rnr.rn to initiate a n c ~ l \ ~ cross-IinLine
n~r reaction. This reactiohl cartsrs I:ma I'iptrr 4.911sho\n lllr espsnre reslmnsr CIIW anrl inngr emss section fnr ;in e p -
. . . . eight live resist. T l ~ enegatitr resist rrnnains mn~plekI\' . . soluble in the devrloprr solution for
;mrl I m n r r 5 insoluhlr in the dc\.rlnprr mlotion. Aftrr dwlopmpnt, the i ~ n r s p s c d:arc'is e.yxstlre energies hnvrr than E, Alxwe E,, nlore of t l ~ eresist film rem:lins aftcr dcvcl-
:~rvrt,~nore.(l.0t1v zn:~inrrlfi~\r.l~;sk of a nrlrativc
.- nl~otoresist
a
is tl>;itin the d r \ . r l o n n ~ r ~ ~ t on~ncnt.~ \ wnosure t
ti;slly i n s o l ~ ~ lin~ lt el ~ dr\elopr.
e
.~~
rnereies hciw llhe tlhresbold e n e m , tllr reskt lilln txwnlcs e s m -
1 1 es r ~ a i t i \ i ~ y onegati\,~
fa resist is CICAIIMI as t l e ~ n ~ q
procrss. the \vl,olr resi~tm;ss nvplls I)? al>n,rhing~Icrrlnprrsolvmt. This nvellithg ;stion
limits tllr re%nlt~tion of ~legati\.~ pl~~toresi~ts. rrqt~iredto retain 50% of tl~rori@n:~lresist Cl~ntl~ich~ess in 111eeqms<.d rrsion. Tlnr
Fim~n.4.% s l ~ o \ \a~t\pintl vqmsure respansc clln.c nncl imagc cmss section for a parameter y is (IeCnrd similarly to y in Eq. i.except that E, and E, arc- itit~rt.)~nrgrd.
pxitivv resist.' TI,(. rrcpnrccmwr <lrscrilwstile prrwntageolmist reminingaftcr c . p T I I itntigecmss
~ section For tlte negttivr rrsist (Fig. 4.91,) is $so inflecnffd I?\.t l l ~ d i f i
sun. and dr~vrlnpmrnt\.(.nus tIw r\qnwrc m c r p , S o t r that tlw resist I I ; n~ finite solu. lion cfkct.
I l i l i h in its c l r w l o ~ rmen
. uitl~olttcyu,cnrr to fialiatioa. A%tllr vxpsurernrrQ incre;Ls.
t l ~ *<rltrl>ility
. er'~<ll~ally incrr;~rr.sllntil st ;I lI~resl~t>ld m e r q El. 1 1 1 ~resist h c ~ o n ~mm- es EXAMPLE 2
p l ~ - t r l \ - m l ~ TIw
~ l ~ lsr.nviti\ih
~. o f a psitivr rcrist is dclinr(l :rs tllr e n e q r e q ~ ~ i r to c dpm- Find the prctslvtcr y lor IIW phn~orcris~s
rhaw in Figm .1.9.
c l r ~ u .c~nnttpl<.tr sollrl>ililyill t11e ~ . r l n ~ ns ~y di u ~TIIUS.
. E, I Y ~ I T ( . ~ ~ ItoI ~the
S sensiti\ih
I t ) ;~!rlilic,llla E,, ;I par:ttnvtrr y. tlbr cnnlfi~rtratio. is clelined to chanctrrizr the rcsisb SOLUTION For tllr p,ri!i\v rcsisl. E, = nn,Jlcm'imml E , = 45 slJicm'. a,
70 Chapter 4 Pholol~lhographv
4.1 Optical Lithography 4 71

4.1.5 Panem Transfer

F i g ~ 4.10
r ~ illustnd~sthe steps to tnlllsfer 1C patten~sTroln a ~nmkto a silimll \vafer
t11;tt h:rc :m instllnting SiO: I:~yerfonned on its snrlhi~~.'
Tllp \v;~Tt.r is pl:mwd i n a clean

ti\? to \clvt-lrqths greater th;u1 0..5 urn. To ensurr stttisfilctol?~srlhrsi(r:l of the resi:
the stnfncr ~ I I I I he S ~ cl~i~nzed fro111I~,clropl~ilic to I~ydropl~~~l~ir. This rl~ang,C:III be ma,
by tht- application or an scllwsion prolnotc.r. a.hirh ran pmrtlr n cl~r.micall~ mn~patil>
surf:^^ for tlw rrsist. TI,? no st inn~tnor~ ndla.sion pronlotcr for silimn ICs is he:<a,11-
rthyl-disil:lz~n~. (II\IDS!. After tlir ;~pplicationof tltis all~rsinl~ li~yer.tllv \v&r is I~elrl
on :I V ~ O I I I I I I spindl~.itnd e to 3 cnl' uf li(loi~lo~~s resist is apl)li~lto tlir wnter o!f tl1e
ss;?Ter.Tbr \\;?fcr is thrn mpidl!.;tcrrlrr.ltnl to ;I constant ~1to1i11n:d sprrd. \\.liich is nmain-
ktincd fur about 30 seconds. Spin speecl is grncrlly in thr m g o of II1lUJ to 10.000
to mat :L ilsifr,na f i l r l ~;dmut 0.5 to 1 ltm tl~ick.as sl~o\\nin Fiymrta 4.llb. The tl~ich
oFpllotor~sictis comlaterl with its \iscnsih
,\ftcr the spinnins step. the <wferis "soft baked" (t!picallyat 90-120°C for 60
seconds! to n,lllo\.e tlte solvent from t l ~ pl~otor~.sist
r film slid to incre;at. resist ;ldhesion
to thr xnxfpr. Tlw \rafrr is nlipml with respect to tltr nvask in ;ul optical lit11ngr:tphic s)s-
term, and the raist is cqmsrd to U V liqltt. a sllo\\m i n Figure 4.101,. If ;I posilivc pho-
torrist is i~sed.the exposed resist is dissu1vt.d in the dtvrloper. ;ssllonm on tl~rlrft side
of Fig~rc4.10k. Photorrsisl dr\~lopn~enl is ~ISIIRI$. done I)? flwding tlte n.itfer \\it11the
cleveloprr .wlutios. Tllr \vafer is tlzrn rinsrd ntld drird. i\fter clcvc~lnpmmt."post hak-
in?" at approxinnately IOO°C to ISO'C ma!. he required to incre:ar the> adhesion of the
resist to the s~~hstritte. The \vafer is then put i n all ;imbiel~tt11;~tetchrs the exposed i ns11-
1:ltion layer bat dw's not attack the resist. its sho\\n in Fi~tr.?-1.10d. Fillally. the resist is
stripped (e.g.. using solvents or plxuna oxidation). le;~\ingbel~iod211 ins111:1torimagr (or
pattern) tlrst is tht. s a ~ n r t l ~ eopitquc i ~ l ~ ion t g tlrr
~ n ~ ; ~(left
< k side of Fig. 4.10c).
For negt~tirrpllotoresist. tl~r.prncrdl~rrsclrscril~rd;we :\lso npplicablc. excvpt that
~ I I P~~nr.rposr~l a r m are rm~oved.The final insul;~torin~agc(right sirlp 11117ipre4.10c)
is thr rewrsr nrlhr optqur itnagr on tlir inask.
TIICios~~ltitor ini~grcan lw ~tsrtlac a mnck fnr stihsrqtlel~tp r m s i t ~ g For . example.
ion irnl~lotllnli~ln (see Cllnpter 7) can i r done to <lopethe rxfnspd srtninrnrl~!ctorwgio The film (e.g.,nlnlninurnl i s depositetl over tll? resist and tlw s1111st~atr (Fig.4.1 IT!. TIIP
h111not llle ;arra co\.crr<lI,? tile insul;ttor. Tlmr <lop:tntpitttrr~~ is R dttplioite of the dcsil CIIII thicknrs must be sn~allrrtlaan tl~ntof thr n.si~t.Tl~ose~nrtionsof tlrr film on tl~c
p:tttcnl on tlir pl~otomx<kfor a n~gatiwpl~otorc.riqtor is its c o n ~ ~ l r ~ n ep:lttmI r ~ t n 6~ wsist are rc~nloverl I ~ ~ s r l ~ t i v r t ~ d i sthr s omist
I ~ i ~l;~!rr~ ~ i n an nppmp";ste liqttirl t,trltant
;I positive pl~olorr~ist. T l ~ conlpletc
r circuit is f:tl~riixtc<l hy aligning tltr nrst III:LC~ ir 'I so tllnt tllr overl!irlg fillnis lifted offil~mclTPIIIO\XYI (Fig.4.1 Id). Tlw l i h ~ ~ l l t ~ lisu ~ i q ~
srqee!lry%111 tllr prr.\iotrs paltrnl and wprating lhr lillto~mpl~ic tr;alrfer pnress. c:lpnl,lr oTlliSII is isrd rstensively for discntr rlr\in.s stlrll ;r. Iliph-pou.c.r
A reI:~t~d pattern trancffarprm.ss is the /ifl<~/r tpcltniqt~c~. sl~onain Figlrr 4.1 I. A ~ ~ E S F Elloucver,
T~, it is ; r ~ ~ ~ i l l r l y a l ~ p l iTror. l~dtr.ll~rgr-sc~llc
l~l~~ i~~c~:r.ltinn.i n \vllicl~
pmilivr rvsisl is ~ ~ sto r dfonrl tla. resist pnttrm on tlw strhstr;ite (Figs. 4.110 nntl.l.1I Ill!. (In rtclling is the prer(!md t e c l ~ ~ ~ i q ~ ~ c .
 --
4.2 Nen-Generation Limographic Methods 4 73

I l l
i i r l l
hl.rrk

k~
Wpi1

?? P
1
.\t,l,\!r.,:,.

Ic)
i

figurn4.11 The liltoffpnxvss for prttt,n, rmnsfcr

a~' St~l,rmtc

(dl

b 4.2 NEXT-GENERATION LITHOGRAPHIC METHODS

\t'!iy is optical lilhogmpl~yso \~6delyrtsml.and wl~atmakes a sucr~a pmmislne inattat: I tle
remons are Illat it lias hi$h t h m ~ ~ ~ h pgu td. rcsoh~tion.Imv mst. .md e:we in opeition.
4.1.6 Resolution Enhancement Techniques Howrwr. rhre to rlrep-subrr~icmnIC pmcpss rrqrrircrnents. opticd litl,ngrapl~~ ha
some li~nitatioesthat 1iw.e not yrt been s o l ~ ~Althoo~h l. ~rcan use PS\1 or O P C to
estrml its useful span. the m~npledhof mask prwluction and ilinsl; insption cannot
r ~ l a c i nthe
~ navelrn$l~ of tl,c, r\lmslnr? tools and dewloping new wsists. 111arl~lition, be racily resol\.rd. In addition. the mst of mmk is very higl~.Tl~errfore.\eneed to li~al
man>-rpsoltation rnhancrn~enttecltniqoes have bni de\ploped to estrnd the capability nltematives to optic11 litlhogclphy to pmczss deep-sulrlnicmn or nlno!lletrr ICs.
of o p t i d litlio~apl~y to even smaller feahtre lenghs. \krio~~st ) p s ofnemgenrr.~tionlitlioppl~ic ~nethmbfor IC fi~hrio~tion are ilism~zrrd
:\n itnportnnt rrsol!~tionenli:tnement trcliniqlte is thr phosc-shif?ir~::tnrrsk (PSbI). in 111;ssection. Electn,n beanl litl~ogn~l~y, estreme U\' lithocrapll!: a-n? lithopplr):
T l r h;wic mncrpt is sl~otrnin Figare 4.1"" Fnra con\mtional mask (Fig. 4.12n). the elec- end ion benni litl~o~.iphy are n ~ s i ( k r r das
. are the d i f f r l m ~ :lmotig
s tllrst. n~ctl~<xls.
tric firld b:rx tllr same pl~ilreat even aperture (clrar a m ) . DiVractian and the limital
rrsohation of tlw optiml gsteni spread the electric field at the \wfcr. ;rs shoan I)? the dot- 42.1 Electron Beam Lithography
tnl1int.s. lnterli-rmcr Iwhwm \ct\?s $Ifractnl i n tltr acfjawnt apmtms rn!~mcesthe
I W ~ V P Fthe111.
~ Rrca~~se tile intensie 1.1) is proprtional to the square of the electric F Electmn kanr (ore-beorn)l i t l ~ q p h yis prini;~rily~~sed to plwlr~crpl~otomwb.Rrlatitrl?
it llrmmrs clilficult to seplrate t l ~ hro r imapvs tllat are projected close to one an01 fe\\ t~lolsare dcdialtnl to dirrct rrpsure of tlte resist 11).a fw~tsedelwtnn~hram \\itll-
fllr pl~;~<e-dtift l e y that covers adjacrllt apertures rrvrnes thr s i p of the elrctric I"...... out a mask. Figure 4.13 slio\vsa schrmatic ofan elcrtron Iwam ~ t l , o ~ ~ p l r y ~ s t t ~ n t . ' " T l z r
2 s sltoan in I ; i ~ r eJ.I!/>. Dec;~osrthe intnlsih at the mask is unclmozcd. the electric ~lectrong111 is n devicv that can senerate a h a m of rlt.ctmns nitlt :I saitablr current
firld nf t l ~ irn:l$rs
r at tl~r\\aier a n he cancrll~d.Therrfirr. images tllat are projected densih! A ttzngsten tl~~nnionic emission cstl~odror si~lglr-cl?~tal l;antl~:intnnthrutlwridr
close to one atlotl~ercan lr sepantrd. :\ 180' phase cllnap can IF ohtained hg using a (LaB,) is r~sedfor the rlectmn gun. Cosrlenser lp~isrsare used to fwus t l ~rh~1m11 r lwit~n
transpcrenf l:~ycrof tl~icknessd= hll'lii - I!, \\.llrrr ii is the refractivr iindes anrl h ir " to a spot size 10 to 25 nm in (lianirter. Dram-blankins plates. \vhiclt t11n1tllr clectmn
\\;n.rlrnflh that m\.ers one aperture, it,. sl~o\\nin Fi01rr 4,121,. h a m 011 aad off. lrn~ii<lcflec~ion
coils are mn~p~tter~nntrollnl :m<loprn~trrl: ~ t\I112
PC). c r to llirrct tllr fWasrd rlrctmn I m n l to any lor;ltiuo in the sral field 011
or ~ , i g ~ lrates
. ., ape- tlre sulntnle. Dpc;ause the scat1 lichl (t!picallx l cm) is 11111clls~rlallcrI~I:III
diamrtcr, precisioll l~lecl~;a~ie;d
stage is usnl to pnritioa t l ~ a~l>str,lte
r
111~. s ~ ~ b s t n ~ t r
to he pttmln!.
I,ili% For rmmplr. n squaw cnrtt;tct llole uitln dinlensions nrnr the resolution limit
p"rrt rrr;trly s :a circle. .\lwlifiin~IIle contact-llolr pattcn~wit11 atlditioa:~lseonletl ~ 1 n(l,.a,ltnps
, ~ of rlectr~n1,e3n1lithosc~pllyincl~~dr ~ I I Cgencriltinn of s~~l~~aicroti
the njrners \rill l~elpto print 1 IIIOW aecllntr square Ilolr. resist s~.ometfirs. llis~llyal,tol,yatetli ~ ~precisely
t ~ l c~~ntrnllrd opccltio~~. srr;ltcr d r ~ ) t l ~
 4.2 Nen-Generation Lilhogrephic Methods 75

("1
Egum 4.14 (a1 Hwtrr sc;m \m'ting rd>e~nr. Ihl \'cctur r a n wi~ings h c m c ~irl
. ShaFs olrltr
trrm Ix;tm: nntnd. \;lri;nhIt.. :md <*.Itpn~jc~tion."

11% h i ~ l w rtbrougllput than ~ I I Prnnventional Gn~tssiaospot heaal. It is dso pssihle to

pattern s rnn~plrxgcomrtric sll;lpe in one Pspsurc \\it11 an elearn" br;lor s!5km: this
is d1mI rrlI]~mjrrrrion. s11o\w1in thr far right o r F i p r r 4.14~.Tllr n*llpmjrrtion twll-
nilup'' is p . ~ i c t ~ l a r l s s ~ ~for l ~ l ~ reptitiw d e s i ~ aa.s in hlOS meznonells. s i n e
i t al~iglrly
f<x.urt l ~ . otll;tt ~ .n;iilnhlr rmm optical litl~oq:tply.and dirt,ct pattrrnin< on :I re a ~ l l s l r l I*.erposrd at oncr. Crll pmjrction 11% not ! ~ ncllirvrd
srver;ll n l ~ ~ ~ n o r yp:lttenrs t
~ ~ ~ ~,xti,,r ~ \1\ i t I~w ~: ~sing
t~ ta r11;1sk.
~ ~ TI!? r d i w < l ~ ~ ~ is t g rvl~ctrnnI,~:IIII lit11,,,-~
~ kt11;tt ,- tltr tllmt!al>put of opticll e\panare twls.
r.q>lt! ~n;trhinr<It;n-t* lo\v t ~ ~ r o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t - ; ~10 ~ ~\lilfrrs
~ ) r oper r i Iiour
~ ~ r iatl less
l e ~t ~
llilll
11 1; p111rt,<olt~t,nn. n~i< throls~hp~lt is aclrqu:tte for tllv protluction of photo~llask.for Electron Resist
s~tu.ttionrtI~.tt rr.rluire sfnall ti~lt~bhers of r11210111 rircuits. :tnd for d c s i p vcrificat:ion Electron resists are pnl!n~rm. TIw h~l~il\ior 01an ~ l e c t m nhenm resist is sirniliu to tlli~t
Ilr,\v~.\~.r. inr r~l;~&Ic.s'i diwct a-ritinq. 111,. t~lacl~ine nnjst l~;tvrtile l!i~l~est imss
..
9
of n pl>otoresist:that is. a cl~emicnlor ph!sind clumsy is indl~crdin the resist by imdi-
t l ~ m ~ ~ ~rlrl ~ x ~ t tltr
~ l ~tl~t.rrli,rr . l a r ~ c s lw:1111
t dia~llrt<,rpossil,lc cn~lsistrntsit11tlle n ation. This chlngc dlo\w tile resist lo In? p:tttcrncd. For A positim rlcdmn resist. tile
iv~untc l c . \ 1 ~ din,~nlsion~. pol!mrr-clrctron intemaion muses cl~rn~ical lmnds to Iw hmkrn (cllail~sciscionl to fnnn
TI~rrr.;tn. I ~ ; ~ ~ ihvo ~ ~\\.;r!s
- a l lto~ scan tlte firuscrl rlectmo hrarn: r a t e r s n n and sllortrr molw~rl;~r fngrnents. m s h o ~ in n F i p r e 4.150."1\s a rrsult, tbr molerular\\riel~t
tt,r 2l:ln. ' ' In :I rnr~crrmnnlitrrn. rrsist p s t t r n ~ are s ~~~~~~n IIV ~wrtiCnllvori~nted beat11 is mluced in thr im<li;~trd area. wl~icllmn lw dissnl~wlsr~hsrqt~entlyin a t h \ v l o y r sol~i-
t11.1tnlcr\r.c t l r n ~ t ~:r hrccul:tr m ~ l c;L< . s1tou.n in F i ~ u r e.I.l.in. The 1x.an1 srans sequcn- tion that attacks tilt* lo\r-l~~olrrul:lr-~vcisI~t materi:ll. Co!llllloll positiw ~fe~.lrLIll resists
ti;nll\ rwvr c.xvn ix,srihlt. Ikwittion 011 t l ~ ~c n i s kand is blt~nkrd(hlrnetl o m \vlirre no expo- inclr~dcpoly-rnetl~!l m e t l ~ a c ~ l (PhIhIA)
nt~ and p,lyhutcnr-l sr~lfonr(PBS). Posititr
wn. ic n-altlirr~l..\I1 rr.ittvnlr on tlbr area to IF \r-rittrn niarst hr s~~l>di\ided into in(li\icl1181 elrrlmn resists c m ~acltirw resol~~tion oi0.1 Hal or Iwttrr.
. ~ l c l r i i c ~ r . <i a. r ~ al $V-I pattern tnt~ctlla\.i. :t minimtun incretnr.n(;tl intrmd t11:1t is e n For a negative e h ~ t r n nresist. tltc imlrliation c:lusrr r.trliation-induml pnhlner link-
<Ini~ildc In tlw I K - . ~:~t <, l d r v~~ i~z r . ing, issho,,m i n mslm 4.151,. n,? :,
cmss l i n l i n ~ r r e a t ~rnrnpler
~s thwt*-clit~~erlsio~~:d rtntr-
In a itrrrsr <con r!-;tvt11. sllonn in Fimjrr 4.l.th. hlr lwam is directrd only to ttire \\itla n ino~ictl~ar g l ~ t Illall tl~Itof ~ I I ? nonimldiatt~lixll!nlrr.
~ ~ ~ e iIliglit-r nlr
rvqtw<tt'd p.bt1i.m fi.:%t!!re< ;and jut!lpC frortr ir:tture to it,3turr, rnlller tllnn sc;lnning nonirm<liattylresist e m IH. llis~oI~ed in I ~ l r r r l o ~ ~ r s o l t ~tllnt
t i odues
n llot attilrk thr I l i ~ I l -
~ I ~ I I rl>ip.I v :L* i n r.otcr Gem. For nr.toy ellips. tllr aver;tpe r ~ x ~ s rrccl~ i o nis only 20! molPclllar-nriSI,t t~~af~ri:d.
P~!\"gIyrid~l 111et1~.1~~l~t~-cn-etll!.l-i1cn~i1te ((:OI') is a rnll1-
llloll n e g i , t i ~rlrdm,l COI: like most nro,ativc pl~ohrrvsists,llso nvells durino,
t i l t . chip .hn~+. s?timr is c.~\-rdtr<inc:t vector scan nslrnr.
I;ic~tr~ -I 1-IC<I1,1\17SCYC~P.I~t!ys of rlt-ctron hr:~m<cmployd b,r r - l w a ~ rlitl~o ~ developlnrnt, so rrsolution is limitrd trr almet 1 W.
yltt t l ~ t .(:.w-i.l!~ yxll l r . t n ~ ro~!ntilIK.RIIII. tltr \ilri:lblc-sllapd lmrn. and c~.llprojer-
t>,,rn 111 Ill? \:tri.tl,lc--ri,.~pc.rl1r.m~ c\st<,!n. tllr p;lttvn~ingI r a n ) 11x5a r~ctnngrlnrcross The P m x i m i y Effect
w + i woiv.uri.d>lv%in% .tn,! :~ywctcttin. I t nfTt-m tlw :t<l\:tnt;~~?ofexposing smen~lacl~!res In<>pti<d l i t l l q l p l ~ ~ t11ercarlution is l i m i t c ~ l I ~ c l i K r ; ~ ~ o ~ ~Inoelmirun
f l i g l ~ t lx.anl
. litl19-
IIIII~ \i~~>illt.ti~<.ota'lv. T l t v r ~ h n . t. l t v vvctor sc:et r n ~ l l m usinr!
l ;I \;tri;ihlr-sl~apcl !wan1
!Ilr reqc,]tltion is not litnite~lI)? <lilTr:~ction(In'cat~se tlw ~ ~ v c I ~ ~ I I $ I I:~%swi:it<%l s
76 c Chapter 4. Photolithography

rcw>t,,,.~ - v t YYYY
-
?
-
,

-'+ I I L R
LC," ,.,on

(a)

4 Dow

Figurn 4.15 Sdwlnatir of positi\.c. and twgoti\.v resists nsc~lin elwtmn Ix:anl l i l l a ~ m p b ~ "

\ritIt e l r d m ~ uof a few kr\' and h i ~ l ~ pnergies

er are less than 0.1 nnt) h t ~ by t electron
sc~ltterit~g \\hen rl&onr penetntr the resist film a ~ t ilnderl!itl~ d srtbstr.~tr.tbey undergo
collisiom. T l ~ ~rnllisiorls
se lead to e n e w losses and path chatiqrs. TIIIIS.the incident elec-
trons spread out as the? hxwl t h r o u ~ htlir ,material lilltil either ill1 of their t~llrw is Inst
or the? leave thr rnatrrial k c a t ~ s of e hacbcatterin~.
F i p ~ n4, . l k s h o \ s rnrnputctl elrctrna tnjrctnrin of 100el~ctrnns\\ith initid e n e q
of 20 kcVind~lentat the ori$n o f a 0.4-ptn P l l J l h film on a thick silicon suhstri~te."Tl~e Figure 4.16 ( 0 ) Sirnulalcd trajectories of la)clcermns in PUMA lor ik 20-CVclrrlmn lx.am."
clectrnn hram is incident :%Ionstlte z-ajs. and :a11 tnjrctories hare Ixen pn~jrctedontn ( b ) Don. ~lislribtionh,r f o n \ d mttcring and hark-ttninp at thr n~isl-nnharntrintrrCarr~.
tl,r.sz pl:me, This figme slto\\s qtnalitati\.rly that tlte electrons are distriboted i n an ohlot~g
pear-slmpnl \alemc ~ i t ahtlilimneter on tlre same o ~ l rof r ni:qnitode ;L< thr rlectrnn pen-
rttatios drpth (-3.5 pm). Alw, mmyelrvtrnns undrrxo hackcattrrit~gcollicions: ~ n d tr.1~1
hackwtrd frnrn the silicon stshstnte into t11r P l l J l h resist film and l m \ r tllr oraterid.
Figtre l.lfiJ, sltmr-i tlir nonnalizerl distributions of tltr ft,n\ar~ll-scatterin and
h a c k ~ c ; t t t ~ r i s p ~ l r d r oatnthe
s resist-ntl~stntrintrrhcr. Rrcause ofhackscattering. dec-
tmns rffrctirrly c:m irradiate s r v e ~ l nmicmrnet~rs l a\wy from the w n t e r of thr e r p s u r e
h r a o ~Sincr
. the doce ofa resist is @ven t h sun1
~ ofthe irradiations from all surmunlfing
arp;rs. rlprtmn I~;e.,ntimtliation at one l m t i o n will affect tllr imliation in nriglllmrin'z
lwzhions. This pllenomenon is c;lllcrl t l ~ proxiraily r eJfic1. Tllr proxitnih rffrct pk-3 3
Limit on the mioirnllnl cpacinp I r h v e ~ npnttrrn f ~ t h t r r sTORI-~ . for the p m d m i h r k t .
p;tttcrns are tli\idnl into mmallc.r sremmts. T h r incident clertrnn dosv ill raclt segment
k :t~ljustnlso tl~ttttile i n t e p t r d tlmr fmm all its n r i n , h l n ~ r i ~ i ~ w g n tis~hn t~srnrrrct
r t.mo
s u n close. This tppmach ftlrtllcr c l e c r e ~ ~tllc r s tl~rnt~ohput of thr elrckon hram c).stcm
t v c ~ u u . o f t h rarlrlitionxl mrnputrr time rrtluinrl tn r r r i s v tllr suhrli\ided resist patt ems.

4 Ememe Ultraviolet Lithography

75 .
chapter 4 Phocol!thwra~hv

-
4.2 Nen.Generstion Lithographic Mclhods 4 79

,,q.) ,c.,,,,, tic^ zt,,, :*,,ELT' l i ~ l , , ~ r a ~qste111. I ~ yi-

~ l ~ y t\ l ~ ~ ? r r - p m l ~ ~ Iw: Lr l$ I or ~I drprnrls on tla. ntolrlir ntrmlrroftla. niateri:~land ,nost n~ntcrinlsI,;,\.,. I(,, , I ~ , , ~ ~ , ~ . , , ~ ,
,lLn,tn,,, r.,cli.,ti,,n,.,,,,srnl. .\r the sourct. n l EI:V ha\inq a \!-,~wlcngtli of 10 to 14 nni. at A I nm. tl~rnl:r~ks~tlfitrntrternst lr a thin inrml,r:~nc.(1-2 pm lllirkl ,,f I,,,,..
n,,.El'\' Gllll.trs,nis n.ILr.tctl hy it 1n;al. Illat is pnw!llnsd I,? p~lt?rni~lg;~n alrsorlwr malr-. ntrm~ic-numbern~t~tcrinl, surlt :asilica" nrhi<lcor silimn. TIIe pnac.m itsrll i< drlinecl
n.,l tl<.lndtr.ll t,n ;I maltil:l\rvcnah.cl 11:tt siliron or p1;us-plat? t11:rrk blank. EU\' KI<$~. ill a thin (-0.5 w n ~ ) rrl:~li\r,ly
. I ~ i g l ~ - ; ~ t o m i c - ~ ~m;tlr.ri;d.
l ~ m l ~ cstacl~
r ;at.ntalt~t~~.
tt~n~str,~.
I:,,,,,c n ~ ~ l t r - t Mironl
l 11,~. ~ ~ n n ~ ~ : ~ t t ~ ~( ir. rn.. n~ o~nl; t l ~ ~ ~ ~rcxin~ls)
rt.,$oss r h i n ~ of the n~xrli gold. o r on? of tlleir alla!s. 8vllir.11is s ~ ~ p p oI,n? ~tllr l tliin mmrnhr~n~~.
tf2,,,,,c~,', .tx r r ~ ~ , , c ~ i nci,,,,e~t
l, :incl i ~ t ~ a qintn
t ~ la thin l;iyrr nf resist OII tile n-afer. hlwks are tllc most dimct~ltand critictl elrmcnt of an XRL s!stcm. 1II<. con-
<,,,cr 11,~. E ~ T r.aliiltiol,
\. ilram is n:knou: the m;rsk lmlst IIP sci~n~lcd hy tllr k i t m t stn~ctionof an r-GI? ~ n a is k I I I ~ I C Inore
~I coriiplicalctl tlian tl~iatof n pliotonvirqk.To atoirl
Illlllllillittrs thP t.ntirt, ~ ~ ~ b t tlirld
, . n ~ tlnt desrrilx.~thr rircoit inark li~yrr.Also. Tor a 4x aha>rptionof tllc X - r a y hrt\rren tllr SosrLx. alld in;lck. thr rxlmsure crnrctlly t;,krs l>l:l<~.
lttlnrrr I.P.. t!lC ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ h. i~I~~~l -l ~o ~i d:tnd ~ .l ione-plmc,
~ ~ m i dniirror!
. rcd~~ction cmen it1 n l~rliumen\dmnnimt. The x-ray arc pnxlli~culin vactntlm. \$.luic\t is srpar;ttrd lronn
tIII u:afvr mtrct Ix. Yitnta~dilt one-fotrlIt III? 111:tsks ~ e ind a d i m t i o n o p p o i t r lo tb thc llclinnl ])?a tllin\-acllllnl aindow(lls11;1~1y0fIrtyllium). Tltr inark s!thctr;itr \\ill d,sorb
nl:hsk nlo$mbt.tlt to r<.pmlurr the itn;,p lirld on $1 cllip sites OII tllc a l f r r s~~rfao?. 25% to Xi%.of t l ~ eincidnlt flt!x and nmrl thercfori- l r cmlr,l. Aa r-my resist I ptn tl~ick
pnriqion ? d ~ iss nqttirvd ~ t a l*.rfomt tltc cltip-sit,, nlig~nlrntand to mntrol tllr \$.a& \*ill shsorlr about 10% of the incirlcnt f l ~ ~Tltrre r . arr no rrflrctions fn,m tl~rstll,antz
,t~tdlllitsk tilq. ~ n o v e ~ n t ~iu~d r ~ t~sI I Crxpnsur~dosr < l u r i ~t11c
~ g S C ~ I I I I ~pI Im~ s s . to crrntr slantling ~clves.so antireflection m:ttings arc unnewsray
E [ I ~ Iltllomtphy is clp;lhlc of printing 50-nm fc:ttun~nit11 Phl\lh wsist using 13-nl \ r e can ~ t s clrctmn
c Iwam rpdsts ns x-ray resists Irrcamsr !vI~eaan x-rav is ~I>UI~IHYI
r.ali;ltion. H~nwver.tlw p m \ ~ ~ c t i oofn EU\' eqmsurc tnols lms a numhcr of clzallenge I ~ y a natom. t l ~ atom
e gws toan rrcitrd stisteaitlr tlir rlnission of an rlenrr,~~. Tll~rrcit~rl
Sinrc EL\. is strnngl? ahsnrlu~rlin all inntt.ri,ils. the l i t l ~ o p p h ypm.s elurt h r pe atom r r t ~ ~ r to n sits ground stat? 1y enlittirig an x-ray having a difirrrnt \nvelragtl~t l t a t ~
h n ~ , p din :I v;tnm,,,. Tltr can~erzntttst use reflrctivc lens P~I.IIIPIIIS.;lnd thr rnirron mu 111,. incident x-ray. This x-ray is ahsorlwd by anotller atom, and tllr prrr~.sswpciit.;. Siuw
h. u . 1 1 ~ 1 n i h ~r a l ~ l t i l ; ~cmltinq
rr that prntlurr distrihl~hrlquarlcr-\fi~reBra:$ r d r c - ;!I1 t l ~ pr r m r e s r e s ~ ~inl t tile emission of elrctmns. a resist liln~under r-nty irradiation
t ~ o111 . i~~ldition. tla. 111:~ckh1:11,k rmtst :ilw h r rnl~ltil:~yrr coated to in:L\irnize its rrllrc- is ~quiunlrntto onr Iring irradiated I1y a largr n u n l l ~of r srrnndary electrons frmn any
ti,,? st i.of 10 lo 14 om. of tllv other pmmssrs. Onw tllr rrsist filrim is imdinted, clvain cross linkittenr d~;ainwis-
sion \\ill occur. clrprnrling on tlir h F e of rrsist.
3 X-Ray Lithography
42.4 Ion Beam Lithography
S-xty l i t l t ~ n p l ~ y(ZHL)
'" is a pnl~ntialc:mdirl~teto succrerl optical litltqr~pit).for tile
f:thriration ~i intzq.ltel circuits nt 11x1n n ~Tile . s!ncl~rotron storace rinrc is tllr choice Ion h ~ n ml i t h m p p h ! . ~ ~achieve
~i l i i ~ l ~resolution
cr than ~ ~ ~ t&-In?.
~ ~ v,c ~. l ~
r c ~t m, !w:
n mn
of x-r~vsourcr f i ~ l~igl~-voluane
r lii;unuf;rhtrinq. It can proride a i n ~ anioltnt
e of colli- liti~o,craphictrcliniq~lesbecause ions IIR\SCit higlwr mi~w:and tl~rrrforescattrr less tllan
oiaterlflt~rand can r:~rilyarcnmmcxl:ttr 10 to 20 eqmsinrc twls. elrctrnlts. Tile most in~pnrtar~t application is t l ~ prrpair of lnasks for o p t i d Iiit~o~r;rpll!:
S R L wes ;I s l ~ n ~ l ~printin?
nr. tnetllod sitnilar to optic11prosimity printing. Figlre4.1S a 1x4 for \r.llicl~~ ~ m a i r r c is$ems
sl are a\;iilal)lr.
slto\\s a scl~rn~ntir S R L s)stc.ln. Tile x-ray wvav~lengll~ is al.wut 1 nnl. and tI1? printing is l i i p n r ~4.19 s l ~ ~ Ill?
\ n mmpl~ter-simtll:ttc(~ trajectories of 50 11' ions implantrrl at
t l ~ r o a l a~ ll~x m,lrk in closr prosirnit). (10-40 pmi to thr uafcr. Since x-ray ahsorption 60 ket' into Phl\lr\ 2nd \.:trious substrates." Note that the sprracl of llle ion lr;an at 1
clrp;ll of 0.4 pxn is only 0.1 p111i r ~all c;rses (mmpare \vith Fig. .(.I& for el~rlrnssi.
I3nrbottterinp is c o m p l ~ t r;rlrs~nt
l~ for tlw silimn s ~ l h s l ~ ~and
t r ,tl~rrcis oal? ;I s~nnll

ow
I I I
Figura 4.19 ~ " , . ~ 11. inns tr.trr.linS tlnmu~hlf'U\lA into \$I. Si. : s ~ 1P\I\I:\
~ n j , ~ +ofr$14r\' '-
 F 4.3 PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY SIMULATION
AS is t b case \\it11 oxidation (see Cl~nptcr3). mmpatvr siml~lstionis also .In importmt
425 Comparison of Various Lithographic Methods tool for stud!ing t l ~ pl~otolitl~oqapl~y
r prorcss. Tlnr SUPREXI packarc, snfnltun:ttrly,
TItrlitltoS.l;lpbir inr.tlnc~I<
dirctnsst.d c.ialier all l ~ n \ r100 11111 or Lwtter r r s d ~ ~ t i oA~COIII-
l. is not cap:lhlr ofp~loto~it~lr~mp~licsinltl~ntio~l. Ilo\\n.r. anolhrr popular tml. I'ROLITII.
p~h,t>n0 1 \;tnous litl~<v:nt~ltict t ~ l n ~ oislsltmtn ~ ~ ~in~Tzhle
~ s 4.1. Elo\%~,ver, rttc11 111etI1nrl clops provide this wpahility
Il.~rits un\m I~nlit:~tinnc: lllp difl'c~tinrt vITc~ctin o ~ t i c i dlitltOgr.lph\: the prosinlit? eNect I'IIOLITI I is a \Vind(nw-ban1 pmgmm that IIWS a p i t i \ / n q a t i t r photomist opti-
it) r l t ~ t m nIU..~TIIlitla<<r;splty 111:1& f;al,rication r n ~ ~ ~ p l e x i tin i r sr-my litl~o~r:~pl!\: dim- p l ~ y originnlly d w e l o ~ lh
ad l i t l ~ c ~ n ~morlrl l Chris 3l;tck.l" PHOLITII simnl;ttes t l ~ cnm- c
nrlh 11, ~tl.c<kb 1 . d pmcl~trtiot~ Con. IlCV litl~o<ntpl~c ;n~rls t o c l ~ ~ ~S ~t Ii Wc c l ~ a q in
r i plrtr on#:- :1nd hvo-dimr~lsionaloptic:~llill~ogr:tpl~y procrss from acrid i m s g ~firrmation
IW:IIU Iitl~cwcr~tplty tIimr1$11rrsist cqnstlrr anal cl?vrlopn~?nt.TIle output o f t l ~ pe r o p m is an ;twnmtc prr-
Fnr I(: f.tlmc:ttios. n,:tav ~n:wk1rrr.l~are i ~ l w l w d .Ilo\\r\rr. it is not arrexQ1n dic!ion o f l l l r final resist pmlilr, u.llidl is p r ~ s c n t r din :I \vide \ a r i r h o f ilnagrs. plots.
l ~ i c for ;dl l r ~ ~ :l\ sIII~X-:UI<I-TII:I~CI~
IXVtlw S I ~ I I Cl i t l ~ o ~ ~ ptnetltwl , :~pprm~clt WI k k r ; U I \ ~ ~ ~ . rr.iphs. ;anrl calculations. In partic~~l;~r, PROL.ITII is able to sitnnnlate tlte follmvining
t;lyof tlrr imirltw &,,tlun.sof tach lit~lorr;qdrirp m r s s to inlpn)vc, resollltion alld lo Inax-
Fonnatio~lof an inlnge o h I I I ~ feature
I ~ by an optictl projection system
irnin. tl~n,u<lt~,ot. For ~.ctmplr.n-$:I EL'\' metlml w n IF nsed for the r ~ ~ ocritical st mx5k
Ivvrlr. n l a ~ n . . ~ac4: I o r 5:) a I ) t i d ?strtn ran h~ used for tile rest. Exlnsr~reof pholoresht by this image
:\nunlinc: to tlw Srmin~ncllcrturI ~ t r l n t s tAsswi:ttinn's ~ It~tumotionolT ~ C ~ I'I I ( DifTtlrion of the imaCr
Ilcwd,n,~~>.l;)r .Sc.r,,in,r~d~rctnn.IC in:mnlitctt~ringt r v l ~ n o l n p\rill reacll ti#r50 n m
eration ;irn!~n,i2l)lll." \fit11 rarh nr\r trcllnolop. g e n r ~ d i o nl. i t ~ m ~ p l h;S l ! ~1w1
PROLITH accppts l i t l ~ m p l ~ \ ~ i n f o r m a ti inotnl ~ form
e ofdata files and input pa.....

TABLE 4.1 Comparison 01 Various Lithographic Technologies

..
menu. :After n SIICCPSS~~II license searcl~,the Imaging Tnnl pammrtrn \visclav appears
Optird S(::\LI'EI. EUV X-ray Ion R< (see Fig. 4.20).,\s tltc user makes clloices from tlte \'irwmrntt. PROLITII displ;i!s \\in-
249 I'KI nm clo\\s in which parampten may I r entered in orrlrr to \ieatsimsl:ation rrsslts. Thesf
be obsemcd fronr tlre Cnplrs mene. These i d e a are illt~stntedin Example 3.
Fr,'.""". Xr.1
C~winr. I.wr Filrmrnl Lawr plsma S!ncl~mtmn \lullicla: EXAMPLE 3
L),t?r.fr.lni.>nlin~itc-d Ye.; So Ycq k s No
(?IN<- Rt,fr.tni\r. Rcfwti\.c Rrlrncliw So optin Fn~ll.ficld t'w PtIOI.ITII 1,) d r \ v rlw n.,ist prc,(iivfor lllr nll~ldnr.~l
nl.ak f#,.~lttn.in
Rmrr 4 ?naftcr. .,..
refmcli\r sttrt. ;m<1<h.n.lr,pn~rt~l
.\ssttnw tllr fijllcn\,nr: pnrr,.\ cn1mrl118<,n$
S1t.r rod \c<e Ym Yc- Yvs YPS Slrppcr
llinru.rl~pnrof -m 30-35 2twn 30 30
~
?o~l-mn> '~ti~mhr
>f,,\L
l ) ~ ~ ~ n ~ m i f i ~ - .4x
~ti~~~~ 4x Ix Ix 4x
I i li? So Y?r Yrs So
I.'ml.'tltl,l
R.,s!,.ttu-rc l),ttl~ T i n i s i Rdlwtion Tr.msrnirsion Strnril
R..,,',
\:SI:IS. n\t>lr~l.nt.r ';in<ll- Sin&. Sud:trr Sinxlt. Singlr
i~n.a$s~:
I Yv\
l.*.n~~t:J-inlpl~lililiI Ym So Yes No
r).,.,
SOLUTfON ~ 1 nfll,,,
1 piwn ,q,ltlcs can lx. cnteml fmln lhr P;~rrslrtrrsnlrnn or I,? cliclill&7an
1111.appmpriate imns on thr tmlI,.~rlltr rrstlhins rrriqt PrnfiIc is shcn\n in Fiqxrr .l.Zl.
b 4.4 SUMMARY
TII, c o n t i n ~ ~ pgmutl~
cl of t l ~ se c n l i m n d u d o r industr). is a clircct r e r l ~ l ot f tile cap>hilitY
t o t n o ~ s f c rln;lllcr
r a n d smallrr cilruit p : ~ t t ~ m s u.n~iconrltrctoruafcrt. C:tarrrt~t$: tlte
onto
v a t inajorih of litl~oxrapl~ic r q n i p ~ n r o tis optic:~lsystc.ms. This chapter mnsi<lrn,rl v;lr-
ious exposllw tools. masks. plrotorrsists, and tla. clr:tn m o m lor opric:~ll i ~ l ~ ~ rile m ~ l r
primary factor lio~itingresol~rtionin optical Iitliologr;~pl~y is diffniction. Iln\vc~\~rr. hrcnnu
~ ~ f n d n s ~ c r r n rin n trxcilner
s ism. pltotoresist cllrntistry anrl r~:solution e n l ~ a n c r m c o t
t r r l ~ n i q u r SIICII
s as PShl a n d OPC,optic:al l i t l ~ o g r a p l t ~ ~remain ~ i l l tl~e mainstr<.a~n trcll-
~ ~ o l o at y :lrnsl t o tlle 1 0 11x11eerierd 1'1011.
E ~ r r t m h~ ar m lilho~rnpl~!.is t l ~ r ~ t e c l ~ n n l ~ o f c lfor ~ oITI-k
i c e making a n d aanofab-
rication. in \vhich IIMV dr\icc m n c e p t s nre rrplorcd. Otl~erlithomnpl~icprocessin< t w h -
nokr$rs a r e EU\! x-ray, a n d ion b a n i l i t l ~ o g r . ~ p lA~ y ~ gtllrsr
l t l ~ o ~ all l~ Ilnvr IIW) nnt o r
better resolution, eacll process 11;~sits o w lisrit;~tions:pmrimihrfl?c.l in rlrccrnn k m m
litl~ogn~ph!: mask blank p r c i l t ~ a i o nd i f f i o ~ l t i in r EU\'lithognpl~): nv~skfabricxtionconr.
p l r a l y in x-ray l i t l ~ o g n p l ~and
y , s t o c l ~ i ~ ~spacet i c cl~argrin ion l r ~ a nl i~t l ~ o g r a p l ~ .
At tl~epresent time. n o o b \ i o ~ ~ l ~ y be idrntifierl
s usc c e s o r t o optical l i t l ~ o g n ~ p can
~~~~nrnhipioasl): I lo\ve\rrr. a inis-and-match approach a n take ;~clrnnta?eof tltc rzniq~w
f r a t u r s o f each l i l l ~ o g r . ~ p l ~ y p r o ctros irnpro\.r
s r e s o l ~ ~ l i oimd
n to inaxi~nizpt l ~ m t ~ e l ~ p a t .

b REFERENCES
I Far a more drl.rilerl cliaar.inn on lilh<lgrrpllyw (31 K. .\'ahmum. -Iirhqmpl,y: in C. C C b q slnd
S. 51. S l r . Eds.. l%Sl Twl8ooln~.Sl&r.~iv.llill.S<?~,Yo'ork. 1%. ihl P. R:u.~~nw,Il~urg. II~dhA "f
lficnlrh,?~mphy.3limrrrwcltining. nnrl ~ l l m ~ r l ~ ~ , n mVol.
t i n Ir,~SPIE.
. \\:ultin@nn. DC.1'11;. i c , D. A
5IcCill~~. -lill~~.tplny,-
in S. 51. S ~ P I<<!,,
. \'l*Sl Tccl,n~d~~gt,,
5l&~~v.llill. S<-.vYo?x.I%?
P For a mom drt3ikl d i ~ a ~ i on
o nnclminp. nr K J. T. I J I ~-Elchine:
. in C. Y Chmqmd S. 51. Sn. Edr
L11.Sl x7lt!1o!<*q. >(cC.r*\v-lldl. Sru. Ycrl. IYJCI.
3. J. 51. D,oK?lo md J. R. Slonkm~rki.-Podionlair Cnntrn>imalionmd I h i m Frrlom;uw: Sdd Smtr
%dand27.3. Irn(~su~.
4. 11. P. Tsng and R,J w ~ r n-Clc.:mmom
. TmlmolnS\:" in C. Y. Cb:mg md S. \I. Sm.Ed,. VIA<!
Trrltnolo~y.5lrCr~~v.llill.S~?vY<,rk.ID*.
in S. G Einspn~clt.Dl.. VI.SI lYlrr(mnin.GI. I.
5. 54. C. Kin$ -Ptiwiplm of Optid Ufhmr.~pl~):-
Aorlrs~lc.Sos.York. 1981.
fi. J. H . Rruning. *I\ Ttlntid on Opticd Ulltalfinl,hc"in .
D,h. 1)cunr. rl d.. Dlr .Cnrtimnrlur(r,r
7.~1~nuloq.
Elwtrwhrmiwl Sor. R~nninckm.illY2.
7.R. I(.\\:ills :,nd J. I!. 8noning. -A Rlzirr.ofFinc..Lisr. Utho~r;aphicTt&ni,~u<.s:
Prcunt :old Futurr.-
%lid smr? Trrl~tm,d.,W, s. 119911.
S.\\! C. ?ill and J. T. h o n . Inc:nmhd Cirnnts. .llotmnlr. k.irrr. nnd Fobrimfi<na.Pn.nticr,-l1:JI.
~ ~ ~aim. ~ s j~. I!+*'. , m l
0. \I. D. L * W I ~ I I .S . S. \ln~:m;~~ll,tll.
md I . A. Simpsn. -lmpnnins Rrrrtlslio!8 in Pl~~~talill~c~npl?
uilh
a Pl~zrp.SLifl 5I;~~k:IEEE Tmns FJ~drnraa ~ i c nED.29. . I'r29 !l!lvYI.
10. 1). p nl., -pmclir.J .+WIT of \lirmfal,~m~innin (la, lM.nsn R<@yion.'Wirl Stair x~Ic*td.
Pi. 2. 12i (199.11.
11. J. A. ~ ~ n o l c l-,in
r . ( h x ~ n i o r . o f r . ~ v\knk-~~&~ag.'S.Jid
~n~ Sfott Evlrad. 22. s. $7 119-1.
I?, Y, ,%lt~nlr,r( d.. -Elemn.Rr.lm ci.ll P m j ~ ~Lj~ftofr;~pl~y
~i~n 11s .Ammo.rnrl 11s nlnwlchpllt:
1.\'or ,W. Evh,zd., Ill2 !6l, XXW il!Tjl).
13,\y, L R~ ,,,,
T y,.,,heq,", %I A. \\,,,=V~. -ton k.xm utlwqn~rplty."Wid Slmr Tvhrwl. 91.J. (*'I 19\1''
la. D. S. K~~ , m S. carlo
~ \I: \im;,nal,m. - 5 1 0 ~ 1 ~ Simal:,ion o f s p s l d h Ihrltihuhut rd&.nny i l l
Eleron.Rlwn>lithop,pl,?:-] !'or. 5". T h n o l . 12, I?Ri I l!l:i!
 15 Chr&.r C\s~n.rt ad.. .f.\lrrnu, Ul~ntioliolrtU~bogrn~l~~: \\l~itcP n ~ rScrnnlrrh.
. Nm Cencrntion
Utl",r~pl,).\\hrWly.Cmlur~loSprisqr.h. 7-10, IVLY.
16 j. 1' sil,.l.nl,.ta.-Pmlrniy S.H3~
Ut1~4~apl1< \\llitv Pnpr, Srrnnuch. Snl Cvm~csionljllmpph!
\\i3rlrrlm1,. Cobr.acb Spnnqc. I><Y.:-Ill, l!KR
.
IT. I. I;.rnriyti.. rl rl -lo,, b:tm F.yanln.PmRlrr in P\l\tA.Compatrr Simmdlio~~."].
Vor Sd
T e c h r ~ d .IS. !%!I il!J?Il,

IS
2tnl.
M, rnamnriond nd(ard,q,RRntrlrru~rrjrr Srmimnd~~rtor
Sn,tir~,rrl~,rr~,n. In,!. A r w . S:va Jose.CA
Etching
19 PROLITII:? h i .\Ionan1 FIS1.E T ~ h n o l ~,\asin.
~ r ~lS.
. I%lS.

b PROBLEMS
SECTION 1.1: OFTICAL L1171OGWIIY
I. For I rl:m lLW cleat) n n n l . find thr nnmlx.r oirlurt p;trlirlrs prr rabic mrtcr with p:
rlt. sin,<[:<Ilmnvccn 0.5and L pm. (1,) Ix,t\\.rrn I ;knd ? Nn,. and (c) almvc ? ptn.
2. Find thc find )irld for a nine-n>mli-lclrlp m v a in o.hiuh thr a\r.r;t~cfxtd J:fcd dcnril
mm: k 0.1 lor f i x ~luvk.
r (1'25 kw fintr Ic-\.ls. :and 1.0 lor one lcwl, Tllc chijr wra i c 50 mm~.
3. .An optiml litlnngctphic s!stem lriw an rqwnrre pwrr of 0.0 m\Vlcicl~i:. Thr relnired e q m
rurc encqv for :t p,sili\r l>l>otorcsist is 14U mJ/r.m:. md for r ne<ati\u pholorrsirt is 9
mJ/nn'. ~\s'iw~lin~ n~eliqildrtimcs lnr lording ;and ttnlo:tdin< n?fcm. cumpan: the m k r
thronqhptlt krr lxniti\r. pl~c,tc,n.sistand nrg:ttivr photow%ist.
4. (n)For;m ArF c.rci!ner l:tscr 1 m n m optiwl lilhnpaphir. nrlrm \viIh Sf\= 0.65.k, = 0.60.
:m<lk: = 0.50. what up the thron~tinlrcsnhztion nncl rl~ptilof fcxtns h,r this tm,l? (I)) \\hat
\\rdo is pncticp to arljurt SA. k,. and k1 panmrtcs to inlprnw. resolt~tion'?( c ) \\hat
I pantnrler clws lhe pha~-%hiit nl;r-li (PSXI)techniqt~rclrangr to imprnxc resol!ltian?
5. I h e plots in Fiaxrc 1.9 arc callcd respurasc nrrxcs in microlithopnphy. (a) \\lvul arc the
n<l\nnt.~qes ascl clin<lvantaqcrof urine resists aith h i ~ hy wI~~es'>
( I r l Convcstional resist
SECTION 1.2: SEXT-CEKEIUTIOX LITHOGRAPIIIC 51EniODS
6. (a1 Explain wl~ya shaped heam prnmiser higher throughput than a Gaussian k a m in
. .~ \\h)
. . (1,) llmv cm aliqmcnt Ix perlonned for e-ham lithopnphy?
r-lraln litlt~mphv.
i 5 diwtnrnt in r-rav lithm~mhvsn dificult? (c) \\%:$Iare the tntential adwntsces of
7. \\hv has thc orrratinc modr ulonticsl lithogranhie .
, . . mtem.; rrvlved from nnnimily .prin . rile, \vllich is tltr :,rnoant of film removed I>? etching p r r unit timc. lo IC p m c i n c .
ing to 1:l prnjection printing and finally to 5:l projcrtion stcp-and-repeat?(h) Is it pos
I,lc. to build a rlvp-sn<l-sr;lnr-ny lithopphic s\stem? \\hy or why not?
As cliscussed in the previous chapter. litl~ogmpllyis tlle p r w r s of transfrrring patterns
to photoresist mvering the surface of a semimnductor\~afcr.To pmrlucr circuit lrntares.
tllese resist patterns rnlzst hr trassferred into the andrrl\ing lnyws conlprising the de\ice.
in.
The pnttenl trc~nsleris acco~~~plishecl:in ctching process that rclraivrl!. rraloves
~mmilskcdportions o f a layer.' A hrief dcscription of etching given in Scainn 1.4.2.
The present chapter co\,crs the following topics:
Mrchat~isrnsfor a r t cllen~icnletching of srmimndnctors. insalatorr. and ntrtal
fillll~
Plasnia-assisted rtct~ing(also cnllrd dyrtching) far Iii$~-fidcli+ pnttrm tnt--'--
b 5.1 WET CHEMICAL ETCHING
\Vet cl~emicaletching is uscd e~ensivelyin scrnimndnaor p-ssing. Starting fmn, c,,..-
mnductor wafers sliced frnm an ingot (Chapter 2). cllemical ctcllants are trsrcl for lap-
ping and polishing h~@\? an optically flat, clamage-freesurface. Prior to tlaemd oddation
(Chaptcr3) o r e p i t a ~ i dp v t h (Cl~apter8).sr~nic~znluctor~cders arc cl~emidlyclc.?ned
to rrmove contamin:itinn that results fmln lvar~dlingand storing. \Vet clI?ltlic~lrtdlino,
is esprcidly suitable for blanket etchrs (i.e.. over the a~ltole\cnfrr sttrhce) of pol!silim~l.
odrle. nitride. mekds, ant1 Ill-\' mmpoencls.
T h r ~nccllsnismsforwrt clirnticxl etcllisg in\ol\r three rssentinl steps. as illnslrateil
in Figure 5.1: The rradants are tnnsportrd by dilfusion to t l ~ er c c t i g stndnce. cl~em-
icnl reactions occur i t thr surface. and thr prodacts frn~nlhe sadacc are n~nlo\,cdby
clilTt~sinn.Both agitation and the tcmperatarr of the etcllant snlutinn inllr~rnwt l ~ rtrl~ r
most wct chemic:11 etcltcs pmcrrd IJ? itnmrninp tllr \vafcn in a c h r m i ~ lsohltion l or hy
.spqing tlie \ \ d e n \ritlb the etclmnt mlolt~tion.For imntcrsion etclling. (I,ru%\:lfrr
hi m m r w l
in the etcll solution, nncl merl~;tnicnla@tntiot~is urnally required to P I I S ~ I Ictcli
~ snik~r-
~ilityimd n mnsistrnt etclt mtr. Spr.3~ r~chinghils gnidtmlly r ~ p l ; ~ cinln11.ni011
e~l etrlli~lg
hecause it greatly increases tllc rtrl, n t r and aniforn>ityI I mnstn~~tly
~ stnppl!it~g fresh
etchant to thr a d e r surf:^^.
For srmimnductor production lines, hi$tl? ttnifonn r t d l rates arc imlnrln~t.Etch
~ s h r unifonn acrnss ;I unfrr. fmm wlfrr to \\xfcr. fmm nln to nln. itnd lor my
r . ~ t nlust
\~rintionsin fcatorc sizes and pnttcm drnsitirr. Etch r.11~asilbnaih is $vctl by tllr fill-
lowing cqt~:ttinti:
 5.1 Wet ChemicalEtching 4 87

. -. , ...
~~~

~)rirn~ltiolr-drpn<Ir~~t ~ ~ I P <~ II, T O I B ~aI ,PlttrmP(~ ~ilj.

vtcl~iny:of < I U O > - O ~ ~ Osilicon
can di~nxidcnmqk rrr:itrs p n r i s r \'-slispnl proo\r.s.' t l ~rc~qos
r ~ ~ i[I,(., i,I I ~1)plsnc5 :,(
r I ) s~lrlncc.ns s l ~ a u nat tl,r 11.11 of F i ~ u r 5.B.
:an a n k r of 5.1.7' from t l ~ (11 r 1ftlIc\M,).
rln\v in tl~rmask is si~fficiontlyI:~rgror if tllc etchins tin),. is sl~ofl.a U-slt:~pcdgrwsr
l ~fonncd.
trill r ~ tFixup 5.41.
~ i tl~rr i ~ l of
ns s l ~ o \ r :at uidth of thr. Inttnn~nld:tw. is
given hy

\if,, = \\I,> -6
1 (4)
u!~rre \I:, is thr wividtl~oftllc uindo\r on tllr \calrr S E I ~ : I W and I is tllr rtcl~cddepth. If
<I IO>-oriental silimn is IIXY!. c r s r n t i a l l ~ s l m i ~ I ~ t ~groaps
~ ~ ~ a Iuith
I d s i d c s o ~ ( l l lpl:inps
\
c2n 1w fnmlrd. ~LFs l ~ o ~inmF i q z r ~5 . 9 \\i. ~ can usc t l ~ clarge orientation dcp-t~clt~nn
i n tllr e t c l ~n t r r to fabric~trd w i n structlrrrs aitl~sltllnnicron feature Implla.

EXAMPLE 1 5.1.2 Silicon Dioxide Etching

Thp wet e t c h i n ~ osilimn
f dioxidr is mmnmonly nchirved in a dilute solution of IIF \titlt
or a i t l l o ~ ~the
t addition of ammonium fll~oride(SII,Fl. A(ldin~Sll,F creates u.l~ntis

5.1.1 Silicon Etching

For s ~ n r i m n d ~ t c t inatrrisls.
or a.rt r11rn~ic.dctrlline i~st~:~Ily procretls Ily orid:ltion.
lowrd I,? tlw ~IL~soItrtion or tlw oxid<,I>! ;I cl,rn~ic;~l rc~:~ctinn.For silicon, the itlost L<
manly ~tsrclr t c l ~ ; ~ naf s of nitric acid ( I I S O , ) and l ~ ~ l r o f l a o r;sid
i c ( I I F Iin
\nrtvr or :~cvticacid i C Sitric acid o~iclirrssilicon to fr~rtns SiO, I:lyrr.' The
oxidation rcartion is

\\:~trr c t t r l r 11s(.d :is aclilucnt for tltis rtcllnnt. Iloa.v\~rr,arctic ;wid is prrfcrrrd hr
it n,ltl(vs tlw rlisoltttinn of tlto nitric acid
S o n r ctcl\;~nt<cli<~<>l\.<~ aSi\.rn r-?~tslplalrr of singlr-cnstd silimn m11c11fwte
:mr,tll<.r plan^: t l l i q n.sults in o r i m t : ~ t i m ~ l t ~ l r rrtclting.'
~ ~ l ~ n tFor ;I silimn lntticr. the (I 111 flbl
pl:tnr. Il;a tnorr :nnil;ahlr Ina(l.; 1x.r ilrlit ;trra lllnn t l ~ e( 110) ;md (IIWI)p l a n ~ stllrrrforr.
:
Figure 52 Orirnfdion-dcveln>t c,tchiag_'(ni IhrnugI~\vindm\.pltrrnr ott <Irn~-t,rirnl~d
llw c.tcl>r,ttr i < ~ \ ~ r ltor lw d ~l;lawcrfor ~ I I C( I 111 pl:mr. A c o n ~ n ~ o nusrtll y orirst8tion-
~ilima.rb) nlmllgll\ t i z ~ l p;altcms
,~~ on < 1lO>.orir!~tcrlrilimn.
,lt.p.n'lrnt ctdr filr %i!i(~nl mnsists of :Bmiaturr of KO1 I ill rr,ahr and isopropyl llwI10I.
 5.2 Dry Etching 4

TABLE 5.1 H e l m l w Insulmn and &dueton

\I.ttc~rhl ICtrleut ( : ~ r n ~ n ~ ~ t i , , ~ Efrl, I l r t v Innr~min~
SiO: 1111 I I F
I'l

I
170 trnl l l F U~>fi,n,~l
113pS11,F
IIF ItXl

t
15 rnl I I F
lo ml IlZIO, P i.tcl, 12
DlXl ml ll:0
Si,Xt n a l l r ~ dIIF 11i
A1 II,PO. Ill

5.13 Silicon Nitride and Polysilicon Etching

Silwm nitn<lr. f i l n l :~ mrv r t r l r . ~ l ~:1

hi4 Il.,PO, at I U I C ix.r.~~~.;r

l1
r nx,r~~tt~!nIn~fiattrn.
I I F .ln<lin i t hoiliuc I1 PO, wl~itintt.Sclcctivr r t r l ~ i t o
tllh vll!ltion R ~ ~ R P'ilimn~ C
ill conn.ntr;~trtl A F or b a f i m l
~ fenitridr to ori<lris donr w i t l ~

r.*tv is h ~ i c d l l y111nrn1~ninfor s i l i m r ~t ~ ~ t r i I( vl ~~.lte u ~IILIII

dioridc v ? y s l ~ ~The
I ntr~'111i11
IIm\r.\rr. pl,oton-ist ;i<ll,esion pndvlt-111sa r r e r w n t r m . d \ v l ~ mr t c l ~ i nitrirlc
ihr silimn dim
n~
~ v l ~

\\it11 l
,At,
4 ml IINO,
3.5 ml C11~COO11
i 3 rill II,PO,
19.5 ml 11?0
4 g KI

]I!'>
40 ml Ilp
I 311

lo(

in= 11.1'0, *rrlution. Rt.ttrr pitttmlirle cxn hr itrllic~vr~<l l)y rlvpnsitillg a tlliri oxide I; Zlo 5 ml II,PO, XK
2 ml IISO,
on top o f the nitridr film Ix.fi~n.n.si.;t <w:~tine.T l ~ rt.sist r p:tttcnl i s tr.lnsfvrrcd to the
.l ,,,ICII,C0011
o v i d ~I;I~v. w l ~ t ct11~t1
l ~ ;acts :LS ;t r~xtskfor % ~ ~ h s r qnitri~lc ~ ~ r n t< ~ t c l t i t ~ ~ .
1sn II!O
Etrltinq prl\rilime i s similar to ctcliinc sinel<.-mst;tl silirrm. Iln\r~.\rr. tllr etch cite

1
~ r . ~II ~
is ~ ~ ~ n s i ~ ll:~stf,r ~ l Iv I S P qfi~inlm1111,1:1rirs.T l w v t c l ~sn111ti<~11
of tl~e? i s usuallv mwl-
.... I ml 11x0,
i f i n l to r n w n - t11.1t it d w s not attilck tlte ilnd~rl!inc p t c odd^. I>op;~ntconirntrnhions Pt i rrnl Itl:I 50
and tmmprr.tt81rr mil\- : a l f ~ the i etch r ~ t opf p o l ~ ~ i l i r o ~ ~ . 4 ,"I 11,O

t
31 g KlI:PO,
\V 13.4 p KO11 IMP
5.1.4 Aluminum Etching
.33p K,FrlCS),
.Unminom mcl :dllrnin11111 alloy films arv gmer.aIl? ~ t c l >i t )~I l~ ~ n t snl~~tiuns
vd o f phor- II:O to makc Ilitrr
pltorir acid. nitric arid. :Iwtic acid. and D l wxtrr. TI,? t!pic:ll rtrl~:tntis asoltttion o f i s %
II PO,. 4 7 I l S 0 , . 3.5% CII,C001-I. and 19.57 DI v.atcr itt 30-C to MI'C. l l l r w t ekh-
inq of ~ l n t m i ~prcrcrds~t~n~ follo\r~:1 1 x 0 , o\-iclin%sal~nrlinum.itnd 11,1'0, t l ~ c ndis-
~ I \ Ptl~r P orirlir~.d al~~niinum. Tltr ctclt rat? drpm<ls on ctcllant mncrzitntion. an ctcl~nntnit11 an 8:1:1 \nhtme n t i a of H,SO,:H,O,:A,O. f l i r etrlt rate is 0.8N d m i n
tempPr.ittlrc. amtatinn nf tI1r aafrrs.mtl irnpt~ritic.cor ;tllq- in t l ~ ;dutninatn r film. For for t l ~ <r I 1I > Ca faw ;md 1.5 pndmio for ;dl o t l ~ r bws.
r F o r m rtrl~;mt\\<ill) n 3:1:50
vr;tlnplc. tlip t-trll n t e is r r d u n r l \vllrn m p p r r i s ;aldrtl to t l x nlaminunt. \olt~nlen t i u of II,P0,:HIO,:H,O, hlr etch n t c i s 0.4 pndmin for tl~r <I1 I > Ca faw and
1G.t efrhincol ins8tl;btinq snrl metal film< i s i~su:ally~Ionc r\itl~sintilar rl~e~iiicals
tltnt 0.6 p m for ;dl otllrr Clilrrs.
cli~solrcthrzc tnntrri;ds in hulk form and invuln. t l ~ r i mnvrrsioa r into solr~blrsalts or
m ~ n p l e r ~Ccnrdl!:
%. film mntrrinls trill lu. t*tcllrcl more rnpidl? t l n n tltrir hulk mun-
t t v p r t r . i\lso. tibe vteh rates arr lliehrr for films that l~a\,ra p m r tnicrostmctnrc. bnlilt- b 5.2 DRY ETCHING
in stresq. or clcpzlltnrr from stoie1t1o1n~t~\: or that Ilia\.rhrvn irr.~cliikt~~I. Some us< !.r,,l In psttrrn t m n r r r opmtions. a mist pattern i s dcfiard l>ynlithogn~pl~ir p m x stosew
~ t t h . ~ n tfors in<nll.rtinqa!~dmcfitl films :err. l i ~ tin~Tahlrl 5.1. a?a mxsk for e t c l ~ i n ~its
o fo~ldrrl!ins I;iy~r(Fig. i.3nI:' hlost n f t l ~ vI;l!vr mnlcrials ( e x . .
SiO,. Si,N,. and d r p s i t r d mrtals) an, ~rnoq,l~attsor p o l y ~ ~ ~ t a l lthin i n r filtns. I f tbry
are etcltrd in a u p t r.l~rmiralr t r l ~ ~ nt tl .~ etclt
r mtp i s ~ c r ~ r r . l lisotmpic
ly (i.c.,thr i n t c ~ d
5.1.5 Gallium Anenide Etching
anll \rrtinl rtclk rates ;lrr tltr san~r).;rs illustn~tcdin F i p m 5.3,. llhi i q the tl~iehcss
4 aide % n r i r l y n f r b h wh:tw htvn ilar?tie.lC~lfor callitlm 3wnVIr: I~rnv~vc~r, fc.\vof 11: oftlle rnntrrid alrlI tlrr l a t r d rlistaney rtcllrvl t ~ t ~ d e m r tlw r t l ~rwist nvsk. ul.c.m
.>vtrttl, isotrnpir " This i s l n ~ a t t t11c s ~ ~st~rfitwacti\itit,< of tlw IIII Ga and 11II 1 &fine the d~prrrrrf ;~nisotrnpy(A,) 13.
(.LC..\ ikn, v v y tlifl;,rrttt. \lost c,tcl,c% g i v :I~ p l i s l l r d st!rF;~cv 0 1 ) the ars~nicfnw. 11111
e.alln~mf.acv. trmclq tn rlto\v m s t ; t l l ~ r : ~ p l r ircl r f f ~ t nnrl
r r.tellrs more slmr.ly lllr 11
r m*rnrvnnnlvOUSNI ctcl,ants :trr t l ~ ltl ~~ S ~ l ~ - l l ~ O :and , - l ll ~
l,P
~O> ~ - l l ~ O ~ - l l?strrr~s.
~O
90 c Chapter 5. Etching
5.2 Dry Etching 4 $11

uhen an electric field of suficient mngnit~ldcis applitxl to r ga~, cau5in~t~,,.mxtarbreak

clown and hcn~nleioniml. The planla i s initiated I>?f n r clcc+rons t~,;,t art. rclr;wd h\.
some meanc, slrcl~s firld emission from a ncp:fiti\.?ly I,iasrd ~ l m r r x l e .n,r . iree r.lrc-
tronc g i n idnrticencre\. from llle clcctric fic.lrl. I n tlte munr of thpir trmpl tlaronsol, t1,e
gas. t l ~electrons
r r n l l i ~ l e ~ +gxs c n r w nrrr.nrrqttr;la~i,.rred
i t b moluo~lesand lo<?tI~<+ir
..
in thr callisinn canrrs thr gnz molccc~lrsl o h.ionized 1i.r. to frc:~~I~rlr,lns>. n ,Ire,~:
clrctrnnr g i n k i n r t i c e n r r q from tltc field. and tltr prow<\ mntinaes. nr.n.forr. ulrcn
tllc applied voltaw i s laxer than tile hrrakdmm patentid, a sllrl;dn~lplasma i s form,-l
thrn~!~~~ tllr
o lrrnction
rt cha~nlrr
l'l~r~ l r c t r n nconcvntrations in the plasma ford? etrllinss arc- rclarivdy lrnv. (?pi.
c*lly on the ordcr of 10'' to 10" cm-'. At a prrssrtrc of ITom. the rnncrntrations of :,a
rnr,irculrr are 10' to 10' timrs l~ieltrrthan thr rlrctron mnw~r.ntr:ttionr.n t i r rr.aclts in
an a\?ra?r gas trpmprr.ltulre in ti,? nnge of 50°C to IMIC. Tliersforc. pl;~cmn.a~<istd
c!r? etchin? is n l m v - c m p n t t ~ r pprccsx.

EXAMPLE 2
'Illrvllrtmn dm\itim in RIE md III>P?>tr-rns mnet. fntm 11,' l o 111' r m ' a:rl I I ~ in'In" .... .
v ~ ~ l . ~ IHIE
r L ~ ~ p c a i:\wun,inq I Vcbrrnlx~rp r r - v ~ nI. ZlM) rnTc>n;and llDP cbrrn!r.r pn-.lin: i s
5 111Torr.c.llckrl~lrtIw iosi,:nlion vflicirny ill RIE n..lrlcm ;m<1IIDI' n~ielor;:tt nxmra 1 k . m ~ r . i -
tun.. TIIC ikmir.ntir,n r,R<ir.n<?cr Iln. r.,iio uf tlbr vlrc7mn ilensih. tn tlic dvn\ih 14nir;!:ntlo

SOLUTION

s.lrcnc Pis Il,r prcrwrr in aim i t at") = IFnSYxl rnTont. 1'ir the wlttmv in litrn. n I< ibr "11
Ixv of zsnlw. n i~ 11~.qx- mn-l.ml I I I I R Z lilvr-itn~'m~~l.li1.
rncl Ti' ila. r l ~ u l l l ~ ~crnp.r.~:~~r~,
tv
K. rc,*pl.rli\r.l!:
For lhv HIE r>~lenm.
= PIRT = ~ ? w ~ ~ m , i m ~x~,MI
~ ~ =n 1.1%
ov? x IOF ~,,;oI
I,tt.,

\vhere t is timc and R, and R~are thr lateral md \~rtic;lletcll mtes, rr.qxcti~~rly. For isotropic
= 1 1 6 . ~l O ~ ~ ' x f i l ~ -
l f l2
' x llml

hO\x 10".r.n,
,, R,. = R. and A, = 0.
;
etchine.
Tllc major dis~rl\~nnta~c ofwet d ~ c m i a~rtcbing
l in pattern transfer is tile undrrcotting lnniz~lionelTicil.no.= :IN'- IlP'iJfix\ x 10 '',
of the li~wr ~ ~ n d ~ r n etlar
i ~ ninsk.
tli rcsrlltine in s loss of resolt~tionin t l ~ cr t c l ~ enattem. ~l = 156x l t ! ~ - - 1.56~
Ill"'
m practice. for ivotropic rtcllise, the film tltich~rsssltoltl<lbe ;thoot onr-tliirrl or lrss of
the resolution rcquirr.~l.I f pnth.rns arr rrquirrd \\it11 rrsol~~tions mtlcll sm;~llcrthan the
film tltickiless. anisotronic ctclline .
, (i.e.. I5 ,\, > 01 must I><, t~sed.I n nr;lcticc. tile \allle
ofA,is c h o s ~ n to b r close to unity Fim~re 5.Rr sl~o\rsstlrr lin~itingc:tsr,vlterr A, = I , cwr-
respon(Iiag to 1 = O (or R, = 0).
To acl,ie\.e n 11igl1-fidrlitytrnnsfcr o f t l ~ e wrist p;tttems rrquirrd for altrala~e.scde
integration prncrssiog. d n etching mr,tl~odsha\:s hrm drvelopetl. Dry etching is 9n-
on!?oot~s ~ ~ i l ~ ~ p / ~ ~ r ~ m - n . % ~\dlieh i . ~ !dcnotrs
n / d c ~se\.c.~id
~i~~& t r c l ~ n i p ~that
r s tar? pislna
in t l ~ form
r o f low-prcsrurr disrhnrgrs. D n r t r l ~ n l r t l ~ ~incllzdr
ls plas~rraetching. rrac-
(RIE). sputlrr rtclling. mnpnctically cnlutnccrl R l E (Xf ERIE). rrnctive
ti\.c ion r t c l ~ i n g I l ~ ~ r r l o n111)1,
. . inn' ioni,.~tion c4Tidr.an ih.111 HIE.
11111111 Ili<l~er

ion be;tm rtchinp. and l > i g I ~ - ~ I ~ npli~qtnit

s i l y ( l l D P 1rtrhing.

5.21 Plasma Fundamentals Etch Mechanism, Plasma Diagnostics, and End-Point Control

A plasma is a ftllly or partially ionized RLS c n n ~ p a s ~ofd eqilal ntirnhm of positive and pl:Lsrl;l is l~rwy.ss in w l ~ i c:tl ~solid film i s r c ~ n n \ t ~ l:Lc l w n ~ i cw.tctin~l
f.~elki,,g ~l vith
mollml.sr;l~r ,,r rsritr,l.st;btc n,.lltr.d or i n < l ! l < ~ ~ i
slnil~s. I'l:n~n;~c.trl~i~~~i.;nfll~~~
cttla.ut<~xl
negatit* cllargrs and :I differrnt nolnl>rrof rnnionizrtl ~ a o l r c ~ ~A lrs
plasma
. is proilt~wrl
R.2 L Chapter 5 Etching
5.2 Dry Etching 4 93
tn t.lx..tyvt~r iota c e ~ ~ e mint ~a ~g..amtls
l discl~arge.T l ~ basic
r etch med~anisrn.p l ; ~ Plnsmn Dingnostics
a ! t , , ~ ~ o ~ t :,nl(l
~ c wcr~tl-~x>i~bt
. m111tro1are intnuh~c'i~d
l>rivflyi11 this section. 5lost prwrrsing pl:~s~n;is emit rtiiliatio~rin the nnxe frnm isfmrrd to itltnnialt~t.A ~ i m .
plr ;in:ll!lil~ll t~v~hnilIaris to nlorrllrr the intensih of tllrse rlnisrions ~ ~ N I I ~ \ \ ~ : ~ ~ I
Etch \techanism with thc ;lid of optir;tl cn~issinnsprdrnscop) (OKs). U~insob.;m.r<lspctn,l lualiX. i t is
I'l.~~tr~.t rtclunc pmrr(b in Rvi. steps. ;L< illustfi~tdin F i g ~ r 5.4 e First. lhr r t c h n ~speck3~t ~rrtmllylnssihlr to ~ L ~ t e n nthri ~ pnwncr
~r afncutnd and ionic \~x.cir<!)I cnrrr.l:,tinCtllr.us
I, Ernt~r.xtcyl 11, tlar. pll~stni~. Thr n.:lctant is then t n ~ o s ~ , r t rbyd c l i l ~ t ~ stilo~~r~n ~ ~a gsbo.
h.h rmis~ionsnit11pn?ioasl? d ~ t r n n i ~ywtfid ~ c ~ l urirs. R~latirr!mscmtnlk)ns nftllr rprcics
c,Lc I,, tIlC Nt.yt. t11r r ~ i ~ r t a is
n tadsorlrtl 01) the s ~ ~ r l i ~I\c cltemi,
c. cnl can in. ohtailad I?).corr~~l;ltil~~c!~anges i s iatensity\ritl~lhr pl:em;~paranleters.TI~t.rrrli$-
n.,,ction (z,j,,,l; nit!, pll~sic:~lrl'tiyts such :u ion l)ot~~lx~rrIn~t,ntj fnllo~ tn form vol:tt ile sion s i p ~ dilc.rivvd f m ~ ntile pritn;tr). ~tclulntor l ~ y p ~ x lhrfie.;
~ ~ c tto ria. or f:dl :tt t l ~ p
i ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~F) io~t ~~ inIIIV drlkC~. U I I I ~ are
~ ~d ~e s~ ~S~ ~ fmmI m I the s11rf.m'. difins~dinto the 1,) r r ~ dot'thr P~L'II y d ~ .
C,R 3tnd l > ~ t ~ nout l ~ I,?
< l the \-~tcrnnmS!T~PIII.'
I I ~ , ~ is l>:r~edon thr gr:ler.~tionofplmma i s ;I gns :,u;t lo\v prcssnrr. T\\n bn
F > I . ~ Srtcl~inc End-Point Contrnl
b v * of tnrthmL\ an. IIXYI:PII\T~c.J IIIC~~II(XISand rllr~rrlialm ~ t l ~ mThe b . forrll(lr incltli L)I? rtc11i11gdiffers fro111wet cllemicnl r t c l ~ i ~in~that
g dr).etching bas lrss etcll wlwti\.-
yl~tttcretrltil~~. :In11 tht 1.1ttc.r inchlclrs purr clrrnlir:~letch is^. In ph!~icd etrl~ing.P( it? to the ilndrrl!i~~glayer. Tl~errfore.the plaima reactor must lr ~ ( 1 1 1 i p\,it11 p 1 a mc~n-
t ~ \ , . ions lmmlrar~lthe sorf:tc~.at IliSIt spiv.d: snn;dl a~nollntsof nepti\r. ions k ~ n n e din itor that i~~dicatc.s
w l ~ the
e ~r,tching
~ p m s s is to ix. terminrtnl (i.e.. an ,,,ar17,0irl, i/d&iOn
t l p ~l i s ~ cannot
~ ~ a rwrh the \$afkrst~rf:t~t. and lll~reforePI:?\. no t l i w t mle in pl:~~nlaetcl~- :::drrn).L w r intrrfrrolnrtv of thr wafer surfaw is esrd to m n t i n t t o ~ ~n~onitor
sl~ etch
i~tq.I n chrrnicll e t c l ~ i n11e11tn11 ~. reactive s l ~ i ~s ,c *s ~ ~ r r aby t ~ dthr pl:~sm;~ intenct Nit11 r.ltrs alld to drtermine the end point. Duril~getcliing,the intensity oflnsrr light reflmrrl
1 1 1 ~nr,ltrn;~ls u t i ~ to v k1m1\ulatile pmhxdr. Cl~enlinil;ual p11)sid etch mecl~illlis~ns II\V oK a t11i11film s~trfaceoscill;ltes. This oscillation wcurs kuausp of the pllase interfer-
dil&nwt rl~;~r.+a#~ristin. Chrlnic:ll etching ed~il,itsa lti$ rtrh mtc allrl g ~ r xsl r l r r t i ~ i (i.e..h cncr hrtween the l i , ~ lreflected
~t from t l ~ o~lter
r and inner intrdxws of the etchinc la!rr.
tlw ntio of rtch r.ttt.s for diffrwnt rnatrri;lls) and pnxlt~ceslow ion In~nbanlrnc~~t-inc111crd ?-l~i.;
l:l?rr must thercforr In? optically t m p a r c n t or rcmitrn~lsparentto o l ~ s ~ r tho
v e owil.
cl;tmn<r, hut !iclrlc isotrnpic pmfiles. l'lt!sic;ll stching r;m !ield ;misotmpic p1~r6lc.s.but is Istion. Figure 5.5 sl~o\rra t)pical si,qal frnm a silici~lrJplycnstaIIi~~~ Si <ate rtcl~.Thr
:n\rri;rt~l\\it11Lnv etch scl~%ai\it\.;urdhicl, Ix,~~~banlt~~est-induml ilarniqe. (i.n~hinatinnc period of the oscillation is related to the change in film tllichlers I)?
of chrtnical and pl~!sicnl etcltine give ;misotropic rtch profiles, rra<~~n:il,l~ g w d srl'ec-
ti\i% and muli,n~trho!~ll~lK!lnrlll-in<I11~1~<l iLll;u~~;lge. h n e . u m p l ~is the RII? pnrPss, n.11ich &I= 1 / 2 6 (fil
nsrs a ph!sic;tl method to msist cl~enliodelchins or clrntrs reactive Ions to participate ~ s h r lhr I is the change i s Rlm thickness for one wriml of reflected liel~t.h is the \r-a\.e-
in cltrmicd etrllinc. Iengtl~oftlle 1.2Ferliglrt. and ,? is the refnctirieiti~r~oftllcla~cr
h i n g ~ t c h e dForex;~m-
.
rile. &I for rml\silimn is 80 nm. ~ne,lrareclIn. usine a hc.liam-neon lmrr source for wl~irh

52.3 Reactive Plasma Etching Techniques and Equipment

Placnra reactor techno lo^ in the IC industv has ellaneed dc+nlaticaIlysince the fimt appli-
cation of ph.snla processing to photoresist stripping. :. rractor
I for pla5111aetrhing c~ln-
tnins a clcuum clraelber, pump systi*n~.paver snpply genrntors. pressure senurn. p s
flow control l~nits.and end-point rlrtrctor. Table 5.2 slm\rs the similaritic.s;asl differrnrrs

Elcl~llmr (arl,ilnn:tlnilcl
Figure 5.5 TIlr n,lolivc reflectmw of lhc rtrhing r!~rfao.of n m!nyostlr altnll<:,lwl!.>! e!vr
T~,C m,i p o l rtrll is indic~tedI)? tlnr c~.s<rtinnof thr n.flcr.t;t!xv ~cill.di0~8.
 5.2 Dry Etching 95
TABLE 52 Etch M.chsnim and R n u n Ranges of Plasma Rsscmn I,? choosing the pmpcr etch cIi~.nlistryfor rwn~ple.~ >pnl!~neridnq
y tllr ~ i l i ~~,,rl;,~~,
,,
\\it11 flllnrnc.lrlmn pnl!.mrn looblnin wkcli\ihof SiO,m,?r silimn. i\~lernativclya trinlc.
t-!Llll i W l ( ' ~ ~ ~ ~ l i ~ t r . ~ t i ~ ~ICIvlt
~ ~ >l~~~l~:anis!~b I3rcss!!w I3:trty (T,,-h mnfip~nlionRIE etch. :rs s l ~ m win~F i p m 5.i. can scpante pl:lrmn prnrr.rtion fmrrt ion
. ..
tmnrlmrt. Inn cnerpy is mntrnllrd tl~rnt~sl, r separate h i x o r ~lllr \\afrr clwrmlr. tl.rrI,y
~ l l i ~ ~ i t~l ~~e
101s
~ i of
l jsrkrti\ih
l ~ ~ and 111~
ion I x ~ n ~ l ~ w l n n , t - i ~ r~ l~nI ~n ~; obrmrrl
~m~~ ~c l in
most lnrlitionnl lllE sylen~s.

Electron Cyclotron R e s o n n n n Plnsmn Etching

hfost panllcl-platr p l m l * elellen. e ~ c e p lriodc
t RIE, do ,lot p m ~ i d ethe al,iliv to mn.
lro! pli~nlnpxnsletrn such a rlrdmn enerk;. plnrnla density and m e a n t densityiwde.
vn(lrntly As a result, ion I~nml~anlment-~~ICIIICPII damage l m ~ ~ larseriollss prol,Imm.
Tlrr (,lrcfrorl n/c/[~frnllTpPnllflnr~1ECR) m e t o r m n ~ l ~ i nmicro\%wrr
es p v r r nith a static
o ~ ; ~ g ~ firkl
r l i c to forcr clrdrons to circulate around t l ~ cmapetic licld line at m NISI,-
lar frrq~~rnc): \\IIPIIthis frequesq eq~ialrthe applird micm~~'il~,c freqsmc?: a rpsons
mupling occlzrs I~ehveenthc ~ l e c t r o m ~ lr r g . and the applied r l ~ a r i cfield that ws
il, the bpps~ f ~ t ~ l , ithat~ i t ~r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i I\ pcornpsrison
m~n~nrrrially;~\~;tilablc~. ~ ~ ~ nf~ ~ t in ;t IL~SIIdegree ofdissoci:ttion n~lrlioni7atio~;(10-'for ECH rnnl~prsluilh 10"' fi,r RI
sllw opr;,ting m s c s and ion rnrrgirs fi,r diffrrent h p r s of r~actnrsis slai\m in F F i p n j . 8 sho\vs an ECR reaction cl~anlberconfigurntion. \licrowave paver is cuey
5.6 E;trln rtclt trnl is < l c ~ i ~ ej r~dn ~ i r i c ~nnrl i i l luscs
~ ap:ntict~l:tr r n n ~ b i ~ ~ aofprrs
tio~~ thrn~tgl~ a nlicrowvavr %\indo\r.into the ECR so~ircercgion. Tltc magnetic field is s
t 4 w t m l r mnfimlr:tlion 2nd t \ p . and sour<%.freqttrnr? to control tllr hvo pliltlar) p l i d fmm the magnetic mils. ECR planla s)stenls ran also In. ased in Illin film (lr
rnwI~;~~tisrn~-cl,~-~~~ic:J :tnd ~ l i ! s i a ~l.l i ~ l l rrtch
r r.rtcs and tml al!tom:~tiontrr rrtl sitinn. High eflicienq in exciting thc reactants in ECR plamns allmr.s the clepnsitio~
for nlnct C ~ C ~ I CI ~I TZ P in
~ ~~laltll~l(~lllrill~.
films at room trrnperaturc \vitllout the nred fnr tbrrmd 8iclivation.

Reactivc Ion Etching O t h e r High-Density Plasmn Etchers

RIE 11:~s k c . <.\trnsivt~IY used in the rnicrorlectronics industn In a p:~r.~llel-plnteI As icatnre sires for ULSI continue to drcrense. tllc limits of t l ~ emnvcntional RIE s:x-
nxtcsn. ;I nirlio f r < . q o ~ mpncitivrly
n~ corlpletl lmtiorn rlwlmdt. I~r,lrl.;I!? urafer. tern are k i n g appmached. In addition to the ECR system. otl~erhpps of high-d~nsih
illo\rs t h cmund~rl
~ l zhave $1si:aifinntly largrr area h.crusr !I is. in file
? l c ~ t r ~lo plasma sources, sucll as the inducti\.el\f. mt~plerl
. .plania (ICP) soitrcr. the tmsfonner-
rl~ntnbrritsclf. Tltr i a ~ e qrouncl~l
r are;) cnrnhined \sit11 the lower oprnting pre &upled plusma (TCP) source. m d surface \r-dve-mopled plnsma (S\VP) sourc~s.llaw
I<irK) tnTorr) causrs tllr u;lfers to l,c sol,jected to a Item? Imn,banlm~nto i rnel been (le\.rlnnrd. Thrse etchers have hie11 .
.~.nlanla densih (10"-10'' ern-') md lo\r. Dm-
cessing pressltre ( 8 0 rnTorr). In addition, they allo\r~thr\~vf?rplrt?nto k p r r v r l inde-
ions iron1 t 1 pl;r<n,n
~ s a result of the large negative self-bia at the n.afcr surface.
Tlw etch svI~cti\ihof tllis ?strnl is rcl:lli\rly low mmparc~d~ i t l1r.alitional
l han pmdcntIyof the source, pm~i(lingsipifirantdemnpling iwhvwn the ion e n e p (\?xfer
etch ?strtns lrca~rseof siron< ph!ninl spnttrrinS. Hrnvwrr. srl~cti%ity ran ire illlpro\ bias) and the ion flu(plsmn densit!; prinlarily driven !,I source pmver), Tl~cpriman

I
I 10 100
l ' r t ~ ~ ~ ~{n~l'nnl
~rc.
Inn
-
Figum 5.7 ~ ~~ t i , waetiw
~ l ~ ~ ion ctch n e t o, r Thr ion m~r q is scpan~tpl!.
~ mu ~
Fipvrs 56 Cltmpiri'nm
,"L*.lI.L v.<1r,n.
nf ion mev and i>pCCatin< prrrrurr ranceri for clifirent h F s of ;,
tmllc.d1,). l,ia5 ,x,~nse
on t l lntton>
~ rlcctmlr. rl. radio fwclttrnrs
9% b Chapter 5. Etching

TABLE w ~ n Chsnittries
h of DiNewm Etch Processes Kate orid? tllp 1110st i~nprtantr r q u i r e ~ l ~ ~forn t Eat(!
s c t c l ~ i nF~~ ~ . prarnplr, tile srlp
\I.,tr.ri.J B..ln$ Etvir,d I?trhins Chrnlirtn ti+. reriuirecl ill 1 6 IIRAhl is more tlran 150 (i.~..the ntio of C ~ C I ,
for polyedr
and gate mid? is 150:l). hrl~ic\inglligl~srlrc~i\it).nn(I etch a n i ~ ~ t ma( p yI),,.
I k ~ Si p tn,nrl> IIBr/SFJOJS12,,
is diffictllt for nlosl ion-cnl~nnc~.r.d ~tcllingprrxrssrs. nlercfore, lnllltjctrp pror~rsing is
~i,,~llou 53 tm>ch lll3ri<:l~O: arrrl, i s ufhiclr diffrrrnt r t c l ~strps itr the prMrss are optinbtd for rtrlt anirr!tmpy and
l',,l$ 5 ) IIUr!Cl.JO;. HBrlO,. RCIJ(:I,, SF,
srlccti\ih: On tlie otl~crlranrl. t l ~ trmd
e in p1.lrt.a t e c h ~ t o l of r~~ r w i ~ o t r ~ ~ ~ i c r t r h i n ~
.\I Bc;lp:I2. SiCljCI2.Illld(.:ll I1iq11st>leaidtyic to utilbr ;I lm%.-press~~re. I ~ i g l ~ - ~ l e ~ , s i t ) .#sing
~ l a ~smrcl:~tiwly
;~ Imr, pwt.r.
.~lSiCu I3CI JCl.m, l f r l ~rl~lorine-haw1
l and l~rominc-Imwdcl~r.niktriesm ir uuvl forgate rtrhinS tn acliirqr.
\v SF,,onh: SF./CI, tile rr-cluircd ctcll anisotropy and scl(,didt!:
lily SF,,onk
\\'Si> liSi:, CvSi: CC:I:F.JXF,. CFJC:I> Clfi'jC'Jc,F,
Dielectric Etching
SiO: CF)CllFJAr.C,F, C,F,. C,FJCO.C.,F,.CII,F:
TI,? pnttcming of dielectrics, especially silicon dioxjdr and silicon nitride, is a kc,. prr,.
Sir, (:llI.'JO,. CII:F:. CIItCIIF: cess i n the man~~farlurcof mcilrrn semimnrltxctor rlr\ices. BPC;~IISP
of t l ~ ( ! i r l l i g ~ ~ ~ r i m ~ d
inp cncrgirs. dielectric etching requires agressive ion-mllanced, flttorine-b:aell
rl~emistn.\krtical profiles are ncl~ierrd11). sicle\rall pvsitstion, t!pically by intrwl~~cing
of a DH,\\I crll. This snrfaw nrra can he reduwd I)? etclring trencllrs into the silimn n :;~rlmn-containing flolorine species to the plx~rnaie.g.. CF,. CIIF;. C,F,l. Htd, ion-
s ~ l k t m and
b fillin? the111nit11suit~bletlielwtric or conrhctiw materials. Ileep trenclien, homl~nrrlmrntenergies are required to rrlnovr this pl!mer layer from tlw ndde, ;o~ r l l
.AS to illis the rcaaivr species into tlie onillr st~rfarrto form SiF, pruducts.
usu:~Il?\\itlt ;I ilc,ptll greater tlrsn 5 pm, an. used mainly for forming s t o c l g capacitors.
~ l ~ a l l otrrnclss.
\r usu:illy with :I depth less than 1 pal, are often ~ l s r dfor isol:itioli. h lowv-prcsrllre, higll-densit). pliama is advantnpous for a~prctrati~leprndentetclt.
Clllorinc-l>asrd;md l>rosline-l,;ls~d cllrmistries 11avra lliglr silicon rtcll nltr and lliglr i~:r;. Ila\cevrr, the RDi' generates 11i~h-temperature electrons snrl snl)serlt~r:stl! gcnrr-
i hthe silicon ilioxi<h~~nnsk.Tlrr cornhination of llBr + KF, + SF, + O2
etclt s ~ I ~ c t i \to atrs a ltigl~dcgrccof rliss<xi;ttionof ions and mdicals. It genentrs far rnorr:~ctivemclids
c rused to k ~ n n trench cnp;lcitor uith il depth of approsimnt,:ly 7 p ~ nThis
g ~ qn ~ i ~ t n ris . :~ntlions Illan HIE or LIERIE plasrnns. In pnrtic~~lar. a high F mnwntmtion \\onens the
5 %iectivity to silicon. \'ariu~~smrthods Iiave h e n tried to cnhann tlir sel~cti\itinin tllr
urmlrin:ttio~iis nLw used fnr shallo\r trench isolation ctdling. &~ect mtio~l.;.~:~~~(lent etdz-
i r ~ zti.?.. wriation in r t c l ~ntt, \~itlraspect ratio) is often ohscn.c.d in cleep silicon trench 1t:~lr-rlensity placma. Fint, a pawnt gasuith ahis11C/F ratio. such as C,F,,. C,F,.or C,F,.
U:L< attempted. Other metl~odsto scavrnge F radials h:~vealso h e n rlrwloped~
etching. <x;llrsrrlbylinlitrd ion and nrrltrnl tr,msprt witliin the trencli. F:~:ure5.11 s ~ O ~ T
tla. ~ l r l r n d ~ nofc r;i\-cra~esilicon tr(?ncll etch rate on :&spect ratio. Trpnrlirs aitli la
aspect n t i o ~are etcl~r<l more slo\vll!. ttlrtin trencl~eswith small aspea ratios. Interconnect Metal Etching
Etclrinrr. . of a met:illi7~tionlaver is a very .
, iniwrtant step in IC hhricttion. Altrrninln
Polysilicon a n d Po1,Tidc G a t e Etching mpper. and tungtrn are the most ppular mslrrials arerl for intrrronn~iion.Tllpremat
Pol,~ilicx,nor pnlycidr (i.c.. lo\\.-rcsisf.ln~~metal silicides ovrr pnlpi~imnlis usu~lllyused rials ~isrtallv. re,l~rire
, anisotronic etcltine. The reaction uf darninurn uith flt~orineres!zlts
;L< a <.ale s1atrri;il for SIOS deticvs. r\nisolropic ctcl~ing and l~iglretch srlrcti\ity to the in nonvolatile AIF,. \vIiicli has a w p r pressure of on!\. 1 Torr at l%ObC.Chlorine-bxs~rl
clie~nistty(e.g.. a CIJBCl, nii~ture)I~asI m n \\idply used for aluminum etchisq. Cl~lorinr
Ilis a v e n I~iglrcl~e~nical dcll rate n4tb altrminom and tends to prdrrw an usdrrcnt dur-
ing rtcl~ing.Carlws-containing gas (e.g.. CHF,) or Xi is a d d ~ dto Tom) sidntall p m -
\ntion cltiring aluminum etclring to obtain anisotropic ctclling.
Exposurr to flip ambient is mother prohlern in ahnninum rtchin~.Residual dllo-
rine on Ill? alunlinltln side~~~;LII and the p11otore~isttends to read aith atmospilrric a , e r
to fonn IICI. \r,lricll m m l r s nluminual. An in sitrr rxpsure of the sxfer to a CF, dis-
cllnrgr to exchange CI \ritli F and then lo an o q e n discl~argeto rrlnow the wsist. fol-
lo\\?d by imnlediate im!nrnion in ileionizrd \cltrr. cm rliminlW danlinlial mmrcion.
F i p r e 5.12 s l l o \ 0.35-pin
~~ TiS/,\IITi lines an11 spaces on a \wfer m:~int;lindat anlbi-
ent for i2 Itours. S o mrmnion is present cvrn after l~mlongnlr \ p S U N ' to the :ambient.
copper Ilas dn,,a nl~rcl~ attention as a s r a r ~iict:tllbi~tios niatcnd in ULSI cirnlits
becallsr of its low rcsisti\ity (-1.7 R-ail) and suprrinr rrsistancr to e l ~ ~ m m i ~ i tmln- ion
pared ,,(th or ,\I dl~!~. ~ o , ~ ~ , hv ra . r e of thr low \nlstililyof mpprr l~:didrs.pl;uma
etcl,ins at nmm temperatllrr is di~Xadt.P m s s teinperat~irrsl~iplrrrthaa ~ ~ " C
req,,ir(.rl to rtell rapper f i ~ , ~ ~, ~l. , ~ ~ e ktIier/rrnrn.vcrn~.
~rr. p r w s s is O S to~foml QI illtisr-
mn,,rrlio,l ,,jtlloltl ( ~ ~ , ~ t D~ ~l ~, i; L ~W ~pmrning
.C intnl\rs tl~r emtion of i n f r m l l n ~ t
litles I,\.fint rtel,ing a trench or cxu1al in ;t pl;rnar iliclrclric In!rr.ud then fill ill^ tll;lt t~"lr1'
,,jtll n;rtnl, sllcll ;Is al,,,nint,nl orcoplwr. 191 dnal dmn;ae*~rr pmssillg (Fig. 5.13).a set'
an. ptcllnl :md fill^'
Rguw 5.11 Dvpendmw of a~rraserilimn trench rtch ntlr on a y d mtio.' onrl lc,cl is in\.o~yetl , , . I ,;,~ ~
srrin; ~fItolc.s(i.r,.. mnrarls or
 5.3 Etch Simulation 101

, l i Y 1h:tdc.r I.,,...

L*,\v-prms~~r(. C\'D (LPCI'D) tangslm (I! la'x

)I r e s niilcl? I I W for ~ fillirtemnt:trt
I~olvsa ~ ~first-lwr!
il nlrt;dli/ation 11rcausrnf its rxwllrnt drlx,rition c~nfonn:,l,ilit?.Rotll
Il~~orirlr- ;mil d~loriar-haqrrlchrn~irlncsetch \\'ar~<lfom~\nl:*tilr r.tc11pmlt~n5. ,\rt intpor-
tilnt tmtnsst?n rfc11p r w s s is t11(~l~litnk<!t\\. et~lll>ilck to fimn ;i \V plup. TI,? l,lallk<*t
l.l'(:\'D I\. is d(.posited on top of a E N banicr l:?\pr. as sl~rnw~ i n Fistre 5.1.1. A ta.0-
strp p r m s s is ilso:~llyI I S P ~First.
. 90% of t l l \\'is
~ e t c l ~ ~itti la Iti~11vtclt rate. :md tllet~
1\11. i.1~11 rate is r ~ ( h ~ r rm
c l rrnmovc. llrc mrnnini!~~ I!' nitlb an ~tvllnslthat b:u a lticl~
\\.-to-TiS selrcti\ih

in .~d<litinnto fltr trrnclt. hftrr fill in^. l l ~ m

r r l d and dirlcctrir :ire pl;tn:trixed hycli t 5.3 ETCH SIMULATION
i,.ol ,,~,.cbo,zi,ul,,olrrhirz:: iC\IP. rrv C11:lptrr hl. TIw n i h s n t ; ~ co~F~d : i ~ ~ ~ . ~prm
~wnr
iiqi<tlt.tr it ~litnttutwlhc, n ~ fird ilwkdrtrh. This k a n in\prt;alt c.011~~~nl
n8rnt.s imrn :d!trnlirtttn> 10 m p p r r int<~~m!ln<.Ctiorl~.
:st h inti1
~ -
rnantl. ,rhicl~.~llo\vstltc user to r t c l ~all or part of ;tny $vm I;t?rr at tllr top of tlnr cur-
~ ~

renl slnlPtore. If the rnntrrial at t l ~ clop of tile stnzrturr is not the inntmial slx.rili~cl.
tltrn no ctclting talirs pl;mm. If tllr alnount to lr rtcl~rdis not s p i l i ~ dt.l ~ r tllr
r ~ cotire
I:I\.P~ il: rcmowil.

EXAMPLE 3

SOLU?lON SIIPRI:\I i~>ptst

listing is a<folln\+

TITLE E t c h i n g Example
COYHENl Initialize r l l l c o n r u b r t r n t c
INITIALIZE <100, S i l l c o n Phosphor Concentration-1.16
COUlENl amp furnace up t o 1180 C over 19 n i o u r e l i n N
DIFFUSION Time-18 Tmperaturc-980 Nitropen T.rate-20
CMENl O r i d i z e t h e wafers for In i n v t c r a t 11W C i n cry ur
DIFFUSlW Time-5 Tempcrarure.ll0e Or@2
CWENT O x i d l z e t h e wafers f o r 120 minuter a t 1180 C i n r t 02
DIFFUSION ~ i w - 1 1 0~pnperarurc-1180 Wet02
COHIENl o x i d i z e the wafers for 5 minute. a t 1000 C i n d r y 02
DIFFUSIOH 7inc.S ~ m p c n t u r e - 1 1 8 0OlyO1
CWENl R~~~ furnace d m t o 980 c over 10 n i n u t c r i n N2
DIFFUSION T~.C-IO ~ e n p ~ r a t u r c - 1 1 0 8N l t r o p c n T.rate--z@
IIU - Chmter 5 EtcLI,19

,~l.c-n., I , is 111,.~r,?t~vtktr*tio#l of F atoms i"m"I. T the tt~8nprahtwiK1. :mrl E. m d H

tl,,. .,,<,,~dtt,,rt t.nt.v $ 2 45 k ~ - . ~ I h n~~ncl
~ ~*Ll,~ m>tt-k~t(1,997 e:d.KI, ms~xvliv~~ly.
lfnri
; I . ~,~l'.~~ tllr
l . rwln
~ t ~ .mtr ofSi rt nwun le~npcnhtn..
.; .;to:rtlti.d I n F rtwns ntt~lditlw lx. cq>n.rrrd
~ t ~ t ,,,,mllnin, = o.61.1 x iO~",a,.x l'"'rxpl-E)Rn
,,hqn. n, ;, 3 ,,.,,, -? E. is 3.76 k~;tlItn~~l.
.tch r..l.+-ti,it~ ol'sio? orrr Si ;at nxrnl trs~lwnltl!n-.
C;ilo~l;~lrthe ~ t c hralt. of SiO: ;and Diffusion
S, \ ,,,,,ltiplt..,l,,p e t C ~l)nlT,ss
I i- rrqlliml for rwlninl: s polpilims gatr s i l h thin g;ttr oddr.
~ l ~ . d,
,, !,,,, <),3irm Rn ,.trlt pnwTr thxt 1v.a r x r micr0m;okin~.b;rs :tn anisolmpic ctrh
,,mfi~,., as,^ i, ,r.~rctiv*to thin q~tc.o ~ i d c ' ~
9, ~i.4 tl,c ,.tch u.l,cli,i~ nrl,,inyl to ctcll a . I i n - ~ ~pol\silimn
m 1;hyc.r \\itla>alremming
Impurity doping is the ilttmluction ofc~etmllc~laamounborim~uri~do~ants intorem,.
T7t<,ry I I ~ I. nrn
~ ~ , K its ~ ~ r ~ ~ $:+tc
l ~ rmidc,
l ~ ~;tsstntnine
n c th:3t the l w ~ ~ ! ~ iis~ctc11<~1
i ~ ~ l ~~ 4 t h8
:,
rmx..*' l,.b,i2,c 105 t~t'~l~.c~tt~
ttnifi>r8rnit, m n r l ~ s t o nT. h e pnctical 11% oolinip~rritydoping mainly hxs h e m to d ~ : t s ~ *tllp x elrari-
cd pmpettirs of the s e ~ t i i w n r l ~ ~ c t Diffttsionon. anrl ion impl:xr>tation are tllr hbr, kc?
10, ,\ I . ~ , , ~ film is d,.ln,utlrl :, flat field oxide rrgion :and l x ~ t t ~ mnith
~ . d photo~~sist.
tnrt!~oclso f impurity duping. Botb dilllsion and ion iniplantation are ltsetl for lablicit.
,he.tllr.~,Ll ;,
is thrn rtc.lllrl uith in~irtan,o l RCI:Cl, lyaws at a tenrpvralt~rroliil°C in a
, , , nu.a.l,rti\ity "K:\l <,rrr phrrtansirl is m;tint;~it~ccl
I ~ ~ I , ~c,lrl,cr :kt 3. :Asntminu r 306
ing d i s c r r ~ erlevicrs and ititegrnted circuits l ~ n u s trl ~ r s rp r w s w s gencnllv complr.
o,.,.mtcl,, ,,hat is tl,,. n8irli~7nstn p l ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~thicko~c~s
r e s i s t rcqt~iw<Ito erl\urc t h ~ thet tap ~ n r r r~its l ~otller." For rxamplr. diffusion is t ~ s r dto form a d r c p junction (c',g.. a h,in
mrt:tl ~ a d a c vis not ; t t t . ~ r k ~ l ~
well i:t CMOS). \vherrac ion implantation. \vhicl~is discusse<l in Clvapter i ,is uretl to
form .I sl~nllnwjunction (e.g.. a sourcrl~lninjunction of a hlOSFET).
11. 1. .,n E<:n Irl:~rte~. :L st.~licm:pclic lirld R k,mr dcxtrons to circalare ,xnrulrl tine m a r
Until t l ~ c e a r l y1970s. i n l p u r i h d o p i n g \ w dose mainly I)ydi&~sionat e l r v a t ~ dIrm-
n,.tir l;cl,l linc.s ;tt m artpll;s inrinene!: a?. llnnt is girrn
p r a l a r r s . ;LC sho\vn in F i q r c fi.1. In t l ~ i inetl~ml
s the dopant atolns nreplacwlnoaor near
o = qRhn. t l ~ p s t ~ r f a oftlteuxfer
ce b)dcposition from the garpliwr ofthe dop:mt o r l y u s i n g d ~ ~ r l
oxid? sources. T h e dopins mticentration decrrares monotonically frotn the sa&rcr. ;md
\ r h m y i\ thr rlran,nic chaw 2nd na. the rlrctrnn sn:r\s. If tlrr micrwr.nr ircqamcy is
tlte profile o f the dopant distribution is detrnnit~edmainly II? tlte t r m p m t a r c and dif-
? 4.5 (:llz what is the rrquin.d magnetic nckl'?
fusion time.
I?. \\llrt :ur thr itl:ajord~rtinaionsluhveen trnditionnl rcactirr ion rtrhinc m d l~ich-d~nrih
pl.lmmn elchin< IICCR. ICP. r t c - P
13. ~ x ~ t ilanv l ~to. ~ [ i m i n athe
t ~ mrmsion iwlrrr in i\l linrr after etchins\sith chlorine-
~ S L Y I pIsnn:a.
 6.1 Basic DiffusionProcess 107

6.1.1 Diffusion Equation

i f ) IIIC c u tnktur~,.
[:or <liililsi,,,~it1 ilimn. lu,n,n is tllr amst popular dop:~ntfor i n t r o < l ~ ~ ca i))-t!.pc
imp,,rih: ,vl,t.r,-;ls .,nrtlir
~~g
pl>aspltoms;ire I I S V crt~.nrivt.ly
~ :IT 11-hp? dopants. Tllrsc
DiNtlsion in a ser~~i(nnrltlctor can lr \ir~~ali;.*.rl as the atotnic tllove,,lp,,torlllpdifl,ls:,,,t
(c!npollt :ltom~)in tl1e cqr;t:tl latticr I?.\ac~a.andcsoriaterrti(ials. ~ : i ~ , dro,,r ~ ~ tl,r h . hvo
~
I>:r5icatomic di%~sh>n nlrxlols in ;I solicl.' 'Tllcapcn circlc5 rcl,ww,rt tllr. host ~ , t n mIm,.
s
p!ing the ~quilil)rinmhtticc pnsitions. l l ~ solkl e dots rcprrsrnt imporit\. :,tomr.
vntrd trnlpr~lttlrrs.the lnlticc atoms vilrate aro~lnrltile cluililrriulll l;ltiicy. ~ 1 ,
is ;ilinitr probability that a lmst atom will nnluire suficipt~tcnrrw to lc;lr.~. tllP lattilv
sitc an11I r m ~ r l an
e intrntitial atorn, tl1rrel~~cre:ttin~a\3*im~.\\la.~,:~~ei~l~k,ri~~
rihatom ~ n i ~ l tto e stllr \;iculqsitc. a illastmtnl in Figtrr6.k. tltc mcTltanisrrris ctllNl
c m ~ t c d$fit.sios.
y Ifan intentitid atom mows fron~one plaw to ;,notCr uitIlaut WW,.
p)ing a lattice site (Fig. 6.31).the rnrcl~nnisn~ is infen.rifin1rlifit.~ion.,\n ator11smallrr
tll;trl tllr h o t aton1 oftrn moves i~ltentitiallr
Tile h z i c difi~sionpmcessofimpuri~~tonrsissimilar totl~atofchnrercnien idPe-
trolls an11 l~olrs).1% d~fi11c a fllu F rrs t l ~ enanlb~rofdopmt :~ton~s p;~rsingt l t r n \ ~a~ l ~
unit area inn unit tinle allrl C as the dopant macentration p r unit wlll~ne.\Vt. tltrn ltave

tlnr,~.rl~,n~t,ntr an. I,iSI~I\- snl~~lrlr i l l ~ilintn:tla.? IPXP snl~~l~iliti(-s : ~ l ~ 5v xe 10"etn-~in

tl,,. ,lifiaion t~.lnpr.ltllri. olt,<t.. TI~PSP (Inpants <:in l r i n t m l u n ~ din sevrr.d \\;ns. includ-
I I B soli~l
~ courcr7r ,r.:.. RX for I n ~ r ~.AslO, n. Tor i m ~ n i cand
, P _ 0 7lin I > ~ l < ) ~ [ l ~liq-
l~nl~). \vl~errl l ~ propnrtionalih
e constant D is tl~r~/ifi~.~ion
roflcienr or di/li,.siciry Notc that
Itid SU,IRY>F iRBr,. .\s(:I.. s ~ POCI;I. l :ind C:L<I.OIIS soIIrcrs (R,li,,. hsll .. and PllJ. tllr h u i c rlridng fort? of the diffusion process is the concmtntion gradient XI&. Tlte
I lmnvc\-t.r. liqllicl scntrcrs are tnwt <01111110111? ~ ( . dA. scI~r!n:ltir<!~:LET:IIIIof ~ I I Crt~maw flux 3 proprtiood to the mnccntration gradient. an11 the clopant aklms $\ill move (dii-
:lncl e:ls fin^ . ~ r n t r ~ ~ ~ . ~ht w
r at lliltlid
t soarw is s l l o \ \ ~in~ Fi3trr fi.2. This arnngemnlt 111s~) au.:iy from a Iiigb-concentr.~tionregion tnwrd a lowrr-concentration region.
ic sin~ilarto tlnt w ~ u for l tl>~nrtal o\i<l:~tioa. ;\n ralnplv o f t l ~ dr ~ e n ~ i creaction
.~l inr ~IIOS- I f \ v ~s u h d i t ~ ~Eq.
t e 3 into the one-dimmsional mntitllrih equation nndrr thc mn-
dition th;tt no n1:lterials are fom~edor mns~lnlrdi n tllr host sr~~nirnndl~dar. we o11t;lin

fit- P.O. forms 3 cl:~~r-on-silicon d tl~enrrduced to p l ~ o s ~ l I)!.~ ~silicon.

u ~ f r ~r n is ~n~s
?P,O; + 5Si -t 4P + 5Si0, i?l \ V l ~ mtllr mnccntmtion ofthc dopant atoms is lorr t l ~ diNusion
e menidrnt cnn I]? mn-
sidrred to be independent of doping mnnntntion. nnd Eq. 4 lxcnrncs
T1w phoVhmn~~ is rele:~rrcland diNuses into the silicon. an11 CI1 is vented.
Fnlr <liNitsionin g:allinrn nrsrniclr. tlw hie11 \-:ipnr presslnrr or arsrnic r c ( ~ ~ iSF- r~s
<in1mcth<xlsto prweut tlte loss o i a n m i c h ~ r l ~ r n n ~ ~ m sor
i t ie\?lpnr.ition.'Tl~pse
oe meth-
1x1sincl.ln<lrilifhtsinn in 5r.rlnl ampules \\it\, an nvctycs$ure oF ammic a11d riihsion in Equation 5 is often referred to XY Fickk dilfirsior~rilrrofiort or Firki 101
;in oIx.n-ti~lw~ frlmacp \\itlt a <loTKrl ~ x i d capping
e layer (e.e.. silicon nitride). hlost of tile
sttldivr on p-t\pr <liNr~<ion lravr h v n uonfizad to the {IWoiiinc in the fnnns ~TZII-GR-.~S

(0) (h)
Figurn6.3 n,ml,:,nisn,rfor 8 htn-dimm\-ionnllatticx.' ' in' V;ccan'r in(%'Il:l
n i \ ~ n .( h ) Incrstitial ~tr.rl~imis~n.
 6.1 Basic Dinusion Process < 109
Fr,r h q t cliff~~sants, sltcl~ia Cu in Si aecl GOAS.sho\~min ~ I I Pttpprrprti~r)of Fip~rcr
6.40 and 1,. tltr mnwurrd activation cnrrpir.s :lrr. Ips? tl~i~il 2 (.\: ibncl illt(.rslilialalc)n~ir
rncnc~r~ent is 1I1f. ~lo~nillant rliffmrion inwl~;t!~isn~. For sln\v rliNt~s;t~~ts.sna.ln TI: A % i l l Si
aid GaAs. s!ln\%mill lllr Icnvcr plrtioll of i7iplres fi.4n allcl h. C. is 1:trgcr tlanl, 3 P\: nsrl
~lcatlq ~~iffllsiol~ is I ~ IIC
~ O I ! ~ ~ I I : ~rnecl~;~nis~l~.
III

5.12 Diffusion Profiles

Tbr dilTurion prnfib. ofthe dopant atoms is dependent on tl~einitial and hottntlat?. rrm-
nl,rrr
. ~. D is tb,. ~Iiff~~sion
~ r f l i c i e nin
t cm'fs c~tr.~pol:~trd
to infinite t e r i ~ p n ~ t ~and
~re,
clitions. This slllxrdion rnnsiclrrs h w ianpnrtilnt cmrs, nanlclx mnst;111tstdrl:tct. con.
~~ ~~

E, is tlbr ;arti\ation mPq-ill r ,

centration diff~~sion alal mnstant total d o p l ~~lifitsian.
~t In tllu fitst ca%r, itnpllrity:ltotes
or tllr intPn.tjti.JclitTtsiorl eludrl. E, & n - l i ~ tto
~ lthe rnc@rs q l l i r e d to Inow dowt
:ire transported from s mpnr soltrcrt o ~ ~tl~et o s ~ ~ ~ n i ~ v ~ ~sttrF~r(.
~ d t t c and
t o r diN,lrrc\ intr,
stoms fnlll, intmtiti.,l to anntlter. Thr \;dnrs of E, nu? fonlld to lrhveen 0.5
tile rerni~~)nl~llctor
unfrn. Tllr \apor murrr m;lint:~insa ronstiirlt 1cvt.I of s~trfa~v mn-
2 ,.\.in hot), rilicy,rn;rnrl c:Jlitaa~mrnide. For the \;~nno.clifiaioanlmlel. Edis related
centration during tlie rntirr dilTusion prriml. In tla. srmnd cse. a fired ;tnto~stof<lop;tnt
to hot), tile rnrrojrs of lnotinn ;and tile v~tergiesof fonll:ition of \ncancics. Tbns. E, for
is drposit~dontn the srn~imn<l~~ctor s~~rfztrrand is s ~ ~ l , s r ~ ~ ~~lifi~srd
i r n t l y into t l ~\v:dr.rs.
r
i ~ ~ III:~II
\ar.mn. ~ l i f i ~issI;lrqer ~ tlnt for intrmtitii~ldiff~rsion.~~su:dl!brhv?rn 3 and 5 e\!
Constant Surface Concentralion
The initial condition at 1 I 0 is

\v11icl1states that tl~edopant mncrntn~tionin the ilost srmimnd~~ctor

is initi~llvTA,W.
Tl~p
boantln~?.conditions are

and

rip atonis.
T l ~ sol~rtion
r of Fick's diffi~sioneq~~i~tion
illat satisfies the initial and b o t ~ n d mn-
a~
ditions is given h!!'

svl~ewerfc is tile mmplen~entavrrrnr function and \/i;;is tlie diNusion lrn$ll. Tllr
definition off rfc and some prnlxrties of tile function nrr su~nniariz~d in TaI)le 6.1. T l ~ r
clifi~sioaprofile for tllr constant s~~rfacc wnceotration mndition is sllo\n~in Fiplre 6,:xi.
\vl~icl~plots, 011 hotl~linrar (upper) ;lncl logarithmic (lower) sc:d~s.thr norn~:tli;.wlmn-
cc~ltrationas a fnnctiori of deptli for tllrw valucs of tllr difitzsion lrngh mrrt,sponrli~~g
to tllrcr collseclltivcdilfusion tirlles ;lnd a f~xrdL) for a given dimlsion trnIlwr~t!!n.. Sol,.
that :a time p m p s s r s , l l ~ e11opnnt prnetrxtrs drrprr into tlw s r ~ ~ ~ i r n a d ~ ~ c t o r .
The total IIIIIIIIIP~of (Iopat~tatoms per unit nr1.a of the s~~tnicr,ndnctor is Sivc~n1)y

IWT IR-'I I W T IT') Sullstitnting Eq. 9 into Eq. IOjieIcL?

In) ib)
figun 6.4 Difl!aion cnellkient idw called difieivityl as a function of the reciprocal or tcm-
dim"
prantrr for i,~i nnd (hl ~xlliwnawnirlp.' '
 6.1 Basic Diffusion Process 4 1

..
lo'
0.1 pm

This c.rprrssion ctan hr i ~ a ~ r p r e t ra<

r l follous. Tlar q ~ ~ a n t iQl y( t ) reprrsrr,ls the area under
s the linear plot in Figure fi.51.
nnr of tlat- difli~sionp m f i l ~of Tllesr prnfilcs can be appma- 0 1 2 3 4

imatwl hy trinnelrs nillr hriglrt C. and b m r 2 f i . This lrnds to Q ( t i z c,*. wlaicla

is clmr to llw rxart rrstslt ol~t:u~~rrI fro111Eq. 11.
;\ rrldttd quanlih is l l ~ gradirnt
e of t l ~(lifftrsion
r profile Kt&.TI,? r(mc1ient can b Figurn 6.5 DiKusiota pmlilrs. ( a ) Normali;.cd mmplmtcnt~nermr htnetion \mnu clirtmw for
ohtaincd !,I dilli.n.otiating Eq. 9: s ~ r c ~ ~ : ~dini~sinn
s i v r times. ( b ) Sormrliml C.anssian bnctim vcmu rlirtmre.

\\l,rn C LO" cm". the mrresparlding distmcr r, is piw'n 11s Eq. 9.01
;

EXAMPLE 1 = 2fi(2.75) = 4.66 x 10.' crn = 0 4mpr

Fur tx,mn ilifitsi<,n in rilio,n at l(WsC. thr s ~ t f i a wm,ncrntmtir,n is maint:~inrdat 10"'cm.'
time is I hour Find Q(f1 snd the gndivnt at r = 0 and at Imxtion \\.hew thr
.kncI tllr <lifi~-icm
111p:ant er>ncr.ntr;~tinn
rrwhrr l0'"crn.

SOL(ITI0N Thr clifT!mion awlliricnl of h m n at IiKKIDC.as ohtainc~lfmnn Fiqarr 6.4. ir alnllt

2 u I l l ' rm':s. sn lhr clil>-!z~innI m ~ t bir
Conrlnnt Tolnl Dopn
For tl~iscacr, n fixed (or mnstant) nmol~ntoldopant is rlrporitnl onto the sc!nlmnrlt
r ~111r
tor rurf:acr in ;I thin I;t!rr. and the dop;ant ~ ~ ~ l ~ dsi frl ( ~ sinto
~ e scnaimnduct
~ ~ t l ~
Tl~eia~itialconditioaa is the sanir ;N in Eq. 7. The. Ixntnd:~nm~lditioteaw
 6.1 Basic Dinusion Process 1 I:

6.1.3 Evaluation of Diffused Layen

TI)? rrs!~ltsoiza diff~lrinnpmwss n n nv r ~ l l ~ l n t rIly r l Ilarer ~ n r : ~ n ~ r r ~ nIll?
c r ~jl~nctinn
ts:
< I ~ p t l111~.
~ , sltcrt rcsistanw. :~ndtlie ~lnpa~ut pmfilc of tlw dilfuw~lIayrr. lit,. jnjt,~iio,,
rlr,pll~can i r drlinrnlc~dIly cl1tling:l grnovr it110 1111. srtsiconclt~ctor:arl ctc.l~ine11)t. stir.
f;ac \r.itI~a soln~tint~ (r.g.. 1IW) cnl' Ill: ; s ~ dn fiw drops of IISO, for silicnni tls;tt stuns
tl,r p - 1 1 re,gion
~ d:~rkerll~;a!t l ~ c11-hprreginn. :rr illustratrcl in Figntrr 6.h. If !I,, i.i tla.
r.ldit~sof tluc tucrl ~isrtlto fonn the CmWC. tl1(.11 tl~rjunction <lrpIllx, is given IT

,r, = ,- - ,@2 (171

\\.l~en.o and IJ are indici~tcdin 111" figur~.In aldition. if 4,
is xn~trl\lsrgur than o rnd I
tlrn

Tllr jllndioa rlcptl~x,. z?illustrated in Figure G.rh,is the position wlwre tlur dopa,
Ftsln. 6..% slmts tltr clolrult lm,lil~for a Gntr\\imi rbstrihr~tionun \rluirl! the nornldii.nl concrrltt-ation rqodr tllr subrtratc concentralion C,,. or
~ ~ , u c r . ~ ~ t l t,C/SI
~ t i ~ is
r nplc>ttt~l
;ci ;t finnetion oitlw dist;lncx~ior t l t n . ~iu>crrai~ug
diNt~sion
Icn$llr. Sot? llrr r r ~ l u a i c nof tls. s~)rl.rrrmncvntr:,th>~> . ~ cllrr <\ilfitsioatimv i~rrc:~ws. C(x,) = C, (1%
TIII Lx7.alirwtof thv clifliwionprr,file i.i ubk~inrd!,I dilT~.r.n.nti;utin: Eq 1.4 and is Thus. if tllrjullction drptll and C, are kno\vn, tile m&tceronrt.ntration C, ant! tlnc isnpqr-
riy clistrib~~tion can he ~ J c n l a t r dprnvidrcl
. tlue dillusion pmfilr iollo\n one or the otller
simple equation drrivrd in Section 6.1.2.
Tlur rpsi<tanreo i a difirswl layer can he rnrasuml hytlle fosr-,,oitlt p m b ~tedtnirpse
TIIPqa7rtll&t lor slope\ is z r m rt x = 0 and ;kt r = -. and thp mxYiu~?om!zrarlicnt oc~11 sl~ownin Fiparr 6.7. Tllr prohcs nrr rqrially spam.rl, I\ srnxll currr~,tI from n msslant-
I =\ I n . n ~ r r r nsntnrcc
t is pxwrd tl~rno~lu t l ~ outer
r tunpmlrs, andawltap Viq rne;a~~mlhrh\wn
111intcsr.stt.d circllit p m s s i ~ ~;*qh\r,-stvp
. <lilTitsinnprrrcss is mnumonly use tllc inner h$n pmlrs. For n tluin srrniconductor sample \vitl! 1lrirLness \\'tl~ntis mn~cb
\r.lrirl, a pn~~/c,,r,~iti,r~t
difft~srdl;yer is f i ~ ito m ~ r dnrudc.r thc rnntant n~rft~cr mr sm:iIlrr titan t l ~ sample
r dinmrter d . tltr rmi~ticify( p ) is @vcn hy
tmtion cnnditinrt, Tl~isstep is i o l l n ~ v!,I~ ~al ,l"rc-irt cIiff\t.iim~ i;tlso rallwl n,di.vtril>~
~IiKucinn)undrr x mestsrut trrtal dop:uut couu<lition. For ,nost pr.lctic:il eaqes. thr I
siw) I k n g l ~\ Grr tlw prp<le.lmsitintl~IiN~~sinn is I~IIICII s n ~ n l l 111:111
~ r ~ I I PdiNnrinn lr
for t 1 ~(lri~r-in
. diffi~~ion. T l ~ m f n r ctla.
. pn.dcposition profilr can h r rr~nricIc~rt.d n \\.llrre C F is known :LS tlur corrrction L3etor. The mmcrlion fi~dorrlrlvntlc on tltr ratio
htndioll ;lt tltc sllrfitcc. lnrl tbr cxtrnt oitltt. penrtr:ltinn oillle prrt!qx,silinn profill ofrlls. n.lurre s is the p m l r spacing. \Vluen dL$> 20. tllr eorrrction kctor epproaclurs 4..%.
Iw nyiunlrrl to I,? ~ttylizihlyS I I ~ I mmp;arrd
I \rill) Illat oftlw~find prolil(. t11:it rrstllts ..
~

tlw ,lrivc.-itu stt%p.

EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION

p.Si I I I
lbl
I3
~i~~~ 6.6 jllnrtion.dcpth mc;L,,,n:tnmt. (01 CnminS and staining. ib) Pwition in ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~
TI?..u,ltllion lo ibis rrl~x;dicmmn I*. <lrlmninr*lhy 1Lt. m,<r p i n t nf cq!lslinn $=I 1": <lc~p;%st
:rind ~ , ~ l ~ s t c(,ncl.ntr.lli(lns
mw an. e.r]!l:d.
= I l l l r l r - \%ill ll>rn.forr,I = I I'XI stwad<. or rpprnd~tlalvlrLO rninutcr.
114 + ~hrmr
6 D!fhrrion 6.2 Extrinsic Diffusion 4 I 1s
lion (11,);It tllc clifilsion trtnprral~~rr. For cam~plr,at T = I ~ " crr,,,n15 ,,,
. 5 10" rm
Tor ilimll and f, x LO" rl!li' lor ~ i ~ l l i aa~st.nid<..
~n .fllr difl,ni,ity ;,t lnr cq,,wntrafi,,,,r
is ofil'n nbfrm.ll to as tllr itlfrinrir difir.,icily. IJnping profilc.~tllat evnn.,,frati,,,,,
Irss than II,(T)tirr in 111~ intrinsic diff~lsionregion. as indic;ltnl i n tllr lrrt siclr. of ~ i , , , , ~
6.8.In this rcpion. thv r c s ~ ~ l lclnpnot
i ~ ~ g prnfil~solsrqv~rn~tinl or sis,llt;lllm,,r di(r,,,ions
of n- and p-t!lx. i~npllritipsGIII Iw ~ I v t c n n i ~by~ sulrrposition:
~d tlint is, tllc llifl'~,rioas
can hr trratrcl ieiirlx~i~drntl.Iloprvr,r. !VIII.II 111~. in~p~~Tihwnwntmtion, inclllclinSlntll
thr slll~.;tnltrnllrl the lh1p:lnt. is Rrratrr th:ln n,O,tllr scmimnrl!tdor lmn,rs r.rtritt-
sir. and the difi~si\ilyis mnsidrrr~lto hc extrinsic. In tho extrinsic <liN(tsionrvpion. tllr
diN~tsi\it?I ~ m r ~ nmnwntr.ttion
es drprn~lmt."In tl~rcxtrinsic 11iNt1rionrepion. tlae dil-
fnsinn pmfilrs arc more mmplicated, and there nrr intelilctinns and cmpr.ativc clkr<r
amollg tllr srqllenti~do r silllu~t;llleolarliff~lsions.
f i p a 67 Slr.~rtmw~r~rt~t
of n..iismity usins :t lot~r-pintprohr.'
Concenhation-DependentDiffusiviv
The shn,f mi.vmnre lR,) is relatnl to thrjuection depth (x,).the. carrirr mnhililly (1. As ~nrlrtionedprmiorls\y, \vI1e11n llost atom .acquires sufficient e n c q fmvn tla lattiw
>vllirlli<a ftlndionof the tohJ impl~rinmnwntr.~tion).and tile irllporih distribstionI Cir! \il>mtion to ]raw its latticc sitr, a \acnnr) is created. D r p c o ~ l i aon~ tllc cllar~cs&?mi-
hv thr follm\in< e\~rrssioIl: ;ttrc! nit11a u:lonc): \rte can haw a neotnl v a m r ) . l"'. an acceptor \;tcanc? l'-. ;I dot~l,lr:-
c l ~ a r pal w p t o r ~ a m ~ ~ c y l iidonor
"-, \IIC~IIC?.B..
andso k~rth.\Ve cqwct t11:tt the\aw,~r)
d ~ i l s i hof a giwn charge state (i.r.. the nunlber ol\;~mncies per unit voLmr. C,) ha5 n
t m i p r a t o r c drpendencl? similar to that of the a n i e r density that is.
For :I @WII diffusion pmfilr. thr a\.entge resistibih (P = R,r,) is nniquel? related to the
ssrf.lw mnwntmtion (C,) iind thr sul>str.tte doping mnwntration for an a r s r ~ ~ n edil- d
CInsion pnlfile. Desiml clxmes nlatine C.and P 11w.r been calculated for simple ~kNusion
sUclzik* the erfc or Gausrian rlistribution.' To use t h e s cnwcs
~ mrrectly, we must \ i , h ~ r C,
e is the intrinsicvnc.mcydensity,E , is thc Fermi le\rl. m d E , is t l ~ intrinsic
c Fenni
he sure thnt thr dilfusion agrre uith the a..sumrd pmfilrs. R > rlow conwntra. lewl.
tion and clcrp diN~~cions. the diN~~sion profiles generally can IE representerl I>? the afore- fi'thr dopant difi~sionis dominated Ily the \ a n o r ) mechanism. the cliNtlrion mrf-
mentioned simple CInnctions. Ilowrwr. as ~liscussed in the n p a srction, for h i ~ h ficirnt is e ~ y c c t tod i r prnprtional to thr \?mnc).densi~.At lluv~lopinl:cnnc~ntntior~s
mnn.ntr.~tinn ;u~rlshdlmrr diNnsiom. the diNusion pmfiles n n n o t In-reprrsented hyt11e.s~
silnplc functions.
Tile dilli~cionpmfile cnn h=m e a ~ l n zl~cing
l a n@t;mm-\altage tc~frhnique.The ma*
i h n n i e r pmfile (ni. $vhich is equal to tile ilnpllrih pmfilr if ilnpllrities are ful!\. i n n i d .
GUI l r cletrnninrrl I? mr;\surinz tllr rrrrm-hi= (ilp~citanwo f a p - n junction or a Scl~dtLy
lx~rrierd i ~ l : eu a hxnction of the applirrl roltage. 3 1 i s is due to tlle r~lationsllip"

rvhrrr q is t h r charg- of an electron. E. is the prnnitti\ih of the semicond~~ctnr.

n ~ l c i t ~ psrnr unit~ arra o l the sample. and V' is tile applied voltap.
:\ more ~li~hOr.ate n1rthn11 is 111~.secnnd:~ryionmass s p ~ t r o s m l > i(SJMS)
c trcllniql~e.
rvhich me:lrl!rrs thr total inlporih profilr. In the SIhlS trchniqllr, an ion beam splltten
n ~ a t c r ioff
~ l t h r s ~ ~ r f aof c cnmp,nent is detected anrl mas
c ra sen~icnnductor.ant\ t l ~ ion
analynl. This t ~ h n i < ~ ha.$ t r r hie11 msili\ily to many elrmcnts. sllch a.<boron m d a r
and is an ideal I M for ~ prn\idi~~ the
< pr~cisionn e r d n l for prnfile s ~ r a t r r e ~ n e nint s
mnc-ntration o r shallmv-jc~nctiondiffusions."'
0.1 J
oo~ n.1 to 10 100
W 6.2 EXTRINSIC DIFFUSION (n
,,I,~,

Thr rlimlrion profiles d e s c r i k l in Srction 6.1 are for constant difi~si\ities.nlrrp Prcr Figvn 6 1 Donor impurity difi,ri\it? \t*rslzs plwtmn mnrr~nfr.ttionrllmsin~rrgon~of inlrin%ir
ancl rrtrinsiu cliNt~sion."
file5 n n l r 4 t - n thr dopin< mnwntratinn is l m v r than the intrinsic clrrier mncnllm
 6.2 Enrinric Diffusion 117

x, = 0 . 8 7 6 for D - C' ( y = 3,
In tllc raw of y= -ttltc <Iiff~si\it).
i n c r ~ ~ \\it11
u n d ~ r r r r n i n~nnn*ntr~tina.
~ \r?tlct~tp;,r!5
to :I concaw profile, m nppsrtl to tllc convex profilrs for a t l ~ rcar.s.
r

622 Diflusion Profiles

Dimusion in Silicon
Tllc inr:~surrd(lilhtsion cocficirntsof lmron and arsenic ill silkmn ilave, .,,,,,..,,,,.,,,,,,
(li,pllrlenc~'-it11 Y 2 1. Their mncmtc~tiosprofiles arr abnlpt, as drpic(p,l i n o,n.p
,r.l~<.rt~C, i< tlas s-~rF:t<v m m r ~ w t n t i o11,
~ ~is. t l ~ erliNusion mrfirient at 1111. s~~rfimcv of Fisnru 6.9. For gold and platinum diffusio~ti n silimn. yis close to-" ,a,lrltllrircon.
y i~ ;a paran,r,tvr to drscrilr tltr mnc~~ntnttinn d~pnclc~nm.. linr supl~a C:LFP. tvc can ~u.ntr:ltionprnfilrs llst'c the cuncave s h ; p sl,m\n in mllv,. d of Fiparr 6.9.
El1 4 .n< 21, ~,rcli,l.t~ rliff<.r~.nti:jlrtpv.~ti,,n rnld solvr it nnmrric;tlly 'rl~t.~lifi~sion of pl~ospl~on~s in sili(n11is :usncintcrl \sit11tl,r ~ l o l ~ cllarwcl
l,l~ amp-
F I ~ 6I!1 ~sI~xr5
. thf. ~nltttions"fur R111S1;1111~ ~ ~ r f i ~ ~ ~ e c ~ ) r l c r diN~~sinr~
. t ~ t c t t i o\tit11
n dif- tur vwanc). \"-, a ~ ntll ~ r d i f f ~ s icoefficient
on at l~igllcnnwntntinn \arirs .zr c:. \\i.uall~d
ft~r,.nt\,LIIII., 1tC y For y = 0. \vr Iti~vv111,' ci~icof c ~ ~ t s t i m difftwivity
t 311d Ill? profile is cxpl-t that the diN~~sion profile of pl~ospl~orus mem\,les that sl~o\min cunp b oi
tllp r:tmr .L\ th;h sl,cnvn in I ' i q ~ r6~. k . For y > 0.tlw diffusi\ih d c ~ w ; ~ r:IS r st l ~ con-
. Figure fi.9. Hmvewr. l ~ r c ~ nofa ~ s rdissociation elTcd. tile diffusion pmfilc edlibits nnolsa
wntmtion ~ l t ~ c r c ~lnd , ~ ~i~tcrc;Ciin~Iy
t~, s t w p trncl lnxlik~c x m c ~ ~ r ~ t rpan~~i f~iul result
~ s for lom l~el~iwior.
inrrt,;~\iney Tlrrn.li~rc.Iliql~b;thn~ptj ~ l t ~ c t i oarc ~ ~fonnld
s n.lt<.n dill;t<ioi~rare I F i g ~ ~6.10
r e sl~o\rspl~osphorusdiNusion profiles for vidrimts surface concentrations
intu 3 l~tckqronnrloC an olyxxitr impnrit? t\pp. Tllr :rhn~ptnrssof t!~r(loping p~ aRrr rliffttsion into silicon for 1 hour at 1000'C."\\ltet1 t l ~ surpaw r concentration is lo\v,
r,-qtclt< i t ) a junction <It-ptltririu;~lIyinl!rp?n~!?nt of t l ~ cl~:~cksr<nmd m>nwuttxti~~n. c o r r e ~ m r l i n gto t l ~ eintrinsic diffusion rrgion, the dilTusinn pmfilr is given hy an r d c
111.11t l ~ vjomction i k p t l ~!<re Fiz. 6.91 is given II? ( c u n r a ) . A5 the concentration increi~ws.t h e prufile h @ n sto dmiate from the simple
eslxession i n t n r s h and c ) . At w n high concrntmtion ( c ~ t wdl. r tllr profile nc:u the
surl:~rris indeed similar to tl~ntsllo\m in c u m 6 of F i g ~ r e6.9. Ilm\r,rr. st mnrrntr.1-
tiun ,I,.. s kink occurs and is follo\val hy a rapid diff~~silsion in tlw tail region. Thr mnrcn-
tr.ttio~~ 11+ corrrspnds to a Fcmii lrvrl0.11 r\'hln\r d ~ condt~ction r b;mrl. At tllis e s r r p
Irvel. tl~rcouplrd in~p~lrityvacnncy pair (P'V2-) rlissociates to P'. 1'-. and at1 clrccmn.
Tln~s.t11e dissociation generates o l a c e namlxr of sinxIy c l i a ~ c damptor \aorncies V-.
\\,llich in tlnnl rnllat~mstlre rliNusion in tlre tail reginn of the profile. T l ~ difilsirih r in
thr toil repion is over 10." ~111~1s. \vl>icJ~ is about n w orcIrrs of ina~nihldrlilr<~rthan tlle
intrinsic (IiNtlshity at lWOODC. Rrca~treof its higl~diflusivit)r phmpl~on~s is cominonl?
I I S P ~to forn~ deep jotlctions, sucl~;LS the a-tubs i n CIIOS.

Zinc DifTusion i n Gallium Arsenidc

\\i,fb.qwctdiNtrsion in gallit~mnnmidr to ir nlorr~mmpliatnl tl~antlwt ill silicon l m u w
thr diffilsion of impttritirs ~r~;tyin\nReato~~~ic mo!rmmts on lntll l l ~ pllitnrn
c and xrrrnic
suhlnttiws. \'aca~~ciesplay I ~Iolominantrole in diffusion pmcrsrrs in pllium imenbk
hrcnl~srIw,tl~p- and )I-hprin~pllritiesmust inltimittdy reside in lnttiw sitrs. Hmvevcr.
tlle c l l a ~ slntes
e of the \i~canci~.s lvavc not Iwen est~blisI~Cd.
Zirrc is t l ~ cmost edrnsivrly studied rliNusant in ~xlliamarsrnide. Its diN~ainncwf-
ficip~ltis fotmd t o \ a ~ a C'. s Tl~rwfow.111,-difitsion prnfiles an. strrp. sshrnrn in liiyw
6.1 1,":md r r s e ~ n bctlrvel,
l~ of Fipnw 6.9. Sot? that even for tlw casr oltlw br\vst sur-
facv mnwntntion, t l ~ diflusion r is in the extrinsic dilTusion reson. IW~IISC n. Cur C d s
at IOOO0C is less than 10" em'. As sprn in F i p ~ r e6.11. t l strrliacv ~ ~ ~ n ( ~ n t m t iI iO
i ~n
a
%

pmfo!tnd rN?ct on tl~ejttnctior~ drpth. The difilsitity varirs linmrl?\ritl~tl~rptrlkd prt.r-

sltrr of the lint \.npor. and the snrfaw concctllration is prnpi~rtioldto thr scpccN. rlxrt
of tltr p:~rti;~l pressarrr. Tltrrrforr. fmm Eq. 55, thr j~~l~ctii>n ilrptl~is linrarl? pmpllr-
tionnl to tlw S I I ~ ~ . I c~ P~ n c ~ .In1'son.
tr
I 1s L chepnt 6 DMuslOn 6 3 Lateral Oiusion 4 119

Figurn 6.11 DitTurion pm~les"of Ant in GaAs after annealing at lWODCfor 2.7 hours. Ihr
dilfL.w;i! nnrfaw mnastmtionr arc 01,t;linmI by ,vndntaininp:thc Zn msrny. at trmprmt~~rrs
in
tl,v r.11xe :PT I,,Snn"C.

penrtration in the \.ertical direction for mnmntrations three or more ordcm of m a p i -

tircle Below tlie surface cnncentmtion. Similar rest~lts obtained for a mnstant total
dopant dilliwsion mntlition. The ratio of lateral to v e r t i d pnetration is about 75%. For
mncmtmtion-dependrnt dilliurivities. tlw rxtio is found t o hr redoced sliqhtly, to about
fiSCr' to 70%.
Figurs 6.10 Phosphonu difiaion pmfiles" for \ariour atrface mnwntratiun, .%her<lifiasiol
ink, rll!c~,n for I hour at IO(Y)'C.

b 6.3 LATERAL DIFFUSION

The onc-dimensional Glliiion quation disnisss~lpre\iouslycan dncrihr the dillit~sionP'D
e tlbc ma5k \\+ndrnv.Mere the inlpurities \till dil
m s mtisfac~oril\:exmpt at the ~ l q of mlrc
iond
9.-

k r r n t initial and h u n d a y contlitions.

Fimrrr fi. 19 shrnr5 the m n t o u n ofmnstant doping concentration for a mnstant sur-
face mnwntntion rliff~isionmndition. asuming that the diNusi\ih iq i n d e p d r n t of cnn-
cmtralion.!'At the fiir r i ~ l lot f t h r fim~re.tl~e\.sriationo f t l ~ edopant conc~ntrationi
0.5 C. to lo-' C. i\vl~rrr(:, is tloc surfacr concentration) corresponds to the rrfc d
n hy Eq. 9.The m n t o i ~ n;xrc in rffrct a map oftlle lrxation of the jund
h ~ ~ t i o@\?n
crrntnl 11: (IifTt~sino, into \anoms I ~ a c k p n n mncvntrations.
d For exxlnple. at CfC. =
li.r.. tl~rhnrkgrr1111~11 [Inpine is 10' titnps lrnver than tlie surface m n r ~ n t n ~ t i o n\VI) .
fnml tliis mnrtnnt mnwntratinn cun.r t l ~ a ttllr vertical peertntinn is ahout 2.8
~ v 1 a . ther ~ ~Iatrral
~ ! ~almut 2.3 Mm 1i.e..t l ~ penrtralion
p w r t a ~ t i o is r d o n g the d i m
< l ~ i c t o nr l r r r f o r r , the lateral ptnrtratinn is ahout sW%0: ..--
~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ k \ m ~ i c n ninterfarr).
 6.5 Summary r 121
TLE Predeposition Example
COYMENT I n i t i a l i z e s i l i c o n substrate
INITIALIZE <100, S i l i c o n Phosphor Concentration.lel6
COWENT Diffuse boron
DIFFUSION Time-15 Temperature-850 8oron s o l i d s o l
PRINT Layers Chemical Concentration Phosphorus Boron ~ e t
PLOT A c t i v e Net Onin-lel5
STOP End predeposition example

Sot<-~ l ~ . rt~rfacr
tt e,nrmtmtion of thc lnmn is qr.1 to lhe did soltlhilil? limit hy ih? S o l i d s o l
b 6.4 DIFFUSION SIMULATION pazan~rlrrin thr DIFFUSION rnmmmd, ARvr prcdrposition i* mmplrtr. \rr. print rind plot the
Ix~n,rin~ntl~stmlion a a fi~naionofdep~hinto the rilimn atb*nte.n~<.rrrultr a n r l l r n l n is liimln.
nl?\arionr mn~plic~liom
that arise in the ronrpnlation of diffieioll prnfik-q (s81ch a con. 6.13. :vhich indi~2tesn junction rh.ptl>010.05% ~ O T B . 4
~ntntioa<!,.~n<I?~bt difitsi!ih) tellct lo preclllde the use of allal!tical hnn<ic ~ ~ c l l ~ a t i o n r
fr,r;dl hut tht. riml>lcstnnmplrs. Fottunntrl\: the SUPREM sofh\rue p:sh$c intm111ml
in C:ltrpt*r 3 dso inch~dcsm m p k t e m ~ l r l for s difft~si(r~~. SUPRE!! citr~sin~oli~tr
one- or
nwdinrmrion;d ililh~sionp d l ~ sThis . is a m ~ n p l i s l ~ usins
c d llle DIFFUSIOol command. b 6.5 SUMMARY
The o ~ ! p u of
t th(. [)nqr.llIl is t!pic.llly the chm~irnl.cimrrirr. end \ a m n o ;:lr.~Plltntiolls
.~r fwrtinns of drpth into the wmi<vnduc*or suhstrdtr. Diffusion is a key method of impnrity doping. This chapter fint considerctl the baicdif-
:lII ddTtaion pnmssirnolaton. inrlilclir~gSL!PHE!I, are had upon tltrrr bacicqua- fusion rqustion for constant difi~nivit):T l ~ ~nmplemrntar).emr
e function (edc)and the
tions." TIw lint rq<~ation is lor the flus I]). \vlticl~in one dime~~sion is %
ne$' ly Ga,;-rian function \\,ere obtainctl for the constant surface concentration case and Nln-
stant total dopant cares. respecti\rly. T l ~ eres~tltro f a diffusion p r w s s can l r r\.aluatrd
by mea-~lrementsof tile junction deptl~,the sheet resistance. ant1 tile clopant prnfile.

w h ~ wZ, is the c h a q e state. # is the mohilih of the impurity and E is the electric field. - .~. . . - ~ . s ~--.,.-, ...~T-
.~
reEep.zn --..7.. . ~.
The ~st~bscript i indicatm t l ~ cSUPREhI girl location. The second relationship is the mn- Data from twOOiS3
tinuih rrluiltinn. \vhirb is $wn hy
Boron l f c r n j )
, . Phosphorus l / c
3
. Ne: Wping (/cm3)

\vl:rre G, is tile genentionlrrmmhination rate of the impurih The fi~ralkey relationship

is Poinons equation. which in one dinlensinn is given by

wlierr E, is the pennitti\ih: n and p arr the electron ant1 hole concentrations. and h'l;
and S; are the (oncentntions of ionizer1 donors and a m p t o n . respectively. SUPREM
solves Eqs. 26 to 25 sirnultan~nt~sl~ over a one-dimenrional grid specified hv the user.
The diffosi\ih \allies 11sed hy SUPREXI are bawd on t11r varanc). ~ n ~ lofr Fair."l The
talues of E* and D, for 8. Sh. ant1 As are inclllclcd in a look-up table. E ~ ~ ~ p i r imodels
cal
nrr 11sm1to a m l l n t for field-aided. oxidation-enlmnmd. and oddation-whded diffusion.

EXAMPLE 3
Sl3pp-e w *ant la simulate lhc pnrlcposition olhomn intn an n-hpe clM> silicon wafer a1 8501C
h,r l i minnt-. lfthcsilimn nllntntr i-clnpnl ~ i t h
phrnpllnnaat r l o ~ l o10''.cm-'.
f ttu: SUPREXI
0 0.1 0.6 0.1 1 1.2 1.
lo dcltmttin*.the h m n dopinc:pn~filrand thr junnirtar drpth. ~lstancr. l l o ~ glimn

Figure 6.13 Pht of.lx,rnu ~ ~ , n c l . n t ~ ~at itlscticnn

i o ~ ~ of <lrptl~
ih,tn tltc siliom a~l,strdv.nri
SOLUTION The SIIPREXI input listing ir nq follm\rn: st:l'liE\t.
15: r Chapter 6. Dittusion Problems 4 I23
\ \ l l n l t l ,Itpins
~ o nIti$wr than tlle intrinsic carrier conmntmtion !I, t,
r ~ > n w n t n ~ t i is
tl,. c l i l h ~ d o ntetn[rntttmb. t l ~ dilfi~ri\.iiy
r l m r n e s r n n c r n t n ~ t i od~elp n r l c n t . This clepcn. . - .,,
....~.....
atonericm'. itnrl the m r m m l junaion depth is Ipm at a rshstr;ttr mnrcntmtion ,,i
~l,.,~~,~ 1,;ks ;I pmfot~nclr f f w t 08, t h r rrsullillg rlopillg profile. For rralnple. arsenic and
Ix 10". Cdculale thc dillinion time. ;md the total dnmnt in the ,limlrrrl ,.,;I
l*,rnn d i i l i t r i \ i t y i n silirnn \.al? linearly w i t h t l r ~i m p ~ t r i t yrn~lcetttr.~tion. Their dopinq ~

rmlilfi
;Inm u r l t nlun- d j n t p t tllall d i f i l s i \ i h i n silimn \ari&
t l t r r d c pmlile. P l l o s p l l o r ~
'4. To ntnid \ n ~ l cwarp
r d~~~~
to P sud<lenrnlmiion in tcmperntrtrc. thr temperatllrr in a <lifil.
sion lum;mw is decrm.asrd lillrrrly from IrKXPC i n .YX)'C in 20 mint,tr.. \lhnt is tllr
~ . (Ielwnclr~lcrilnd :I d i s ~ o c i n t i ~r vl le c t $\Trise l o a
;a tllr xlnn;rrr o f r n n c m l r a t i o ~This
P~,tK,, dil
@,c ,n,s
,,si,<(? t\lat is 100 ti,,,es i n q e r tb:~nits iacriasic ciiffiai\ity. tivc diNstrion lime at tbr initial diNusi<mt r m p m t ~ ~fur
r c r phospl>nn~s
dilltlrion in rilicnn?

L t t c m l rli&aioll at t l w rtlcc. of;, mask and i m p t l r i h rt:distriblltion dllring ofidation '5. For a l o ~ ~ ~ - r ~ ~ s r r . ~ phosphon~s
1 t r a t i ~ ~ 8 ~drivc-in diflusion in silicon at IMO'l:. Rnrl the
nw hvo pmccs~esi n \vllicll difiaion mn h;lw an i~rllmrtnntimpilC+ o n device perfonsnnce. ~rrcentasc.change o l r a d m cortcentmtion for 1% wriatian in diNnuion time anll
fonll~~rr.lll srlhs~ntiall,yrellllm the brrnl;do\m v o l t a p . ilnd l l t e lillter \\illi ~ ~ f l t ~ e n ~ trrnyntllrr.
tile tll~slloLl \ultasp ;LS well as tlbc cantact resistanw. 6. I f :arrenic is difitscd into a thick slim of silieon doped \%+tl>10" I n m n atomston' at a
trmperatt,rc of IIOn'C for 3 hours. \vh;tl i s the final clirltibution of if the ~ ~ i d a c ~
n f i r r l at 4 x 10"ntornr/cm'? \!hat arc the difhrrios lcnmh ;ual j~mr.
~ ~ ~ n r m t n tisi oheld
P REFERENCES tian rlrpth?
I. s XI. sa. &I.. 1 . ~ ~~~1c I I ~ I ,?nd
~ ~ Ed..
~ C ~\I&n\v.llill.
~. Zc1v York. 19%. Ch. 7.8.
SECI70216.2: EXTRINSIC DIFFUSION
? s I;. C1,rnclhi. l'1.Sr ~ ~ l ~ t i r o Pti,,til~lrr.
ti.,~ 2nd Eel. \\ilry. Say York. 1941. CL. '1.6.
7..rniw
.;l.w
F
r;Iv
n
i is difilsd into a thick slice of rilimn doped \>ith 10" h m n atomx/emlat a
3. 11. R. Aun9n aed I;. E. k u 8 . Sonin,sdt,nor I n h g m t d Cimrif I ' r n r ~ ~ i T
r ~r g
d t n d ~~~d.d i a ~ - \ \ '' c
Rtitnn. I%nI, Cb. 5 . tcnipcraturc of 900'C lor 3 hrnm. abal is the find distrilrtrtion oiarrcnir i f the r7rrl.d'~
cuncvntrntion is held firrd at 4 X 10"1lomslcm'? \\Inat is tltc jundion depthaAs~t~me
4. It. C. Clqv mcl G.L R a r u n . 'Dimorion in Srmimndacton.~in J. It. Cn\donl and L \.I SliMn.
the follm\ing:
Firnr Drfid, ,n Cdidr. <,I. 2. Plt,ntom. S r n Ynrk. 1975.
5. J. P.Jt71y.-Xlrl;dlic Contamination of Silimn \IjSn." > l i m l m m n En& 40. $55 (190'1).
6 . .%. S. C m w R y r i n n ~ ~ d P r l ~ n u l n ~ y o j & m i r r ~ n rl l h
a rh.
l r ~ r\\$I<? ?..~1-.vYorl\. I!K.
8. Exyl:~i,lainthr meaning of irl~rinsiicdifi~riora and dnrrinsic cf!fir.~ion.
7 ASTZI XIrtbal F374-9. - n r r \IctJwl ior Shed Rrsirm~teofSilimn Epilsu'd. Dillusd. md 108,.
lmpllntcrl I.X)%~
Urin3
~ ColPnm Four-Pmlr Amy," V10.1.19 ilLJ93!. SECTION 6.4: DIFFUSION SlhlUWTION
9.J. C.Inin. ^El;llualicm of Difilurl L)Y.PI BrN Sysl TwI~.J..41.2 11W2).
in Sili~>n.- 9. Use SUPREAI 11) p f o r r n a drive-in step lor 6 hortrr at I l i 5 ' C lolimmngtne prearpoa-
9. S. 51. Sa.. Srmi<4~md~nrlor
h i r , ~PI8yric~
: and P c I ~ n ~2nd ~ , \\itr): Sea Yo*. PIKIL. CIt. i.
~ oEd.. tion desuri1n.d in Example 3. Plot the h m n profile and gi\r thc nnv junction depth.
10. STXI XII.thd EIUYJtl. -Standm1 Cuicle for >Iwntinq\I'idth olltnlcd+<~,r.r
ir. Sputter Drpth is n~hrrquentl?prede-
'10. After thc lmmn drive-in step i n Pml,lcm 9. suppre pllorpl~on~r
Pn,fili,,e UsilleSIXIS.- \Ill.JiE 11*'111. posited anrl d t i w n in. Tltr phosphorus prrdeposition occurs at SjO0C lor 34 minuter. and
1 1 R. R. Fair ~CotmwnlnlionPmfilmaf Diflttsr~l Dqmnrs.'in F. F Y. \\'ylg, Ed., lrnlanry Doping the drive-in oecttrr at LW'C for 30 minetrs. Use SUPREM lo plot the phosphons and
Fnr,s.r, Sdirr,n. Sunl,-llol1:md. .\mncnhm. IOsl Iwmn impari* profiles. anrl determine the junction depthls).
12. L R. \Vci%lxqand I. Blanc. -Dilhssion ~ 4 t h Eqailihnilrn. Zinc in CaAr.'
lntrnticial-Sub~tin~tion~l
rf,!,~. urn.,1st. 1515~IWI.
13. F . 4 Ct~nnrllmd C. It. Cmh.-Difi~rionofzinc in Calliam Arrnidc:J P l y . C b r n ~Sdid, 15. I27
1 l!xI).

Sear lhc Diffitrion Yn

I4 D P Kl~nnrcb:indR. R. ORticn. ",4nd\sir of tllr In>puti?Atom Dirlrit~~~tina
for:, P1.1n:nrrp.n J!mninn.- lR>IJ. R,Y. D F X 9.
. I79 ,IW>j,.
. ~ d .Orford
1.5 S. .A. C:m!phc~ll.The .%iew#ond E n ~ i n ~ ~ n ' n g ~ j A l i r m r l ~ d~m&nri(c~ r l n n2nd . Unir
rrc.r-. S",,.Yoioir. 21nt. CI,. 3

PROBLEMS
:\<fcrirkv dcnarr difioal( pmlrlrtn?

S E C n O S 6.1: BASIC DlFFVSlOS PROCESS

I. C t l r t ~ l a t rthe jrlnctinn drpth and th* total amount ofdop:tnt intrmlttcrd ;trier h m n I
di.lxniti<m ~ d o r m e catl <l5O0Cfor X)minutrr i s a neutral amhient. Asstjrnr thc sill,.
<tr;alc i v n-hpe rilic~,n\rill, S, = I.$ x 10''. cm.' and lhc tnron srnrlace concentralion
C, = 1.9 x I I P ' c m ~
2. I l t h . w n p l r i n Pmhlem Iis nnl,jedcd to a n ~ u t ndrive-in
l at laiO°C for M) minute!
calct~lrtethc. difi~ricln profile and the jenc~iondepth.
 7.1 Rsngs of lmplented Ions 4 IPS

F 7.1 RANGE OF IMPLANTED IONS

Ion implant;ltion is o ncn~rgetic.chargerl particles into a S , , I , S ~ ~ ~ ~ s,lcl,
i n t r d ~ ~ c t i of
as siliwn. Jnlplank~tion ene@~sitre hehwcn I kr\l ;,rid I hlP\: rcs,lltinR inion ,list".
butions \vitll ilvernglo [leptla canping from 10 nm to 10 pm. Ion limes ,al? fmln 10'2
io~lslutn'for tllresllokl s.oltage arlj~~stmrnt to 10" ionslcn~:klr tllo fonllation of [,,,ried

Ion Implantation insalatinji i;~)rrs. Note t l ~ a ft l ~ e

(lose i s exprrswd a5 tl,r. nunl\rr of ions
1 cm' of tllc srmicondtlctor surlicv arm. Tlw main acl~anta~rs ion ilnplanta,jon arc
its more precise control and reprotl~~cibility
in,pl;ultNl

of impuriq dopings and its I r n n p

~n~~~v s s -
into

ing tempcrahre mnlparetl \%it11tl~osro f the difilrioo p r w r s .

Figure 7.2schrmatidly slrmr?; a n~cdil~rn-mewionimplantor.' n,*
ionroitrcc
a heatrd filamrnt to break up source g a r s such as BF, or Asl I.,into cltaqetl ions ( R . or
As'). An extraction voltagr, aronnd 40 kV, caltses the chargrtl inns to n i v e 1 0. of the
&sctlsHl i s Chnptrr 6. difi~siouand ion inlplantntion are tile hvo kc). ~ l ~ e t l ~of otk
ion-source chamlwr into n mncs anaI!i.fr. The lnagnrtic fir111 nftlte itnnlFr is r l ~ o s r t ~
imporit\- Ilr,ping. Sinw tht. early 1970s. ~I~II!. doping operations have heen performed
slzcl~t l ~ a o111y
t ions \%it11thr desircrl n~ass-to-claargcratio c:tn t w e l tl>n>u$tit aitllnllt
nt m i ~ n ~ l a ~ ~ t m l
hy ion i~nplantatius.:usltmvn i s Fi,pre 7.1. I n this p r m s s t l ~ ~ d o p aions
o
t, tllr s,.,,,imn~luctor hr. means of an ion l n l n ~The . doping ~ ~ s c e n t r a t i oIIXS
n a pak bring filtered. T l ~ esrlectrd ions then enter the amvlemtion tube. \vlwre tllW nrr accf.l-
eratr.rI to the impbntation r l l c r o as thry move from 11igInvoltage to ground ~ p r f ~ ~ r e s
clist~l,lltioll iesi<lctlw srn~icvaductor,and tltr p r o l i l of
~ t l ~ dopant
r distrihl~tionis deter.
ensure that the ion beam is well collimated. TI)* presstlrc i n t l ~ einlplantor i s kppt IrIw
nrirttyl in;lil~l~ I,! t l ~ eion mnrs and the in,plantt~l.ioz~energy This cllapter rliscusses the
10-' to ~ninimizrion scattering hy giu molrcules. Tile ion Ixatn is then scanned over

.nlr
fnllmria~topics:
prows an11admnta~erof ion impl;mtntion
'
to rrnlove lattice rl:~ma$eCRI usett
r Ion distributions in thr cnstnl lattirr aral IIO\V
tllc tr.alc,r surface llsing electrostatic dcflrction platrs and is invplant~linto the srn~i-
w n ~ l i-tor
i s~~l,strate.
n ~ mergetic
e ions lose energy tl~mugllcollisions \\it11 electrons and nuclei i n the
by ion implflntrtinn substrate and finally came to rest at some depth uithin the lattice. The average depth
and
p m s s e s . sllc!~a$ n l a ~ k n ghigll-~nerQ'i~:lplantation.
ImpIant~tion-re1~tPd .
cm 1% contmllrd by adjustingthe awlerntion rnergy. TII~ dopant dosenn bemntrolltri
Id<lwurmnt implantation b y rnortitoring tile ion current during implantatio!~.The principle sidr e(Tect is disntp-
tion cr dntnagc oftlle ~ m i c o n ~ l u c t lattice
or due to ion collisiom. n~erpfom.a sul~setloent
I l ~simttlstion
r of ion implantation using SUPREh.I
annerling treatment is needed to remove this damage.

7.1.1 Ion Distribution

The total distance that an ion travels i n coming to m a is called its rongc ( 8 )and is illla-
trat~d in Figure 7.30,'Tlle projection o f t l ~ i s
distance along thp axis ofinridenw i s c . ~ l l ~ l
tlrc l~rnjccit,~l
range (8,).Because the n u t n l ~ofcollisions
r p r ~ m idistanrv
t anrl the energv
lost per mllision ;ire random \~riahles,there $\ill hc a spatid cfistribotion of ions lr;nin<
t l ~ esame mass and the same initial enerp, n ~ statistical
e flnactr~ationsi n the p r o j ~ x i ~ l
range am called the pmjrcte(l sbtm#lc (up). There i s also ;I statisticttl fluctuation along
an :L"S prpendictdar to t l ~ eaxis oflicidence. whicl~is called t l ~ lolrrol.~btrn~/~!
r (0,t).

(hl
fipun1.1 Cos>pri.nn oclo\diff~sinnand IL) ion-implantation technirlvnt.s hr the s ~ l r d
!olr-xlttc+ioncd dnpants ihtu the wmimndunor s~~hrtmtr.. Figure 72 Sehmtrtir of n mcdittnl-nrmnt ion implantor
 .
1 ~ 6 Ch*mr7. Ion Implantation

7.12 Ion Stopping

7.1 Range of Implanted Ions 121

T1a.n. arr hvo stripping ~ i ~ ~ ~ c l ~ I]?a ~u.hiclt

i i s ~ nons cnrrgt~ticion, 011 cntcrine ;a semirvm.
d~tctorst~bstrntr(;~lsor;~llriltla! tnrgf,f I, ran 1%-lbm~lxlitto n,st. TIIP lint i* 11) trilllsfr.r-
ring its c i l r w to tlw t:~rge:rln ~ ~ r l rThis
i . caltsrs drfl<.ctinsof t l inri<lrllt
~ ion ;,ITrl
clislnrlxrs man) t a x r t nllclri fro181tbrir original latticr sLrs. If E is t l ~ ecrlcrpoftllc ins
at clay point x nlnnl: its piith. I ~ Tcan d d h :t nuclr:ir stopping pmrer. $,(El= ( d ~ / , / ~ ) . ,
to cl~;~r.st?rize tllis process. TIIF second stoppingm~cl~nrlis~n is 11).tl,c istr,r.laiorn of1 1 ~ ~ .
incident ion with lhr clolld o f ~ ~ ~ r ~ alrmllnding
lrnns tllr. t.qcti alolns. 1 1 ~ion
e lm,s n ~ r q
in collisions \nth I~IPCI~OIIStllro~lpl~ Coulond~icint(lr.icIiol>.Thr clrctn,ns c t l r l r rrcit~~<l
to higl~rre n e r p I r ~ e l (rscitatin~n),
s or tllry can l ~ejwtrdl frnni t l ~ atom
c (ioniattior~l.\\i.
cnn tl?finr ;meIectmnic stoppill$ pmver. S,(I.:) E (dFJtlx(. to c l ~ a m a r tl1i.i ~ e pnxrw.
Thr avrr:tg?er rate of ~ n r r losse \\it11 dist;mce is @\.en Iq. a supqmrition of tlw. hv,,
stnppitll: ~ilrc~~:misrns:

If t l ~ etotll distsnc* travelrcl l y t l ~ ion

c hefare coining to rcst is R. th,

Rplns13 (ol Schematic nfthe ion
of the irnpl:mltxl ions '
I,~~tgon
\r.here E,, is t11rinitial ion cnerg. The qunntihn hm k n droned prmiotrdym tlte r.mge.
Mi. can \isualize the nrlclcar stopping process I)? mosiclerin~tb? ~ I m l i cmllision
behwen an inmniinglianl sphere ( c n ~ r p E ,and , m a s dl,)anda target hiir~lsphere (ini-
tial m e r p zero and iiinss ,If2). 2% illartrated in F i ~ u r e7.4. \\11en il,e splrerrs mllirlr.
momrntnm is transferretl along tlir wntrrs of 111~ spllercs. Tile cleflcaiot~angle (81and
the s~lucities,v, :ual v? can IF olitfiin~lfrom the requimmenk for clmsrn2tion of motnrn-
hlm ;ind energy The riiatimlnrn e n e r g loss is in a h~ad-oncollision. For tl~ismsc, tlw
(h) e n e r g Ins3 by the incirlel~tparlicle M,.o r the e n c r p ttnnsferrrd tn AJ?, is
range R and projected range Rr. ( b )T,\rrd~n~ensional
distri.

F i p m 7.31sho\ss the ion dhtribrition. Along the *~

of incidence, the implanted
ilnpurihprofile can he approsimated h y a Gaussian distribution function:

rr. f

wlierc S is the ion dose p r unit area, n i i s equation is similar to Eq. 14 in Chapter 6 for
mnstant total dopant ~lifiusion. except that tlie rluantih 4Dt is replnced by 2-3; and the
clistribation is shift& d a n g tlie I-nus by R,. 'Illus. for diffusion. tlie maximum concfn-
tmtion is at x = 0. \r.!~erearfor ion implantation the ma"rnnm concentration is at tile p m
jrctnl range. The ion cnnwntmtion is rcqluced by 40% lmm its peak \slue at (x -R,) =
to,. h? on. drcatlr at t 7 0 F hy hvo decadrs at *3a,. and hy R\T d ~ n c l e at s i4.8Up.
.4lon~: the ii*s prlpnclinrlar to the aus of incidcnrr, the distribution is dso a Gaussian
h~nrtionof the form eqn-,:/2ail. R e n u w of this distrihntinn. t h ~ r \\ill c he some
roil implnnmtion: Ho\r.ev?r. the lateral pnetrntion from tile mwk edee (on the oApr
nf 0.1 i\ cnnsidrnbly smaller than that from the t11enn;ll dillinion prowss ~liscussedin
Seuqion fi.3.
 7.1 Range ol Implanted Ions 4 129

tllr rmssn\rr m r w is 130 kc3\! ].'or an F:,,IC.;.; tlmn IUO kr\: rlllrlrar stnl,pin~ ,,ill rln,,,.
inittv: h r ili~llrrr!argit.s. clrrtrnriir stoppinp,,$ll b,kc <,ver.
Once S,,O:) 91E) are bloun. ar, out cnln~l;ttrthe mnse ir,,,,,q. 3. ?inisin tllm
?in SjW 1l.i llll'pmj('(*rni mns(.ztn11 pnljwI~~d stnq$cuitl~1I1eI,vlpaftl~r
imntr ~r~nntions:'

t[,.~ti q , I.,V;~YcrBtqloss p?r tmit di%t~l~lc~-.

n,,. stoppine p v c r is fc~tndto IF prnportion:d to t11~.\ r , l c r i h oftltr inr
,.lt.amnir

tile projwted range (RJ,tlie prnjedrrl stngele fa,.)anrl

F i p ~ r 7r . h sl~o\>% . tllp 131-
cml 1r;rq:le (0,)for rmnic. Imron. and pl~ospllon~s in silimn.' %
, $ r . ' p ~ n l ,t l ~ ei;lvcr
t!,,. o*,fieirnt k , is a rrlativrl? wcxk ltinction o l ato~nicrn;lr~iind xton~icn u l n l ~ r . thr escrr?loss. thesmaller the rmge. Also, thc ~)rojw+Cdr.tngrmdstmqI~?incrr.awaitll
TI,? ,:,lur ,,fq is ; , l ~ p m r i m a t ~ I y 1 ( i ir\'l1 'fc111fur silic~na11113 X 10' (e\!)' '1~111for gal- ion mcrS\: For a ,@\en rlcment 111 a sprcific iriri~lrntenrrp, a, and al;Ire m m p n ~ l l ~ l c
lillll, :InL.llill,. TI,(.PltCtrc,llie ~ t o p ~ i p\vt,r ye in silimll is plottccl in F i p r r i.5 (dottrd and ~~wvally \\ithin +20%.Figure 7.Chsllow t11rm m r p n t l i s g \dues i,,r I~\rlnqrn.hnc.
ltnt.i, .\Iqo sl,c, , l ill ti,,. fiOlm. :trr t 1 1 crossover
~ ~ n r @ s . at n.hicli S , ! F ) = S , ( E ) . For ;lnrl tr,lluriom in p~lli11111 ars(wide.' Iltvc mmpare Figures 7 . k :)rid b. \I.?'SCP tltat tnost
lwmn, ,,.l,irl, lIcLr ;I n.l;,tir.,.ly Imv inn niasc rnnlparcd \\it11 tlle t s y r t silimn atom. llle o l tltr p o p ~ ~ l dopants
nr ( r n r p t I~ydrogen)bave 1:irgcr projwterl r a n ~ e sin silimn than
cn,5.0,cr r.,,erS\- is 10 lie\', This means thnt o w r most of t h r irnp1:mtntian mew t l ~ r yI!avc= in ~a!li11r11
anenide.
r.,,l,,,. I k.\.t,] 1 )I,.\: th,. 1n:tin <znrr,ploss mwl~anisnlis due to rlcrtrnnic stoppino,.
On t!,,. othrr ilarld. far .,rsroir. $4tl1i t wlativrly I l i ~ i ioll l n1;lss. tllr rroszover e s e q is
71x1kc\: lltt~s.n~trlmrstoppine dornir~:+tes o\-r most of thr p n r w met,. For pl~os~llonl-t.

Figurn 7.5 St!cb.;a 5tnppin.: p v c r . S 7 E i . ;md rlwtrnnic s1oppinepnnsr.r. SLEI. (or As. P. 2
H III Si. Thv p i n t s oFintt,rua~,no l tlw r,rnm c ~ ~ n ~ s pinmI ~d I m
P c q at a.ltirl~nuclear a
r.lc<i*>n!c\tr>,>plrl.::trr ,.<]8,:,1 '
 7.2 Implant Damage and Annealing 4 130
J-- S~rnlamdltnor.udj,o.

in)

(h)
Figure 7.10 Implantation disorder cause11 by ( a )light ions and (1,) Ilea\? i~,,,.

to dijplacr n silicon atom from its lnttiw position is ahout I 5 c\: ~ ~ ~

tllc inri(lrst
honm ion does not rrlezwr rnollgh c l t r r q frnm nuclear stoppinji to d i s p l i Bsilimn ~~~
\!,Ian it f i s t enten tlie silic~ns~tlislntc.\\'hen the ion e n e y is redecn~ to al,o,,t 50
Figure 7.11 5lnh.l fix a diamond rtrurtlrre. \ic\\t.d illosg a <LIO>ads.' kc\' !st a de~t11of 1500 ,i),the rnrrp. loss due to nuclear stopping ittcrears to 15
for r x l l lattice plaoc (i.e.. 6 e\'/i\). st~mcientto create a lt~ttirc~lisonlerr\ssttming 11~:~t
1 aton1 is displac~dprr lattice pl:me k>rtllr rrmaininpion rang.ur l>a\r600 L7ttice atolns
rlispiacr~l(i.r.. 1500 rb2.5 ,\I. If eacl~displaced atiton1 nto\.er r o ~ g l l 25 l ~ ;\ fmitt its arig-
ivni position. tllp ~lantaer\ah!me is given lry \',, E n(25,i)'(l500:il = 3 x 10-"cnl'~.mlc
dani;lpe clensity is 600A',, s 2 X 10." cni', a.lricl~is olllY0.-1% of the atoms. Tl~nzs.v r ~
Iliql~(loses of ligl~tions are needrcl to create an amorplious layer.
For I1r:t.a3. ions. the energ\. l o s is primarily due to narlearmlli~ons:tltrreforv. \\T. CTX,C+
s~~lrstantial d a r n : ~ ~Considrr
r. a 100-k\' amrnic ion witl~;Ipmjwted ran?'. of 0.M pm. or
60 nm. Tlte nwr.tge auclrar energy loss over t11eentire c n e w zmgc is alxn!t 1320 eV/nm
1. 6) id (Fip. 7.51, This mmms t h t tI1e ausenic inn lows alwl~t300 eV lor ct~clilrttiw plane on tlw
avcntgr, hlost of t l ~ energ) r I I one prima? silimn atom. E : s l ~pritsen aton1 \\ill
is ~ ~ \ T 111
Figure 7.9 >linimiljn<clt;~nnrlinz.( a ) 1mpl;mtrtiontl,nnlgh m nmorphr,ur r~ridrlayer. stll)srqaentlyc;esc22displ:~crdt;lrget atoms (i.~..330r\'/lJeV). Tl~rtnt.11 n ~ ~ ~ nofdip- hrr
~h \liuwivntatinn "i the l w ~ mdineion to dl r3stal axrr ic) Pn-d:gma~ran t l ~rpmtal
. n~rfam. placrd atorils is 5280. Assnnting a nnge of 2.5 nm for thr dicplawd ~11on1s. tltr dan~ng~~vol
tlmr is VD I ~ ( 2 . nm)' 5 a ~ c is t11r11
(60 IIIII)= IO-"c~il.'. The ( h ~ ~ idensit). 52W4',, 25 x

Tltp tree of disorder for l i ~ h ionst is quite ~IiTTrrrntfront that for Irma\y ions. h111cl1of 10'' an". or alxr~lt10% o i tllr total nuntlrr of atoms in I;, r\s a rrsnlt of tl~r11ca\y-ion
t l ~er n r v l m c for lieltt ions ie.g.. "R. in silicon) ic dale to rlwtronicmllisions (SLY Fig. 7.5). implantation. tlir ntaterial lwmtnes rssmtidly amorpl~nus.F i p ~ r 7.lOl1 r illustnt~st l ~ psit-
ulliclt rlo not wusr lntticr daznagr. nrc ions lose their r n ~ q i r m r thry p m c l n t r ll(*per !lation in \vl~iclltllr daitta~~: fontis a d i s o ~ b r e drluslrr over lllr ealirr pmjtaml ctngr.
into IIIV s u h ~ t n t e E\-vnhlall!:
. tlbr ion e n r q is rcqlund b ~ l o utllr
. missover ~tV&?.V(10 To cstirnatr tllr dnsr r~qtsirslto convrrt a cnstallittr rt~atrriitlto all ;anorphons i;,ni~.
kc\' for lmranl a h e r e n~lrlparstoppine l r n m ~ dominant. c Tllrrrforr, most of thr 181- \r.r can use the rriterios tl~sttllr e n r r p drnisih is 01~ I I Cs:t1t1c1 ~ n l r of r i i ~ i t q ~ i t ~a<
~(Ie
tin3 ~lisorrlrroccixus near tlw finit1 ion psition. This is illustrated in Fig11re ;.I&. tltat llrellc~llfor mrlting the illaterial (i.e.. 10" krV/cm'l. For 100-krV arsrnir iut~s.tlhr
\I.c>otncstin~;ttetllr dam:qr h y c ~ , n s i ~ l rar1(X)-k~\'Imrnn
i~~~ ion. Its pro.iectrd nlnkr dosr requirrd to innkr :tniorphot~ssilicwn is tlrr~r
is 0.31 pnr (Fit. hi,and it3 initi:~]nnrlcar m r r p loss is only 3 eV1:i (Fig. 7.5). Sinw 111e (10~' IC~I~')R~
spncinc: Iw.hr.,rln I;tltin. planes in silimrt is nllout 2.5 A. this mrans tllat the h r o n ion S= = 6 x 10'' io~alczr' IS)
\till loqc 7.5 e\' at rarlr !attic? p l ~ n h r c t a s r of nurlrnr stopping. Tilr c n e r u r e q u i d EL,
 Chsptcr 7. Ion Implantahon 7.2 Implant Damage and Annealing 4 105

F~~Itx,.b.\. i011s. tlir dose r ~ ~ l t i r eisd3 X 10'' iolldvln' Ircilllsr npfor Immn is irnpla1ltr3lions arc, ;~ctivatrd11).a 30-minute itnnralinc in con,.Pntionnl anntqlinp;filr.
fi,r:mn~ir..Ilnsr.vcr. in pnlcticr. Iligllcr doses ( > 10'" ionslcm') arr sac.,. F~lrIw~roll i~lplia~tntion. I ~ i d rar n n c ; d i n r t r n ~ ~ ! lan: ; ~ t,,r.rrlKl
~ ~ ~ ~ ~for ~,i,.~,~~d,,~~,
I;,,. li,,,,.~
n,ll,,r,yl f,,rlx,rnn in~pl:rn(itlio~~ inln :I Lsr~et;st m l n t r l ~ ~ p n l t lilrn~ l l l sof
r tllr nonIlni. Flrrpllospllonls at l c f i < r r ( l ~ lI~~~:r~lnralingIx~l,rnior
s. ir ~ i r n i l n r t ~ ~in,
r \ ~I ; ~ t ~ [{m,,,.,pr,
, , .
h,",, , ~ , ~ t r i l , , ,of~ itltc
~ , ~,laln:tev
~ ;dnng ~ I I Iio~apetl~. \vlirn tllr rlc)sr is sn.*tcrtl~nn10" CIIIP. t l ~annealing
r tcmprmtIlrc drops to f i ~ ( ~ a ~
Tllis pl~rllolnrnollis rcl:*trcl to thc solid-pllme epitnx).procrss (ser (:llaptc.r %). ,,I,(~.
pl~nnls(losrs grratrr than fix 10" era-', t l silima ~ surf:tc.. In,cr )xunmes amorpbo,n,
7 2 2 Annealing Tllc singlccn~tnlsemiconductor andcme:ttb tlrr amorpl~ourlayrr w n ~ ar s :t r<.r.<Iinl:
arra fix rec~t.1Ili7~1tion of t l ~ ac ~ n o r p l ~l;o!!vr.~ ~ s.flwqit:rdal fnn\ilr mtr alonCtllu < I(x),
&r;l,,v. of tl,,. dtnmwd ".$on ;in11 1I1rdisordrr cl~lstcrthat wsldt fmm inla irnplanta. clirwtion is 10 nln/nrin at 550°C and 50 nmlmin at fiflO"C. \\iihh an acli\:btion ( . n e w at
ti,r,,. u.,,,imd,slor lr,clm,.trn S,KII ntnbilih anrl lifetinrc arr srvcrrl\. degradal. 1" 2.4 c\: l l ~ e r r f o r ra. 100- to 500-nm amorphous layer can he r~c~stnllizpd it1 a Tc.\r. ,,,in.
nclclilion.,,lo5t oftloeirvtls .%c ilrq,l;artcrl ;are not lwated i l l sll~~stiteliolls~sites. Tn ;sti\atr ~rtrs.During tllr solid-pl~ascrpitadd process. tltr impurih (lopant atoms arc i n c r , ~
tl,v impl.,,,t,.d ions to wston. inohility.uld otl~?r~anll.rialp a r a ~ n r t r n , ~ l l t ~anneal
st
z ~ t c tinto
l tl~rlattice sites along\rith tllc l~ost:atoms. Thus, full acti\ation can he ohtninnl
l ~ , , ~r,,,icr,r,,~,,r~or
. a,l i,ppmprint~. mnalri~~alios of limr alad tenIpn*ture.
at rrlalirely low tumprratares.
(:onv,~ll~,os;tl ;,,,np.&q lacs an npr.n-t~!lx..lratcl~furnace s!strln simiklr to that used
Glr tlwznn:d ou~litticn~. This p m ~ , s srrquirrs it long time a1111big11 trmpcratnrv to remove Rapid T b e n n n l Annealing
11,- ilnpl:lst cl:,lll.tn.. H o ~ r r v ~~x~n\~rntinn;tl
r. ~11nr:tlingtoay cnllsc~slll>sklntialdopant dif. Tht. ~ t ~ n c l for
d ~ RTA
a uith tnmsient lampi~c~dingissha\m in Figure 7.l?,n1e trrnprattlw
htcion;,ml c:,nnclt inwt w q u i r c ~ n r ~for ~ t ssl,ello\v jonctio~~s and ~~:arro\~~~lo~~ingpmfile~. tllr-:uurnl f m n tllc
~ l~eatnl\clfrr is us~lallyfmm C4XlW)'C to 1100"C.'A\r%II~ris lneatnl q~licklkly
Bopid ihrntrnl ,j,,r,mlir~cI IiTA) is ;an arltlrnlirlg proccss tll:lt enlplnys a \arirh of m e v r~ndcratmospl~ericconditions o r at l~nvprrsswr ~tnrlrrisotltemal wnrlitions. Typinl
sorrm nit11 :I wrlr m n c of ~ ti1nr.s. frn~tt100 s e m n ~ l down
s to nasosrmntlr-all sl~on I m n p in nn IiTA s)xtcm are lllngstrn filamrnts or arc lamps. The procvssinC c11amlrr.ris
mlopxrrd uitlr cun\.rntional annealing. RT,\ call ;sti\atr dopants lu11y wit11 minimal nrnrlc ~f ~ i t l l e qa~:aTtZ.
r silicon carbide. sk~inlesssteel, or nluminna~and ilm qlrarti: ain-
rrdirtribution. d o throoclt
~ ~ \vlticl~t l ~ optical
r ndintion p a w s to illunlinate tl~r\vafrrThe uafrr b l d r r
is o!?n n ~ a l of r rleanz and contacts tlte n%lferin a minilnun, nllmlrr of places. A mea-
Conventional Annealing of R o m n a n d Phosphomr st~rcments>strm is plarrd in a mntml loop to set \taler temperaturv. The RTA ?*ern
:\nnraIin~rh:mctrristics~lcprndor, t l ~ doplnt r t)pr ;~ndthe dose invo!vrd. F i p r e 7.11 interraws -4th a gas-lrandling ?stem and a mmputer that cnntmls qxtern oprntioa.
s~,,~ust l ;alnmling
~ lwlv;l\ior; of lx,ron ;and pl,usphoms i~nplnntationinto silimn sub- T!picnlly. \r:~fer tr~nperdturvin an RTA ss)ztem is meaca~red\vitl~a noncontaci optical
stntcr.' Thr s t t h ~ t r i dis~Ilrld at room ternpcmttlrr (T,)dllring implnnl3tion. At a @!vn p!n,tnv.;cr tlrat detrnnines tempmtorr from radiated infnred enelp?:
ion <lose.tllr asnrnling tn~apenttlrris drlinrcl ;athe trlnpernture sl n.hicl~90% of the X ~ b l 7e .l mmparcs con\,entional furnace .and RTA l e c l ~ n o lTo ~ .achimr short pro-
cessing ti~nesusing RTA, trade-offs must IIC made in tempemture and pmcrss (mifor-
oaity. :empentun= nleacuw~nrntand control. and\\~.IFerstressm d t l ~ m u g l l ~I ~s nd~lition.
~t.
there am cvncems ahout the i n t d a c t i o n of rlectrically activr nafer defects d u r i n ~the
 rmE 1.1 Tuhaolonv Eomwriron
I... .,.,,.,,,,

,,.,-,f,lsf i IiW-.YK) "C's) thmrt:al tr;ansi~nts. Rlpid hentillg \\it11 trlllprr.ltllrr pr.ldirnts
in ;lIP a-:lfvn c:u~ cttosr \\:ah d:tniiqr in IIIC fnnn of slip ilislorxtio~lsi a d ~ ~ wI> c!.l tllcr.
,,I r(n.cs. 0,)(I,,. ~ t l , hand,
~ r ~~,nr,.~,tiosal l i ~ n t pnx'csrins
x~ c;nlsrs si<~nifivantpmh.
sttcl~:LS lxtriiclr ~ e t ~ v ~ t trr(>~n
i o ~ tlw
t !tot wdls, Ii~ttitrd:xvcl!~ic~ttcnzlt~'olit1 an op=n ,,,!Z

nxtrm. ;sal 2 1 . 1 ~tht~nnal

. m;~ssthat wstrirts rnntrnllcd l ~ r ; t l i 1limps
1 ~ lo tcns of min- 0 11.1 It4 06 08 I0
atl,.i. In ( x i . rrc]llin-l!lcnts on coot~tnitlittion.p m 5 S ~vlltro!.llld met o r lllilnllfacl~r- Di'trnm. ipml

in? llmr c p ~ I>:ivt,

v n.sttlte,l in a pnr,aliet~rsl~iitto tltr RT;\ p m s s . Figure 7.13 O>mp,silcdopine prnAlr urinq m~dtiplrimplants*

7.3 IMPLANTATION-RELATED PROCESSES

n~i.; wction cmnsirlen :I fmr.i~npl;mtathrn-wlntnlprcersrs. xtsll ;u nri~ltxp!?implantation.
~ l ~ . n bt n~ ~
l t .- ; u ~impl:a~tation.
el~ l i ~ l ~ c n rio~pl;mt;~tioo.
rp and hiehi.~tc:-:~timplantation.

7.3.1 Multiple Implantation and Masking

In man!. applications. dopins profilrs other tlian the simplr C A I I S Frli~trilrution ~:~ arc
nTt~ircvi.~ n srcrlt v mv is tlte preimplnntation of silicon \\it11 an invn ion to n r a h the
s i l i ~ l lrin r L ~ wregon i~rnorphotls.This techniqor allo\r~close m~ntroln!llu.claping pro-
file and pc.rnlits r~r;trly1M'i dopant nrtimtion nt low trniprralllrrs. &? rliscussr(l prcvi-
ntrsl!: In slnclt a cmr. a d e ~ atnurpltous
p r r ~ o nmay be req~~irrcl. Tn ol>t:lilttl~ist)pe ol
rt-zinn. rw mtut mak? a S C ~ V Sof implants at banins inn m r r q i r s and doscs.
.\lultipl~impl;,ntation a n d w l r tard to fomr a flat dopingpmfilc.. ;L- sbn\m in Fipln
:.I:l. Ilm.. Imrr inmn impl;mts into silimn arv usrd to prn\irlt. ;L cornlxlritr doping prn-
filr.." The n i ~ x ~ r rmrrirr
nl o n w n t r a t i r ~ nand that prrrlict<rlitsin? G I I I S ~t11von arr slimn
in t h r f i ~ ~ rOlllrr
c . rlnpineprolilrc. una~ailnhlrfmm <liff~~sion technirlut-3, ran IE ohainrd
L t i n s i ~ t e ~ a r i~nmhirutiom
o~~s of impnrihdnw and implantntiori v n c r v l l ~ ~ l t i pimplanh le
h w r IXYYI tlscd to p n , s r t i r stoichinn~rtndurin? the implnz~t:itionand annealine,of CaA<.
T l ~ i :~pproacl~.
% \vhcrcl>ycqnal;~mtntnt.;of gallilliltln md ;I!, n - h y dopant (or arsenic and a
p-t!p. clnp;lnti a w impl;mtcrl prinr a, wnc.;tline. has rrs?tltrd in hiehrr n r r i r r arti\ation.
To fonr>Inljllnccions in w d r c t ~ d; t r ~ a of % th~srmim,nrln~ror ~ ~ l h s t r a tan
e . appmnri-
:It? n 1 : ~ 4rl~oold1w ~ ~ x rfor r l the implnntation. RCYXUW implantation is a low-trmper
p m m s . :I I:I~?P \=rip? of tllr in;trkinq m:ttmals can lx. ~ ~ a v l . mininlttn~tl~icl
Oflllr ma.;liin~nl:ltrri;ll rrqtlir~llto stop n mvr.11 perwntrqe of incirlrnt ions ran
rll;llt.rl fro111111~ clner pnctrnctrrs for inns. Tlrr insrt of F i p r r 7.14 shous u pmfrre- u s
an i~npl;tntin a n l . ~ \ h u tir!;ltv":rl. Tlw do<? implantrd in tlle rrqjon hrPlld n deptll
i,lunrrb \Iradrdi is ~ w hyn i n t r ~ r . t i o nof Eq. I i ~ r
140 r Chepler I . ton Implantation 7.5 Summary 4 141

w 7.5 SUMMARY
Ion iniplantation isake~methudfor impurity doping. Tltr kqpanmeten fclr iiol imp13n.
tation llle pruJrctr.11 range in,) and its stantl;ml debiation (o,,), (dlell pl.o-
jccted s t n m l r . T ~ ilnplank~tion
P profilr cxn hr apprnximatd ijy a ~~~~~i~ clist~h,,tion
wit11 i t p:lh located at R p from tllr surface of tl~rs r m i c ~ n < I ~ asu~,rtr;ttc.
or TI,? arlr:,n.
u ~ T ~ ~ . . I , O\o~tagc-
~ i g 7.16 I,I ;wljt~qtnlmtw i n < Lamr~ion implantation." tages oftllc ion inlplantation process arc olore prrcise control ortllr anlot,ntofrlop;,nt,
a tilore rcpral~~cible rloping prnfile. and l o w r p w s s i n g t e m p r . t t ~ ~cornFred
re with
the dillr~sionnrar,ss.
The cllapter cnnsidcml R, and 0, for barinus elementr i n silimn and gdliulnaw,,icle
illralntfll from tlte s~lhstr.~te by implanting o q ~ e screating
imn dlo\idr. Tl~issq,orntioe by itrq~lfl~~tnlior~
.
o f n x y ~ c(SlhlOS)
~~
.
an i n t m e n i ~ l glayer ofsil.
is a b! .' '
011mn-on. an11 clisc~~ssed the cl~annelingeNmt and uraysto niisirni;.r t l ~ kellea. HoIewr. impla".
tation may callre severe c!:lnlngr to tllc cnstal lattice. To remow tlrc implant damage md
insnlator (SO11 trcl~nolap'. to restore niol~ilityand otllcr device paramrters, the semimndanor n ~ r ~be st rnndell
nlrSI>IOSp m s c uws n I~igh-enere0.Iwa~n.typidly in thr 150- to 200-ke~' at an apprnpriatr mnibination of time and temperatare. Currmtly rapid tllemal mncd-
r.,,,z,.. xl tllat tllr o q r n ions Ilnw projected l a n p of 100 to 200 nm. Additiosall~.a ing (KC:\I i% prefcrrerl to mn\rntinnd furnace annealins b u r r RTA mn r e n ~ w implznt e
hc.a,?r?.dew. 1 to 2 x ]ol' iondcn~'. is used lo produce an iiosulating !n!Vr of SiO, that is d a ~ n : i ~aitl~out
~. tl~enlldbroade11in.gof tlre dopine profile.
~iy to ino nnl tllick. Tlie use of SIXIOX iixiterial leads to a sipifivallt w d ~ ~ c t i oofn loll i~iiplantation11s rid^ applications for a t h a n d wmimnductor dr\ires. T h n e
cotlmf~Ir.linapacitances in 310s de\ices. \lormver, it reduces m l ~ p l iIwhwen ~ r ~ debires inclt~dr(1)~nttltipleimplantation to fonn novel clistrih~~tions. (b) selection of making
thus Illm\s tizl~terpacking \rithout the problem of latcliup. As a rrsult. it is \\idely
propnwd .ls the i~~;ltcrid of clloice for ad\ancctl. Iligh-speerl CXIOS circaits.

+ 7.4 ION IMPLANTATION SIMULATION

SUPRE11 nm. be used to si~llulateion implantation prnRI~s.Sirnulatccl profiles can be
impl;mted nncl activated using the IMPLANT mmmand. anrl subsequen!!:\ driven in using
t l ~ cDIFFUSION mn~mand.SUPREXI contains the implant pardnieters h r most mmmon
~ l o ~ ~ nhut
t salso
. allows the trser to input mnge and stragle data for u ~ ~ r ~ siniplantrd
aal
materials. SUPRE>[ a n also simulate implants tbrnu$l 111oltiplel a p .

EXAMPLE 3
Supprne u m t to simt~latcthc implinntation of a 2 x
1O"cm~'dorr of lxlmn at 30 kc\' il
rilimn xafrr Tile impl;ant is thcn follo\\rd by a d~ive-inat 950°C Tor 60 minu
r 8 . h ~cIIYi>
thr <limn n~hrtr.hteis doped \<ithpllmphan~rat r level of 10"ern-'. use SUPREM to det?
thr lnmn dopine pmfilr and the janaion depth.

SOLUTION The SUPREY input listing is ilr follmo1-i:

TITLE Implantation Exmple
COWEN I n i t i a l i z e r l l l c o n substrate
INITIALIZE < 1 0 b S f l i c a n Phosphor Concentration-lel5
COwrENl Implant boron
I'IPLAM b r a n Energy-30 Dose->el3
C W E N Dlffurc boron
DIFFUSION T i n - 6 9 Tmperature-950
PRINT Layers Chemical Concentration Pkorphorur Boron Ner
PLOT Active Wet b i n - l e 1 4 Figure 7.17 1'1~1t ,,11n,n,,,r~,~~rc.t,trntir,r~
;I\ .I ilt~rtion
oS<lrlltll i ~ l t c rtllr rilicrm ,nl*lr.~tt.. ,mine
STOP End l a p l a n t a t i o n example S~.'l'l~E>I,
b REFERENCES
I I b,~,,.~,,j~ J \tllrm: ~ , , f , , . h , ! f ~ ~ i m ~ d ~ rFlmum. in~. Iw?
i ~ ~ f S-VYC:I,A. SECIIOS 77.: IhIPIAXTATION-REWTED PROCESSES
(::I.$nm.-1 ,,,, ~,,,plmartinn."inS P D.Ilvr. . con Sc?nimndarlnn. \bl 3. Sonh.
Ed tl~~,,Nx*~k 8. \\1. \%xlllldhkc 10 hlnrn 0.1-pm 11r.t.p. Ibcntily dnwd jllndi,m~ hlr tha. %otnnrancl dr,.,,
ll,>!L".l,
,\,,,.,,.nI3,,,, ICL%l rr~onc r,f :I suhmirnrn !dOSFIX: (:otnp;sr 111- optic,!>\ th;it m.; ~ r - r i lto ~ intrrxltlCv
l~l~
1 5 ~~~h
11 \,~ ~
~ t ~-, ,,, ,,~m,l
~ , . 11 I~bm-~m.
7l~mnl!cd(:unsidrr.,lion 011 ira.ml Sprrd of and arti\ate dopnnt for tl~is~nppliotion.\ \ l l i d ~nptir,tl s\~>otld
)1>11 m~)rvttli~.n<l
ittt<l~~l,~.,
l",pl~n,,,l 1 ..l,,~>l rh",, I t . 1st llq72'
l,,n,.-Jlm
9. \\lr.n an irrwmic inlpl:mt at 1W kr\. is u s d and thc ph~,ton~rirt
I 8 5.,th.
.~t,~t,...
1,- lr.t~lnntans~~
F.,W cnn~..
&ncr Dnra /.,r Srl~on
I I R . I*7
osid Csrnloale~n~ Dniw F~i!nd,,Sirr,Rrwanrlt
ov = 11.2 pn~!.I f thy rc<i%tthicknc~si 5 CIWIXL~~I
thirha.r\ is *MI

I<) I)I">.c~lcn~l;at<.
.
tltr t f l r r l i \ r n r ~ sof~lhr rcdst m:r,k in pnwcnling lhr tr.tosnl,~\ionof ik,,n (% 11 6
nmr, find
)I,,,.
!It<,~ u ~ s kcfi~i,.,,'~.
ir,~
5 K 3 kk.,, lt,:pLmomr, in Slbmlt: in H. \I.df,. Ed.. .(l,$ird Wid Srorr W r n r r . \."I5, A d m i r
Fn-<. Slu b r k . 1'475
10. U i t h rrf<.rcnrr lo Example 2. a.hat thirknrrs of SiO: is nrplired to m:ak yll<M)Cirtf tlr
in~plantrdions''
6 I.F . ~ ~ ~
ml H~t l ~ n ~ ~rm
lin h l~. ~ . 4 r l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 n Fmman,
~ , ~ f ~ Ssn
f ~ Fca!t'?w,
J m r l ~ .IT3
7 L) h do.^.LI,,R
.., C ~ , ~ t n hto~lun
ti~ E l t r p ?-petion Dinnhutlon.']
lml~L~stnlior~
~~ Ap,~I.PItyr, S E C I 1 0 S 7.4: IOS I>IPL&hTA'ITONSIhlVUTIOS
46. 2 i 8 lu7i3
I I. ~ p d r!~hrtrateaith a dopin~mnrcnlr.~linn
,\ < l W > p h o s p h o m s ~ l ~ silicon nf 111" ml' is
F c Y chlillc.w,[ s $1.Slv. EA. I'LSl Zdznch,~!,.
\IrCr.~.nr..Ilill,Sew Ibrl. IYXi. (:It I.
impl*ntccl uith Ixbmn. Thr implant cnerp i s 34 keV\\ith r <I<w or lo" mt:. I:u.
8 D H Lrr a a l J \I.Llr\rr, ~llm-llllplmlnl Semkmndudur h-icn..Pns. IEEE. 62. 12-11 (19741. SIPREXI to plot I h r lx>n,n profile. \111;11 arc. ia! Ihr dvpth of thr p;ik of lhr irnplrntnl
I0 G I)r.mldly, .I. Im Inqd~dNlon.Sonb.llalLud. Arn~lrrdrm.1973. pwfile. il,l thv lloron mmvxntmtion at the p a k drpth. imd icl tltr jtxsr<ion r h ~ t l t '

11 \I. c.oldham. 7)~.

Fdhncationof$l~mxwt,~.r(msir
Cirn~it: in, .!fimrbnmnln. F~cvmrn.
SXII '12. Cre SUPREhl to design an implantation strp that @\,ri
th. same rlopinq pmfilc as thr.
F.:,"L,*". 1"- dlllnnion Examplr 3 in Chapter fi.

b PROBLEMS
.%nmrl' r l c ~ ~difimh
n r ~ ~ pnhlms.

S E C n O S i.1: WYCE OF IMPL4hTED IOSS

1. .k~s,~n,~that ;a l(r)-mm diam~trrGa*? uafer is ixnifi,rndg impl;inl~~d \\it11 1(W-kc\'nnc
ions for 5 mintttrs \lith 2 cl,nsmt ion k r m currcnt of illw\. \\I>:xt arc th, ion dose p r
unit nn.3 m d thc pl..tk ion mncrntratinn?
2. -4 rilimn p-n junction i s f o m d I)? implantins lmnm ions at 54 key thmuch :s a i n d m in
an oxirlr. I f the h m n clmr is 2 x 10" r m ~;and
' thr n - h snb.itr;ntv
~ mmcvntratina is 10"
o71.'.find thr lrxation of the mr~;illt~n$c~l
jttnetion.
implantation is mrdr through a 25-nm ratr oddc. The
3. A thre<hc,l<ltnltaee a<ljlstm~nt
suhxtntr is a < Irni>-oncntrdp - ~ J rilimn
W uith ;I rcsisti\ity of 10 Q-crri. I f thr inmmen-
ud thrt-hold mltirce dtw to a 411-kc\' llonrn implantstion i s I \:what i s 1111 tol;d
implmt~.cl rlo.;c p r irnil area? Evlirnatr the lkr.;lti<rnr,ftlntr p a k Ixlmn mnmntntion.
'4. For the alhstmte in Pmblem 3, ullat prwntace of thc tnt;d dosr is in thr rilimn?

S E C n O S 7.2: I \ I P U \ T D.41L4CE A 3 D ASSEALISC

5. I f a 3 - k c ! ' h m n ion i s irnplantrvl into the silir~mv,)ntr;tte. cllo~latct l r d;amace densiN
.\ss\~mrstlimn itom drnrih i~5.02 x 10" alon,stcm". thr! siliwn rlisp1;tr~rnrnIm c r p ir
15 1.t: thr rmxc is 2 5 om. and thr r p d n q irhvecn qllimn l:,tticr pl;ancs i s 0.25 nm.
6. ErpINn u*? hiel~-tempntulp
RT.4 i~
pwfcnhlr to l o w - t r m p n t ~ l nRT,\
. for dt,frd-fme
~h:,l!cnr-junctiortform;aion.
 8.1.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition

Film Deposition
1,~iflIreS.1 S I I ~l l ~V
r eS
(nlntnntb
r st~s<~,ptom for ipit;Lyi;ll grm,*),. s,,t,, tlBZkltl,,, ce,l.
~nelricrllnpcof lllr snlscr,ptor pro\idcs t l ~ t);n!nr.
r lor t l n.;,anr:
~ It~ri~r,~ penclb..
~ t ~ l , ;~v,rl
I,am,l. All tnalr frotn graphite blocks. Slrvwpto~ in ,.pitjui;,l n.,~.tnm ;,rr :,ssllq,,,,T
to rnlcihlrs in t11~-cnstd zr",\itlz ft~nraws.Not tntl? do tltt.? ~ n t * l ~ : t a i cr,lppr,rt
~ ~ l l ~ II,,..
T,, f,,hrimtF discrete~ l r \ i e smrl i ~ l t e q ~ t cirroits,
ed w e use many different k n r L nftllin \v;~fcr,IIIJ~
in i n ~ l ~ ~ c t i ~reactors,
~ t ~ ~ tllc?
l ~ ~31-o t r ~ ! t l ~ vS~IN~RT ~I,,.~i,;,l
~ ~wwc ,.tbPrq~
filllls. \\i.GUI rl;rcqih- t l ~ i nfilms into fi%rgroapr: thermal nkidrs, clirlrctric la!rn, mi. for tllr rrarlinn. Tllr lnrr~lilllislnof C\'I> ill\alves a nllallx.r o l \trp? 1;ll tltc ~ . ~ r . t ; , n t ~
I:nm.pl!mst;dlinc silirnn. anrl metal fihns. The p \ \ i h of tl~cnnaloxides (qxsrr an11dopants) are trs~nsprrtcclto t l t r ruhrtratr rrcion: (1,) ~IIc?an. tranrlcnr,rl I,,
rliw2s& in CII:q,trr :3. This elt;tpter dr:ds with v~rinrtsotlar t r c l ~ n i q ~ ~forp sdepns thv s ~ ~ h s t rs~lrface.
a t ~ ~ where tllvyarr aclsorlml: (ci :I cl~c~nicll rr;tciion ncr,ln. odal\-,A*ll
thin lilnlr. at thr snlrfa~r.folln\w.d I Igrout11
~ of tllc cpifiuinl l a y : (cl! the X:,unllr pnxl,,ns ;an.',lcp.
~~s;,\illmn,illi~ ~ l ~ . l~i ~tott ~lh~lcnstal
r p s t h mnmpb c l i x l ~ q din Chap orhvd into the main prs strrarn: and (el t l ~ rvletiun
r prorlnas :tn. tra!nmrl<.d 0111 OI IIIP
in,.rll\r,9 itlr mo,,tll ~ i s ~ l r - c ~ ssrniimnd~~clnr
tid ia!m on x sill~Ie-cnstds
mntl,,rtor s,llwtmtr. The uanl ipifo.ry is deri\.rrl from the Greek \wrds bnra
-nn.! :,,,d ,n,r:,ning ";lrr.ln3rlnr~t"l. Thr epit;~<alla!rr and tllr suhstmte m;; C\'D for S i l i m n
;& ,,,:,)-1". tllr u,nr. tin^ r i s r to l,os~nq,itn.ry. For example, an 11-hpt. silirnn aIn w Four bilirnn so~tn~,S u w l for \'PE gnnv111.Thr,yarrsilicr,n tctr.ldtL,tidr (SiCI,,.
have b r r r ~
epitx<dlYun 31)r ~ ' - silirnn substmtr. On the other 11;1nd. i f tlw t%pit;tndl a prand dicltlorn-ila~~~*(Sil l!Cl:l, tricl~lomsilane(SiIlCl,), and sil:~n<,(Sill,). Silicvn t ~ t ~ ~ c l t l o ~ ~ l
tllr stllwtr.lte :<recl,rtnidly ;mrl often c ~ ~ t a l l o p a p l ~ i c differmt.
ally \\.r hnvr heten!wpi- h;~rI x ~ ct1alL.d
n thr nlost and 11;s thc \\iid?aind1.1siriditu., n l e hpiotl n;l<.iion 1~1111*.~\11~n.
fay. < t l r l ~;IS the rpitx<al ?~m\rill of AI.Cn,,As on G d s . i s 121Tlfi'C.Olllrr dlirr~nsources arr ilsrd ix.car~srof 1knx.r rr:rction tnt,Frat,~n.r.Tl~r
Dil,lt*ric I a y ~ n ~ n dai silicon &oxide ancl silirnn nitride aw ure4 for insul,
b h t r e n rnndudilq la*. for diffnsion and inn implimtatioo mwhx for capping ds
films to p m n t the loss of dop;mls. m d for passiv;ttion. Poly~nstnllinrsiliron, us
rpfcrrwl to x polll.~ilicnn. is urerl :IS a gate elcctmlr material i n \ I C E de\icer. a
duaiw mzterid for rnultilrvel olet;dliution, anrl s mntact material Cur dericrs\ritl~slid-
Inu.jttndions. JIrtal films s~,cl~ ac alttminurn and silicides are used to form low-resi~t 'anw
intrrcr,nnrrrinns. ohniic mntans. and rectioing met;tl-semimnd~~ctnr h:tnien.
This chapter mvcn the follo\tine topics:

Rasic techniques of r p i t a y that is. gro\<inSa sinslecr)stal la)rr or1 a sin~le.

cvstal s~~hstrate
Structures and d e f a s of lattice-matched and strained-layer epit.zrial gro\vfl.
Depndtion techniques to form lo\\.-diel~tricconstantand hi~h-dielectric-
mnstant films. ac ~ ~ xs 1pol!silimn
1 films
r r daminl~lnand mpprr intemmnneaions. a a
Deposition t r c l ~ n i ~to~ form
xs t h r~~ l l t w~loh;tl
l plmarimtion p r m r
Charadrristim of these thin films and their compatibility \\it11 i n t e p t r d cir
pmsinz

b 8.1 EPITAXIAL GROWTH TECHNIQUES

In an rpitxiial p m s . the suhstratr safer act- the swrl crytall. Epit;~*idpmC
:Ire difT<,renti.~tcdfrom the m r l t - p m i h procrsser dewrihrd i n Chapter 2 in that tla
L~tiaI I,~yprcan lr $m\\11at R ternprahlrr st~hstanti;dl?b l n w tile melting point, hp
146 I Chapmr 8. film Deposition 8.1 EpitaxialGrorvlh Techniques 147

of .I In!dn~q.~~
s,l),.titlltinn inlorn for e ~ c lcl~lorinr
t i~to~ n silicon tetr.rcl~lorirlt,pmnits
fmnl
;o 'CnqAzc(inrc in tlzr n.;nclion terlrlwntl~~r~~..
.,lrl,,t .I The o~r.mlln.;lction of sililun trtn.
cl,)t,n,{<.
!l,.,t r,7sultq in tlw v \ v l l nl'si~imll
~ !a?c~nis
s i ~ I , ( ~ a+r )PII,(?;LS\ H Si (solid) + 4IIC1 (en$)

rc;stion lakes pl:~n.;tlo~rgwilhtbat @vmi n Eq. I:

;\n ;lddition:tl rn~~qr.ting

o ntm hi~lt,
..ba rrntlt. i f tll,. silinm tetn~dllnridrm n r n ~ t n ~ t i is etclring. ~ t l l ptl1n11
r Rm,il,
,,ir,licyl1,,,,ill t:,ke plnry.. Fimlrc 5.2 slto\$r l l w efli.ct o f tllr collcentnltion ofsilicon tern.
rllltlridr. ill llnr n:s o ! ~tl~r,rt>;tction.tvltrrr tlrr molt fc~ctionis dcfintul the cltio oft),e
ntjrlll*,r "f a~ok.rttlr.s0f:1 ~ i v r spccirs
n to the t o l d n u m b r o f lllo~ecll~rs.' Sote thnt ini.
tlrll\- tI1? g o ~ ir.tt~ l ~~~cR.,Is(.sIi~lritrI? \\it11all illcrrming mncrlltntion of silicon tetra.
rlllori~lr.\ s thv mn(vntntlion of silico~lt r t c ~ c l ~ l o risi dincwnsrd.
~ a mtr~ilnllmp u i h
r;tt,. i s rr:lrla.cl. Rr!ond tl~at.tllr fl<rnll~n t r stilrts to clrcrmse. and e,r.ntn~lI!. ctcllinS
oftll,* ~ i l ~ ( ( k~i l~l um-ur.
t r Silit~mi s 11sllid1~ gro\\n in the ~ o ~ ~ ~ - m l l n l t en?$os.
l t i o n ;LT in&.
ctted in F i p w 3.2.
llnr n.;~ctionof Eu. 1 is rr\miblr: t l ~ ais. t it n n take place in eitllcr rlirertion. Il thp
c t n i r r g;a cotering r l ! ~n~;ac(or~III~~UIIS it!rlrocl~loric ;~cicl.remov;d or rtclling ,sill t a b
l~l.~cy~. :\rts.tll\: thix rtrl~in:open~tion h used for in situ clrnninl:of the silicon \ d e r prior
into t l ~prowing
r 1;tyr. F i p r r 8.3 also sl~onstlre p v ~ rnr~ehanisrns
tl~ nt tlic surfncc.\,,llich
l a t,pil;i\i:J cro\\il~. are )Y~PIIon tile s11dace ndsorptioll of 110st atoms (silicon) :L< \vc!l s tlte rlopant :tton,r
n,,.clupnt is intrrxlumd at tllr s;unr time :u the silimn t r t n c l ~ l o r i ddaring ~ el
ir.g.. arsenic) and tile rnowrrlertt of thrcf! atoms t o r s a ~tl l ~ ledw
r sites.: TO $re C IitP
I
t.16;d hmwil~ i Fie. 3.10). Gr~mus rlilx)nne (B,II,) is used as tile p-t)pc dc~pnnt,u,licw
adrorlwd iltonls sltfficicnt mobilih for fillcling their proper positions within tltr c?stnl
pltospl~invI I'H , I and aninr i;\sR ,) are ltsed ;I.. rl-hpr dopalrts. InLxtures are on
latticr. r p i k ~ ~ igrllrvtll
al reqllircs relati\r$. 1ligI1tmlpemtnres.
n.~rihi1.ic.d \\it11 I l \ ~ l r w m ns tllr d i l ~ ~ rto
n tallo\v rensonahlr control n f Ilnw eltes for t1
<lt.<irtrl [loping rnn~~~ntcatioo. The dnp;mt r l l r n ~ i sfur t ~anine is i1l11stratt.d in Figure 5.3.
CVD for Gulliurn Arsenide
ul,irli sllrnn : ~ F i nlrr c i n nrlsorkd
~ on tlrp s ~ ~ r drcnmposin~.
f ~ t ~ ~ . and h r i n inmrponted
~
For e:l!lil~m anrnidr. the l>wicsehlp i s sinrilar to that shmvt~in Fiqlrt. 3.1". R m u s r
gallium orscnidr drcomposes into gnllionl and arsenic 11po11 rnponation. its direct t n w -
port in tllc u p o r pllase i s not possible. One approncll is thc use of hs, for t l ~ nnrnir
r
m m p ~ ~ n rand
n t gsllir~mcl~loricleiGaCI,\ for t l ~ cg d l i ~ ~mlnponrnt.
rn The ovrrall reae-
tion 1t~;riinpto epift~xinl~ o \ \ iofl ~
g11li11ma n m i d r i s

As, + 4GaCI, + 511, + JGa& + I ? H C I i3)

4Ast1, + As, + 611,

and the ~ o l l i m ncl~hnidei s genen~ledI)!.
tllr rcaclion

h l e t n l o r p ~ n i cm'D
Xlrt;~lorg;t~rir C\'Il (\IOC\'I)) is ;llso a \'lJE p m s s I,nsrrl on pyml!iic irartiollc. Llalilir
con\.r~~tional C\W. AIOCVD i s ilistit~g~isl,rd try tile r l ~ e ~ nt~ntt~rt,
i ~ d of tllr prrcntnor.
I t is important for tllosr rlrmrnts t1,;1t (In not fnr~rrst:tl,!e Il!rlri<lvs or imlidrs. hut tllnt
(10 form sti~lden~~lalorg;~:alric cotnpO~mds \sit11 rrnson:ddt. \.,lp,r prr,sltrr. \IOC\.D lr.~c
hh>mrstensiwly ;~pplic~l i n tllc l ~ c t r r o r p i t a ~F M
i;~ l III of Ill-\'ant1 11-I'I ~ I ~ I ~ ~ I I I I I ~
148 b Chapter 8. film Deposition 8.1 Epitaxial G r M Techniques 4 141

PO\II G;~\S.are a n use tnet;dozpnic compoan~hsucll as trimetl~ylgnl hlnE c%n aelliew precise mntrol of hntll cliemiml mmpasitions m l ~ l[aping pmfilrr
[ c a ( ~,),I~ for
l tilr pl~~iu,ll component m ~aninr
l (ASH,) for the ancllic a m p n c n t . Single-cr)ltnl. lnultilnyer stnictures \\it11 dimensions on tllc OKI,!~ n~aton,ir. r2,,
cllPmio,~s m n ir tr;msported in \;tpor foml into the reactor. The ovcmll rrnction is Iw grown Itsing hl BE. Thus. t l ~ cXlBE n~rthmlenitbl~stlte prrcisc f:,1,ric2tion &semi.
mndtstor 11ctrmstnlctll~~ harinx thin 1:iyelr from a fra11ion ofa !nicrn,, elm,,, to a m,,no.
ASH, + Ga(CH,!, 4 G u t s + 3CH, (4)
1;t)~r.In genenll. a l n E grntvth ratcs arc quite imv. For cab. for e.umplr, a of
F~~,\j-mnt.~iains mmpounds. sucll as AIAs. t r i ~ n e t l ~ ~ l n l ~ ~[AI(CH,),I
n ~ i n u ~ ncan be 1 wndlr is l.y.p i d .
~ u t i ppiti~\?:
n ~ the G a t s is dopl 11,yi n t r ~ l ~ t c i ndopants
g in \-.llmr fonn. Dieth)' 8.5 sham ascllenlaticofan > l B E . ~ t e t norgallium al,rlr,.~8tM~ III.\Z
[z~(c,I I,):] and dietl~~lr~~lmiu111 [CII(C:N,I~Iare t!~ic;llp-hp dopants. nnd silnne (: compoe~lds.sllcll as AI,Gn,.,,\s. T l ~ cs)rtrm represents the ,,ltimate in film llrposition
;ln ,,.t\p dopant for Ill.\' compounds. The i?\rlridrs ofsulf~rrnnd selenium or I mntrol. clcanlincss. and in sit11clvmiml cl~nractcri~~tion n,p;d,ility separatr cfi,sion
metll!ltin m ;also uxrl f o r n - h p dopa~~ts, an11chrnai~lcl~loridois nsnl to clope chml ovens ma& 0fp)~ol)ticboron nitri(le are used for Ga. AT,and the dopants. AII tllr. (.&I-
into GU\S to form scn~iinsttl;~ting layers. Sincp these mn~poundsare higl1ly poiso sion o m s are l~ousedin an oltrahigh-vacaom chamber (-10.' P;iI. Tile trmpcntllr of
and oftm mntaneously inflanl~nahlrin air, rigomlrs safeh precnutions arc necesr; eacl~oven is adjusted to give the drrircrl evaponltion rate. T l ~ ruhstmtec ILoklrrrotates
111~\10c\:D pmcess. mntinuo~sslyto achieve unifonn epittud 1n)m (e.g., +l%in dopinxvariations ;md +n..j%
F i p r e S.4 slto\n a schen~aticof an hlOCM) reactor.'T!picall!: the metalorl in thickness variations).
compound is tra~~s~mrted to the quam reaction vessel I?\.Ilylmsen carrier g a . \ ~ I Iere , it To gro\srGarb, an overpressure of As is maintined. since tllr ~tickin~meficient or
i p miv-l with ,\rII, in the meofG:As gro\vill. The c h e m i d rrlction is indllced by
~~~ ~
heat. Ga to GaAs is unity. wl~ereasthat for ATis zero. ~lnlessthere is I. pre\iousl? depositr(l
ins th? gases to 6 k ' C to SOOT aho\,e a sal~stmtepl:lcrd on a prapllite suscpptor Iusing GRI y r r . For a silicon XIBE s)stem. an electrol~gun is nscrl to evaporate silimn. Onc or
radio frequency Ilealing. A p!~ol!tic reaclion forms the GaAs layer. Tile a(hrantae:es of rnoreefli~sionovens are used for thedopants. ENusionov~ncirl~ave like rm;~ll-nrrasoenw
usins n~eti~loqanin are that tlley are volatile at mOifemte$. low telnpmtures ant and exllilrit a cos8 emission. \\,ltert, 0 is the angle khveen the direction of tile sourcc
there are no trnublesoll~eliqui~lG ~or I In sources in the reactor. and tltr nornlal to the srlbstmte s ~ ~ r f i c e .
MBE uses an evaporation ~netlloilin s \acaum system. An import;!nt p a n m a r r Tor
vacuum technologv is the molecular impinsement mte: that is. I~mvman)- molrc~~les
8.12 Molecular Beam Epitaxy impinge on a unit a n o f t h e sobstrxtr pcr unit time. The impinsenlent rate ( 0 )ic a func-
beams ofa~tonc(
\iBE is an rpitaeal p m s s io\,olvingthe reaction of one or more tl~ern~xl tior, of the molecular weigl~t.t n ~ ~ p c r a t ~and
~ r pressure.
e. T l ~rat?
r is deri\rcl in :\ppcncli~H
or molrcules wit11 a cr)stalline surface uz~derelh.al~ish-\acuumconditions (-lo-' Pal! and cnn he expressed as'
9 = P(Zmnk7
 - Chapter 8. film Oeposilion 8.1 Epitaxial Growth Techniguel 4 1:
A more rigorollr df.riwtion give5

,,.llpypp is the pressm- in Pa. rn is the in;L?s of^ molecole in kg. k is Boltzmann's con.
stant in J K .T is the trn~peraturein d e g n r s Keltin, and is the ~ n o l e c ~ ~wejdlt,
lar and
TllerPfore. at 3 M i; and 10' Pa pressltr~,lhr impingement nlte is 2.7 x jOlr
n~oleculrdc~~~'-s for oxTgen (>I= 32).
for air molen~les( r q u i d e a t molecl1lardinmcterof3.iA)at morn t r m p e n h w , nlerrfore.
EXAMPLE 1 at a systrm pressurr of 10.' Pa. A \r,o~~ld be C i O km.
A.
.it MI R. thr molenllnrdi.mrkr ofonyen is 3.64 md thr numbrr of molmles per unit areax
is 7% x Find ihr t i m reqttin~l
~ to lorn, a rnor>olnyero f q . ~ c atn prcsuws d l . 10'. and EXAMPLE 2
10" I'a. Asamc :tn efi~sionoven geometry ofawsA = 5 an' :md a dirtanw I, lx.hrren tllc tap ofthe mr.n
and lhc callilrm amnide ~ ~ b s l r aof
t c10 cm. Cnlorlatr the Y R E vmmth ctte for tile i.fftlSi,ln
SOLUTION The time rrquimd to film a monnl;a>er(asurning I N % slicking) is obtained 611r<luitlt galli?nrnm m i d r at W'C. Thc ra&%w dcnsit).of ealli~ln,atoms i- 6 r 1t1" rnn-;. and
lhr impln~cmmtr;llu: the svcr:xec tltich~essof ;I monulaycr is 2.8 ;\.

SOLUTION On heating galli~nnancnidc. the \vlatile itrvnic~aporizrsfint.Ira\inca ~rlli~rm-n~b

rolutiarl. ll~crefon,.only 1hv pressures inarkcd"Ca-rich* in Fiplrr 2.1I arr olintrre<t.nlvpr<+
sure st 'XK)'C is 5.5x 10r' I'a krrplliatn tmd 1.1 Pa fi,r arwnic (:k:i.Tile arrird mtr can l r clb~ur
from thr inq e (Eq. 51) I I multipl\in~
~ it hy ,Vnl.::

To innid mntaminntion orthe epitaiial layer. it is o f p a r ~ m o ~importance

~nt to rnxintain ultrahigh. The moletulnr \wight (.!I) is 69.i2 for Ga and 2.92 x 2 for .k2-
Substitutinq V of r. JI. a,,,,
~ I I ~ S

wonurn mnditions (-10.' Pal for the .\IREp m s s . 4 Till73 Kl into tlw almveeqnrstion giver

During molecular motion. molen~les\ d l collide wit11 one anotber. The average dist;mee
t m w e d by all the ~noleculesh h v e e n successive collisions \\it11 each otller is dePined
as the rnmn f r c ~path. It can be derived from a simple collision theon: A ~noleculeLav- h of~alliurnmenidc is g m ~ r n nI)?
Tha p ~ i rate l the arri,al rate olpdlium. Thr kmnmnth ntc i s
ins a diameter d and a velocity vnill move a distance vSt in the time St.The molecule
sr~ffena collision with another molecule if its center is an)~vllerr\tithin the distan
o f t l ~ ecenter of another molecule. Tllerefore. it s\treps out (\rithout mllision) a c:
der of diameter 2d. The volume of the cylinder is Notr that the pm\rih rate is rrlstively lcnvmmpamd with that of\

Since there are n molecoles/cm3, ttl~evoltlmeawociated wit11 one molecule is on the a
age VII cm'. \\hen the w l ~ l m r6V is equal to 1/11. it must contain on the average on
o t l ~ emolecule.
r Tl~es.a mllision wo~lld11at.roccurred. Setting 7 = 61 ~s the ;nfengetim
h h v e r n collisions.
The mean free pat11 (A) is tben
Tllerc are t\m r,wys to clean a surfitce in sit" for MBE. Iligh-trmp~ntureb:&ne
can deco~nposet l ~ nati\,e
r oxide and remove otlar akorlwd sln.ries I,? r\.i~p>ration or
diff~~sion into the wafer. Anotl~erappm;lcl~is to use a low-earrp ion lwam of ;m inert
zas to sp~~tter-clean the sl~rfnce.folln\\wd In. a lo\v-ten~wr.~tore annmling to reonlrr tltr
slld?ce lattice structure.
hlBE can use a \\icle variety of clopnnts kwnparcd \tit11 C\'D and hIOCVD). itnd
the doping profile r.in be exactly contmllecl. Ilo\ve\rr. t l ~ cdoping p m s is similar to
the \:rpor-pl~ase gm\\ll~pmcess: I\ f l t ~ xof r\apon~te(ldopant atoms ani\.rs at a fi~\nraIllr
lattice site and is i n c o l p n t e d alonfi the p w i n g interfi~ee.Finr mntml of t11r(lopine
profile is achieved 13. atljusting the d0p;lllt flux rr1;ltive lo the flux of silicon iltolllr Ifor
silicon epitarial lil~ns)o r gnlliu~natolns (for palliutn l n r n i d r epik~xkdfiln~s).It ic xlro
possible to c l o p t l ~ epit;r\i:d
r film using n lo,\.-c!lrrent. Imv-ellcrp ion ir;lnl to ilnpl:
i l ~ edopant (s& ~ h a ~ i7). rr
 8.2 Structures snd Defects in Ephaxial Layers 4 153

TIlr ~ ~ ~ b ~ ttrznlwrnttarrs

I , ~Lm,,,q~h
V r,~tr.
r.llr for hII1E r;lng? fmlll 4W'C to 9W'C. nlld thr gm,*g
c,I,,< r.i!~;,- fron~0.~h31to 11.3 )ln!ltnin I3t'r:n~s~~
rn;aly ~tniqueeloping prnlilvs :lnd
of ~ ~ ~ ~ v - t c ~prW~*ssil~g
l l ~ ~ ~ ancI
mnipositi(>ns1101 obtnini~hl~
ttlr~
rmln .........
1 . 1 1 1 1 ~ . III~I<IIIYI

C..........
.
l
.-..
......
?trancrl
Cl*....

+. ... .+....,..
L'numnnl

~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ < ,:\'l.> ~ r:itn

~ t Ink
i ~ l ~) m
~ ~: l~t ~lin
e ~\!11E.
l Xlany novf.1 stnrturrs ~ : I W hecn ,,x,c]c
I L C ~ Z I C\!BE. T1ll.sc itslad,. tltr *rprr/nlfi~r~. n.ltirh is a priollir stnlrtllre mnsistisS of
.dte-n~;atinc18ltcltliin I:~y,.n!\it11 3 I w r i ~~CSS l lllilll the elrrtmll lllrnll free pi11l1 (P,R,,
( .
: 1 x ( -.S . \,itll i.:sll
c f l i ~ t~.tnsi<tom.
t
l;nrr 10 n m or 1k.s~in thickness). ;lnd hrlemjllnclion fiel,l.

.\ li~dllrr<lt.\rlopn~rt~t in 5IBE i ~ m rrpl:lcetl t l ~ pe u p Ill rlelnrntal S ~ I I K V Shyma.

:,loyrnnic mtnpouncb surll as t ~ i m r t h y l ~ n l(ThIG) l i ~ ~ ~ or
~ ~trietl~ylg:~llitl~n(TEG). This
:tppn,;tclb is crllrrl s ~ r l n l ~ ~ r ,ra~l~ntlor.h.ot~~
~rr~i~. q>ifn.vy(5IOhIUE) ;lnd iS also referred
to ;R ,./,crni,al l)<.ne~t7riIory (CUE:]. Altllolr~ltcIosr1y nklted to lIOC\'I). it is cnnsid.
I ,I n f I . T I n t : i are st~llicienllywlatilr tllat tlwYa n

* 8.2 STRUCTURES AND DEFECTS IN EPITAXIAL LAYERS

821 Lattice-Matched and Strained-Layer Epitaxy
For cnnv~ntiondla,~noc~ilxxi.d qo\rth, n singlecnstal selnimndtstor layer is gmnn on Figure 8.6 Srhcn~nticiilnrtmlion of in) latti~~.matchrd. (bl strrinrd."md icl ~.IXYLTIhrtrrwpi.
;I sin~lc*-cnst;alsrnlicvnductor sttbstratr. T l ~ srrnimndnctor
e I~tyrr:~ndt!~cst~bstrateare t.nill rln,rt?m~%.
Ilnrntrpil~r~?i r sln~durd~ll!.
idantical lo llse l a l t i ~ ~ - m a t c l . ) l c r l l ~ r l c r ~ i t ~
tl~rsntnt. rnntcrial I~n\ingtile s:amr Intticv mnshnt. Thrrefore. homnepit:~yis, by defi.
nition. n 1nttic~-tnatclredrnitaxi.11 nrocess. The l>omuenitaxi;~l nrocrss offen one imnor. a
t;int IIIP:LIB of mntmllin~the duping profilrs so that &\ice and cirr~riipcrformane nn
Ix. opti~nizt~l. Fnr rxmnplc. an r t - h ~ esilicvn layer \\it11 a relntivrly low doping conen- Tlw critic;tl I;?\.e-rt!~ic!arsses for hvo aterid rid ?stems are shmtn in F i p r r 4.i.'Tlle
tratinn cxn hr gm\\n epitxially on an 11' silimu s~tbstratc.This stn!c!<~rrs!~bsta~~ticall~ upper cume is for the strained-lnyer epita\? o l a Gr,Si,., layer 011 1 silimn s11\\~tratr. and
redt~(rsthe s r r i ~ smsistanrr ;usminted ,\it11 the sabstrate. tllr lower curve is for a G;~,.,ln,i\slayer on a C;u\ sahstr.~tr.For er;tn~plr.for Ce,, ,Si,,
011 silimn. the s~;r\imun~ r p i t a d tl~icknrssis ;tlnal 70 net. For thicker Tiltns. rdsr dis-
Fnr Itetrrorpita~y.the epitnkal layer and t l ~ sr~bstrate
r are hvo r1;;TPrent sernimn-
~lurton.and the epiti~xiallayrr lrntst he qoroan in s!lcll a \rc?\. that :m idr.:t!ized interfacial lue:llicns \rill occur.
stntcture is in:lintainr<l. This implies thxt atomic lmnrlins across the intrrfacr must k .A rrlattrl hetcrnepik~rialstnlrttlre is tllr s f r o i r ~ c d - l ~ t ~ r r . w r ~ ~ ~(SLS).
r / n l l ii\r ~super-
~
mrrtinao~ls.Therefort.. t l ~ hvo r sca>imncInctorsmust ritlrer have tile r;tnir lnttice spar- lattice iir :III artificit~loi~r-dimnaion,dperiodic stntcturr constituted by cdiifc:rcnt mate-
in: or IF nhlr n~drforrn to adopt a common spacing. rial nit11 a neriotl of nlxlut 10 nm. Fim~rr3.8s l ~ o wan ' SLS i~a\inchvosmiimn<lt~cton
. . Tllrse h o cases Arc referred to s
Iolfirc-rnnlcltrrl q~ilnxym d sfroinefl-layer q)itoxy. rrspcti\.ely uith rliffrrrnt eq~~ilibriun~ lattice co~~st;u~ts a , > n,. groun inn stntctttrr \ritlr I common
Fimlrr 4 . k sl~o\wa lattice-rnatchrd enit:Lw \r.llrrr the stlhstratr and tile film I~ave inpl:$ne latticc c~j~~stallt b. u.llrrr n, > b > o, For sufirirntly thin l;~yen.tile lnttice n~is-
z .
the Nllllt' littticv llllStRnt. An inlportant exnnlple is the epitaxial grouih rlfAI,Ga,Js on matcl~i.; s r n ~ m n ~ r x l i ~lq.
t r td~ ~ ~ i f strains
o n n i n the lyrrs. Ut~rlprt l ~ r s ~ m n d i t i ono ~ ~mis-
s.
:I Gm\s si~h<trate\vl~rrr foranyx hchvern 0nnd 1. 111~ latticrmnstant ofAI,Gn,~ibdif- fit rlislncatio~aare gt,n~nrted; ~ t l ~ intrrfimcx-s.
r so h i ~ l ~ q u ncr\stallinc
li~ materids can
f r n from tli;rt of Cajjs by less t11i1n 0.13%. be oht:~inr~l. Tl~esrnrtifiri;dly stntchlred in:tterids can hr ~ r n \ \ nhy XIRE. Tltrs? mate-
For t l ~ rlatticr-rnisn~atrl~rd c a e . if tllr rpitaual layer Iias ;I 1;lrprr lattice constant rials pro\irlr a ne\v arra i n srn~ico~~doctor rrsrarcl~and Iwrnlit nr\v solirl-statr de\icrs.
and iq flerihlr. it \rill h~mmpresscrl in the plane of rro\tih to mnfornl to the sr~bstrate especially for l~i~l~-spercl and pbotonic applic:~tions.
~.
spacing. Elir~ticforces then compel it to dilatr in s dirwtion prpenclic~tlarto the inter-
LIW. Tl~ishpr o f s ~ n ~ c his~~rI rI I v I Istnined-layer rpit:n~;mdis ilh~strntetlin Figure (I.&.' 822 Defects in Epitaxial Layers
On tht. clt1a.r hand. iftlte rpitaxial 1;ryer ha< a srn:~llprhtticrronstant. i t trill Iw dilated
in t l ~ plane
r of $n)\r?li and ror~lprrssedin a direction prpmdicular to tlw intrrfaw. In Defects in rpikainl l:~yrn\rill r l ~ p t l rlevice
r pmpertirs. For er:enplr. defects can n511lt
r r. strained-Iayrr vpit:L\?. zsIII~.str.linrd-li~yrtllickn(.ss increars. tile total nllm-
t l ~ cilxr in re.CdtlwcI i~~ohility
or incrci~srrllritka~ectarrent. T l ~ drfeds
r in c p i t a d la!vn can in3
Iwr o f : ~ t o n ~t ~r s ~ lstnin
r r of the rlistortrd atomic tmntLv grows. and at sonw point. mi<- categorizrd into fiw groups:
fit ~lislocxtinnsarr nnrlmtr(l to rrliew tlw l~orno~eneotts strain e n e p This tl"cLnrss is 1. D~fic/.s~finel tho ,s~rhs/rolrr.Tllrsr dcfcrts n1;ty prolx~ptvfmtn the n~l~stnltr
rrfrrrrcl to ;u tllr crilir~nlin~,rr fhirknr.~.~ Tor tl~rwstrrn. F i m ~ r r3.1% sItn\vs ~ I I Pc a e in
?
into tla, cpit;r\i:~lI;npr. To ;n.oi<Itllrsr drk~rts.~lirl~;llion-frt.rs r n ~ i m ~ a h ~ r t o r
u.l~ivlltlirrr are NIc(, d i s l ~ ~ i ~ t iat
o nthe.
s interfcacr. substratrs ;trr r r q ~ ~ i r r d .
1% b Chapter 8. Film Deposition Dielectric Oaporirion 4 15

' ,
* ! - L. LL/-.
~-..,-.~.-L.-!J~

I Cndnl laver

G o r in Inecmn. I

Erprrirnentally detprminrd critical la!cr thickness for drfm-free,str~incd-lap

F i p m 8.7
rl~tqolCd,Si:.,on Si. and Ga,,iqAson G A S . -
Figure 8.8 illustration of the rlmmntr
slarr tl~edirection ofthr str.zin.
t Sulntnte

ant1 formation of a rtminnl-la!r*r ~ u ~ r l a ~ t i:\mn\r

m.'

2. D + n . ~ / m n ~the interfnce Odde precipitates or any mnta~~~ir~;ttion at the

interface of the epitaual layer and ruhstnte may cause tlie formation ofmir-
orient4 cIustt.rs or nuclei mntaining stacking faults. Tllese c h t ~ t e nand b 8.3 DIELECTRIC DEPOSITION
stacking farrltc may malrrce with nom~aln ~ ~ c land r i gmw into tlip film in the
shnpr of an inwrtrd pyramid. To avoid these defects. the surface of the s u b Depositrd dielectric films arc i s r ~mainly
l for insttlation and lxssi\:~tinn ofdiscrrt~d ~ \ i w ,
stmte must hr thomaebly cleaned. In addition. an in sihr etchhack may he and i n t r p t n l circuits. Thew arc time commonly used depl,sition ~tletl~cib: idrn~~pl!eric-
usrd. sncli s the rmmable reaction of Eq. 1. prcssorv O'D, low-prrsst~rcO ' D (LPC\'D). and pl:~cmn-rnhanmlcl~e~nicd wpor rlcpn-
3. P~~cipitnlei or dirlncotior~Imps. Their formation is due to s ~ ~ p r m t u r a t i oofn sition (PI:C\'D, or placnla deposition). PECVD is an rarrgwihnncr<lCVD nirtl~~wl ia
implrritiw or dopants. Epitaxial l a ) m mntair~ingrPn high intentional or t~nin- \\.l~icl~
pl;~wnam e r v is ad~lrdto thr thrrnlal c n e r p of a mnvcntiond 0'1) S!T~CIII.
tcntionnl dopants or impurih. mncentntions are suicrptihlr h~s t ~ cdefects. l~ Considc.rations in x.l<rtingadrpositionpmcrss am the st~bstc~tr tr111prr.itum.l l ~dspo-
r
~ ~

sitinn n t r and film itniforn~ihtllr n~or~l~ologv, the rlectri~lllnr! mrchnnicll ppmprr-

4. Dnr~onolegroin bmmrlorifi~nnd /IL.~IIS. Any misorient~darrac of an cpitaud
film dorincpo\rih may mert and mnlesce to fonn tlnc,sc defects. ~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~

5. & l ~ ~ ~ d ~ s l m ' n tThese

i n n ~ .arc hxrned in the h r t r m p i t a y of hm lattice- ercrpt that diNrrc.nt gxsr:il~. l l s ~ catl tlw inlet. In ;I Itot-\$:dl. rd~irrd-prrs-t~rr mar-
mi~mntcllrdsen~imnducton.If hoth lattices are rigid. they uill retain their tor like the one sl~o\\qii n F i g ~ ms.&.tlie q~~i~rtz-lllhr is he:dnl hy a tlrms-znnr Iilnl;lm.
flllil~an~~lltd Illtic.? spncina. and the intrrface \\ill mntain rows of mis- and fix-is intmllrml at nnr rnd ; a ~ dpunnprrl out at t l ~oppocitr r end. T l ~rr~~~irnnrlnnor
r
h n d r d :,toms ~lvscrihrda<nlklit or edge dislnations. Tl~redge dislocationr \ r a f m ;*re ht-Id \ ~ ~ r t i ~ina aI lslottrd
~ qunrtz Inat.' Tltr rluitr?~-It~lw \(.:III is 1101~ W O I ~ I S F
ctn :+lwform in ;i s t ~ u n r d1 : y r \vl~rnt l ~ Ira y r thickness I m , l n e s lnrger tllm it is aclji~c.?ntto the f t ~ n ~ ~ cin. ?mntr:r<t
. ton mld-xxll rrarlnr sac11;o111,. I~orizontal?pi-
tlw critic11 ILtwr thickness. t;~~inl n.:stor tl~:~t usrs rildio lirquenq (rfl he:~ting.
 I S 6 r Chapter 8. Film Deposition 8.3 Dieleclfic Daporition 4 1.j
Deposition hlcthods
Silio~ndirl\irll. fillns ~ I IIn.
I drpsitr~ 1,s~ srwral ~ P ~ I I W L S . R,,~(,,~.t,.,,. , , ,I,.,~,.
sitinn (31~)-5(YI'(:I. thr fil~ns;*rc
k,nnrtl I,? n~;~ein~sil;,~a.. ,lnplnt. ;., I
ical reactions f i r phrtcpllon~s-clo,d arid,.s an.

Sill, +O,+S~O: +ZH, ill)

Jpll, +X):-~P:O, +611, 1121

Tllr drposition prmws cln Iw prrfunnc.11rithrr at atmospIlrric PrmxIIrcill ;,C\,D rr:L(..

tor or ;It redllc~rlp r c s ~ l r rin an LPC\'D renczor (Fix. fi.~,,). l'llr lo,v
prmtltrr of llrr silane-oygm rmctisn nukes it a suital-l,lrpr,rpr5 , ~ l , , . , ~fi1,,,, ,ll,lsl I,+
rlrpositcd ovrr a l;iyrr of nlun~inlnm.
For inl~~rrnrtli:ltr-te~ny~~lurr. drpsilion ( : M 0 " C I . silirxrnclio\irlcc;l,, forlllr,l
I? drmmlmsinx trtc~etllyh~rtls,nilintr. SiiOC,II,),. i s ;in I.PC\'I> n.;lr(orla. rnnlpllsrI.
~ i I ~ h r t ~ \ TEOS.
i a t ~ ~ Iis \:tporizrd lronn a liqnid sourer. l ~TEOS r mnp,tjncl c l ~ <
a<f<>!l<>!~~:

Altorninarn S~(OC,FI,), SiO, + lq.-products (131

rhc(nxl~1
-,I: furnminl: both SiO2ant1 a rni~tllreof organic and oreanosilicon byprrxltrcts, hlll,onnlb tllc

1
1-
t 1 I hioli~rt r m p r r t t ~ ~require11
rr for t l ~ crr~tctiospwwnts its ttw ovrr nhls~inrn~n. it is suit-
rs hnmp ca a l h for pol)si!icon gates rrqnirinq n unifunrt insal:ttin~Iayrr uilli qml step mrrm~..
i"I..l inlt.1
1 ' 1 ~ . srmd step m\.eraSe is a rrstllt ofrnh;unced surface i~>ohility at Ilirrllrr trlnyc~turrc.
Ilr~tlrl
O m >b Tllr oridrs can hr dnpnl l q a d d i ~ stnall ~ g anlotlnts of thr clopiint hyrllirlvs (pl~ncphinrs.
I llO!dCT nninp. or diborane), similar to thr pmcess in epitaxial grmvtlt.
(b) i'lle deposition n t e as n function o f t r n l p r r ; ~ l ~\:,rirs
~rr rv(-E,/kTI. \vllmnx E , k
Figun 8.9 Schematic d i a w r of chemiml vapor depnsitinn reacton. ( a ) Ilot-\\dl. r e d t r d - tllc :;rti\alisn r n r r p , The E, ofthe silancb-oqyrn rraction is qnitc lokr.:dmut 0.6 d'for
pn,rmw reactor ~ h Pamllr~l.platr
l pl;~mmddcposition reactor. ri. radio freqlxene), ~ledo;x.<lnddrs :u~Ialn~ostzmrn e < l Inmntnct. E , for ~IIcTEOS
for p h l , v h o ~ ~ - r l ~ p nxirle.
renct;,>o is ~ n t ~higher:
c l ~ almr~t1.9 P\' filr i~ndopr.doxide and 1.4 eY \r,hpn pltosplton~r
cloplnr: compounds arc. prrsmt. The d r p ~ ~ d r oof c rthe delnsitinn ratr nn TEOS pi~r-
tin1 prr<sor? is to (I-P*'). \vhere I' is t l ~ TEOS r partial pressure ;~nrlI:, ir
The padel-plate. radial-flmv PEC\'D reactor shm\n in F i p ~ r Y.9b e consists ofa qlin- itl~vttGO Pa. At low TEOS partial presstwrs. the dqmsitioe rntr is drtcn~~inrrl by the
d n c d g l s s or a l ~ ~ s ~ i nchanlber
um sealed wit11 a l ~ ~ m i nendplater.
l ~ ~ l ~ l n ~ i d eare hvo par. rille of tlrr sllrfacr rraction. :\t high p;trtinl prrsst!res. 111e SIIT~.I<P hrmlll('s 11~arIy Sltll-
allel nl!~n~inr~m electmles. An rf wltage is applird to the upper electiudr. \rtllereas the ratrd \till) ndsorbed TEOS. and thr dcymsition cite lwcomes r ~ s r ~ ~ t iil~dr(u.ndrnt :dl~ of
Irnsrr elcerodr is grorinded. Tllr rf\olta:e causes a plasma discharp, bchrren the elrc- TEOS press~~w.'
trmlrs. \\:If?n are pl;~cedon the lower e l e c t r ~ l e \vhich
. is l~eatedi r h w r n 100°C and Iirun~tly,at~nospl~eric-prrssttrc and low-tr~aper;~htre C\'D pmcl%ws using TEOS and
4006C bs resistwm heaters. The reaction gixes flo\rf throagh the d i s c l ~ n r pf r o n ~outlets
locatrd along the rircunlfrrence of the 1rnrr.r e l e c t r ~ l eThr
. main ad~xntaxeofthis reac-
..
w o n r 10,) Il;wIuen nrnrx,rrtl,"as sl~o\\nin F i g ~ r S.lO. r l 1 i 9 CYI) tcrltnolq'prnilws
oridr filnls \tit11 l ~JIi confon1l;llih and leu tiw,.;ih tinder low rh.prition tt'~np,ntun..
tor is its lmv deptlsition temperature. Ilmvr\vr. its capacih is limited. esprcially for large. T h r slninkaSr ofosirlc filn~durin$ ansmling is :iho a h~nctionofmonc c o n c ~ , ~ ~ t r ~Ct Li o~n .
clian~eter\vafrrr. and the aafers may Lwrnme rnntan1in:lted if Iwsely adl~rringdeposits slbo\\n in Figlrr 8.11. HPCYI~ISP of their pnrosih 0,-TEOS C\I)oddrs arc oFtcn arrnlll-
fall on thenl. panird I>? l~l:~~am-msistorl odrles to p n i t plannli7i1tio11in ULSl pnrrssine.
For li,~ll.tenrpnl~llrrdrpnsition ( 9 0 ° C ) . silicnn rlioiidr is fnnt~rtlhy rt~:slillo
~lid~lorosil;lne. SiCI2kl1.\tit11 nitmlls oxiclr at rrdt~wtlprrsslirt,:
8.3.1 Silicon Dioxide
CYD silimn dioxide cannot replace thermallyrn\tn oxides. bec;~uset l ~ hest r electrical
prnperti~sare obtained u i t l ~thrrn~dlygrown films. C\'D oxides are ased instead to mu).
plement thermal o d d ~ sA. l a ) ~ of r a o d o p d silirnn diodde is u s ~ dto insttlate m~!ltile\?I
'
m~tnllb.?tion. to mask ion implantation an11 diihlsion, and to i n c r e a r t l ~ rtlliche
tlrrr~n;illygm\m fir111oxides. Pl~osphonzs~loppd silirnn dioxi~leis used both as an i Properties of Silicon Dioxide
lator irhvren metd la)vn and ;IS a final passivation layer oIpr de\ic-s. Oxides doped ~ ; ~ l8.1 , l lists
~ (lrpositioa ,,,,~tl,ntls :11ld prnpcrtirs of silicon clioddr fillns.' In x+~~a.r.~I.
p l ~ m p l ~ o nttni.nic.
~s. o r boron are ~tsedwxasionally as rliKusion soorws. t ~ , , is. ~ ~(lirrct mrr,,~:ltion ~ , ~ ~ \ ~ r trnllwraturr
rlrpo~ition r ~ :it I I I S ~ ~ , ~
and film cl~~:ilit!..
 -. .-
It. 3
.'"I s, , , , t , ~ t r d t , ~ . ~ . , ~ ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ ~ h ~ t ~ k ~ ~ l

TABLE 8.1 R o w n i e s of Silicon Dioxide F i l m

l l ~ t ~ n ~ ~<:rown
.~llv S i l l , + 0: TEOS
~ , tl l w ~ l ~ < ; :,t 4.wc a1 7lXI"C
-
SiO, SiO, Ill1 SiO,
.-, ,.- 2.1 0 9

I-I6 1.4.1 1.46

>l(l 5 I0
 8.3 Dielectric Deporitioo 181

, , . J , ~I ~is tIIe tlist:~~tc~

fmrn tlw top S I I ~ N Yand \\'is the \ridtl~oftbe o p r ~ ~ i nThisg . hl*.
o f q t p p mrrAer is tl,ill ;Jung the v r ~ i c d~ ~ ~ t 1~it11
l l s . :a l ~ ~ ~ s icmck
b k . i ~ the
t ,,r
lr~tt~,"
the c,,,s.d I? w I i . ~ h : ~ r l ~ r d n ~ .
slllcnedn,o,lc. ionnrtl I,? TI-OS r l m n ~ p s i t i o atl ~rrtluwd pressure gives n srarl\.
~n,,f,,n,,.d m\rr.ter d s c to ntpi~lsllrlllrr inigmtioa. Si~nilnrl!: thr I~i~h-tr!rtprrnh,;~
,~iclll,,nlril.+r~t~-nilmus odclc re:adioll dso r ~ ~ ~in ~rullionnnl
l t s co\'cngr. Ho\wver, dar
illg r,l.,n.-nnyrt~
~. <lr.pnsition. no s a r f . m nlitnttion t.dcs p l a c ~a!ld
. tllr step rovrmgp iq
rb.t,,m,innl h ill? :tm\:d ;tl!~h..llnct r $ a p c t t ~arcpottcm!
l m;lteri;ll. l~:tvc:~
stcpmv.
r.r;tg+ <trnnlarto 1I1;et in F i o t n 9.1%.

P-Glnss Flow
.* sr~l(x,tlttopnmplr? is itrtt:tlly r q u i n d for the drpnsitrd silimn clioxidr nsrd :u an insu.
l ~ to m w r tile h v r r rnrt;~]layer is mnGlve,
I.ttar lx,hnrn rnclnl I:tyvn. I i l l ~ or u ~ used
rirorit (.lil#trrm:i\ r~r!rltimnl an o p n i n g that nl:iy m u r in the lrpprr nletitl !:rw=rdur.
irk?dt- mit ti an. Recxtrw ~ b o ~ p h ~ ~ ~ - Isitimn
h l r wdinxld?
d (P-E~:L%S~drmsited at low tern.

- ~,
F i v m 5.13 <h~n\slour rmss sections o f ~ c s n ~ ~ci ln~? t m In I I ~ ~ ~ O Xphotopphs
I I ) ~ ~
nip-<I.sr m\rrin< a pol!~ilirnn strp.' 'hll mslplrs arr I~eatedin strnlrl at 1lW"C for20
n~inutcs.Fiprr h. I.% sl~o\ts:I sample ofsla5s that c n l ~ t ; u a~ ~n se c l i q ~ ~ l y s l ~amount
~ a l l of
pl~nc~llorus :tntl tlnrs not flu\<,.SOIL. tt~rconmtih o f l b r filnl and tllat thr correspond.
ins :mglr i t l I i% nln-rt 120". Fimlres 9.121, c. and d sllo\v snmplcr of P-rl;as will) pro.
w~~~i~t~lyhighrrpl~ocpl~on~s cnntrnts. up to 7.2 at? iuright prrcrnt'. I n t l ~ ~s~n~ples, sc
the ilt~rrminertep angles oithr P-o,l:fis l:+vr indicatr ho\v flmr incrriocr wit11 plmsphnnnr
mnc~ntr;ttiorn.P-elzu fl~m.drprndc on annealing tirnp, trrnprcttllrr, pttnct>llon~sn
crntnlion. and 1111. ;tnnrding ;rmf,irnf."'
Tltc anslr 6':~s a itlnction oi\rright prrcent ofphozphoms m s l ~ o in a ~F ~i p w 8
cdn br appmximat~dh\- lilnlr ran h. ~lrpnsitrdIry an i a t r ~ r r l i a t ~ - t e n ~ ~ (7jODCI r n t t ~ rL~ P O V pnxrcx or a lmv-
tr!rrprmtllrr (300'C) plxsma-:l~ristrd C\7) p n m ~ s ~ ''. "T I I LPCVII ~ I;l!ns ;XI. nl stoi-
chinmrhic cu~llpcition(Si ,N,lv<tlt his11tlrnsih (29-3.1 gIcn1'1. Tllra, films can I r urn1
to 1):~~~ir;ltr d r d c ~ slrc;tost. tlley s ~ w ns r gw~cl1,anirn to thr diftifilrion of n:ltrr :t!d
smli!trn. T h r fil~rlsalso ran lv tlsrtl :a nl:nk i i r tlw srlrclivc odrl:,tinn ofsilimn ln%:a~w,
l f a r nant :an nnzlr rrnnllrr than 4.5". w r rrqllirr a plro~phon~sroswntmtion l a q e r 111
v l ~ ; a ~ dtl~r,~mlcrl~i~lcsilicn~~
silic~mnitride o \ i r l i z ~ ~ s a ~ t ? ~ s I o ~pn,\vnts rn>r~l o\idirinc. Thr.
6 \riC. klmvr.vrr at mnrmtntions ahorp l, nt4. tltr nlrtnl film 1r.g.. nll~minum)n.
filrns llrlnsitrd \I? p~ssn~a-x~sistrd CVII are TMIIs t ~ ~ i c ~ ~ i o !:1~11d~ h:lvc
t ~ t n;Ic hnwr d ? t l ~ i t ~
LW m~rnxh.rl the :led p n ~ l ~ l fonnrcl
cb dt~rinethe rr;taion l r h v r c n 1111. pl~mphol ( 2 . k 2 , S ~ c t l l ' l I3rc11~sc
, ~ ) f t l wlow dc~pnsitio~~ t r n ~ p r ~ ~ t o silimn~
t r e , ttitril!t. l?!tlts c:tn
in 1 1 1n~iclr
~ i~ndi~tln~~pIi?ric nloistum. Thrrrfore. the P-clil~sflmv prmvss IIS,Splu
drpl,<itr(l ovrr l:d)ricatrd drdccr and sm.<.;rc thpir finel p;~rsi\-.ltin~t. l'la~ma-drp)~itnI
p t ~ n n ~concvnlntionr
s o r 6 to k ul? nitrid? I,m\jll~sprLrllrllt scriltcll pmlrrtion, s m . 5 ;rs 3 nloisttlrt. I,:lnif.r. illlil prt.\l'rlt\
sndiu~ndifi>sion.
8.32 Silicon N i i i d e 111t l ~ cLI'C\'I> prtrx,ss, diclllomril;m~;and ;~mmoninr r x t ;at n.dtirr.d pwssun. In
drp,sit $ilicon llitridc at t r m p r c ~ t t ~ rlu*t\vwn
rs 7Oo'C and Nil'C. Ila. n . r r t ~ o ~ i.; i
h is rlilfi<?~lt
In L ! V silimn nitrirlr by t h ~ n n a nitridation
l (e.g.. uith amn~onia.XH,)
~ I I I ~ nf
C 1t.i
. h r . m i l l c ~ t :mrl
r hiell cm\\ih tr~apcattircs,tIo\~e\.t.~.
silicon nitride
 8 3 Dielectric Deposition < 163

. , , , , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ i ; ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~cttio.
iicl~1omsi1.~~t~~
s,limnn l t n c ~cIt.p,riterl
r !I, LPCVI) is nt a n ~ o v l ~ odirlr*~*ric
u n>ntniningup to
\ nlo,,nr irm.,, 1 ~ , rtdr
i ~ , ~ ~ l ~Tltr . n . natr in h~~ni-nvl H F is ~ C S SIllan 1 n k ~ , , , ~ ~ .
~ h fill,, ;,
~ .I,;,% \.PI?. lltell tmsilt- stlrss oieppn~ri~t~:~trly 10"'d!nrdc~n'. \vhich is near^?
10tilnts tllnt~ , f ~ ~ . : O s . ~ lSiO:. ~ ~ ~Filttls
s i t ~thirkrr
~ l than 200 n n ~el:,? crack htcnllsco~
1 1 , ~,ml"d, %-I\. rill. n,qi~ti,ih.oi~ilimo nitri~lr:it m,nl trn?prmtllreb a1n11t101'12.
ltr ,l,rl~Tr.lnr mn.il;l,,t is .; ;,nd its Jirb~ctrirstrengl~is 10- \'/c111.
I,, tllr pl.ulll;l.;arirkd C\'I) pnxx.ss. silicvn nitride is hnncd citllrr I?\. reaciingsil
:,d ;,,,t,~s,o,:, in ;an ;trgon pl.mnt;t or !,I rrilctiltg sil:~lteill il n i t m ~ r nrlischnye. Tlw m.,.~

~ h , pnxluas
- drprnd stronely on depsitiol~mnditions. Tllr radial-llml: p ~ n l l r l - ~ l a t ~
rrarlnr (Fin. 9'3111 is used to drpnsit t l ~ efiltns. T l ~ drposition
r nltr $*ncr.llly incrrasn
uitlt i n c n . ~ i ntrnmpr~~turr.
~ p n w r input. a11rl reactant g s prrssllrt~.
~ , r wnn.ntrations
g ~ of I~\rln~rprn are mntaincd in p l s m a - d ~ p o d t c dfilms. The Figum 8.14 CalnLted gat* and inlrrmnnpd delay vcrrur t r c h n o l ~Kenention. Tllr dirlc~tric
plslnn nitride tdso n-irrrrrl to ;L< SiSl used in srmimndr~ctnrpmcrscinggenrrally mn. ~ , n > ! r n tfor thr ImvB material is 2.0. Rotb ,\I and Cu intprcr,nnntt m.0.5 prn thick and 13 lrm
tmn\ 20 to 25 ;~tPrh y r l r ~ e n Filnls
. \\it11 lo\v tmsilr stress (-2 x 10 ' <l!n?dcnt'l can L+ long.
prrlllwl hv plasma ilrp>sition. Film resisti\ities range iron1 LO' to 10" Q-cm. depend.
ine on silimn-to-nilrne?n ratio. \vl~rreasrlielectlic strenglts a r r iwla.r?n 1 x 10' and
ti x In' \'/cn~. car:.l>ilit).. 1tiqlt capabilih. for gap filling. low depmition trmpenlurr. simplicit).o f p m
cvv. ;sal rase of intepntion. A suhrt.u)ti:d nuntkr o i l m 4 matrkds ltaw I r r l t ~ m t l m L . r d
for tlw intrrmrtal < l i ~ l e cin~ L'LSI
c circuits. Somr artltr prnmising lo\\.-k mntcrialr arc
8.3.3 Low-Dielectric-Constant Materials s h r *in~ X~hlrS.2. Tltese ~natcnalsGIIIb e i t l s r inopnicororpanicandcan lr~(lrpmitnl
.4sdmirrsizes mntinur tosltrink dmw to the d e p submicron region. tlwy rrquireamal. by ,.ither CVU or spin-on trcl~niqups."
tikPI intcrmnnection ard~itec+ureto minimize tlte time delay IIIIP top:mritic resistam
( R !and capnritnnrr IC),ntr gain in dmiw speed at tlte gate lrvrl ir ir!!irt by the prop.
nc;ttion drl;~?at tltr mrtal intcrmnnrcts lxc:iuse of the incrrsed RC lime constant, ar TABLE 8.2 Low-&Materials
sl~o\\nin Figtrr 9.1-I. For es~mplr,in d n i r r s \\it11 p t e len$lt of231 nm o r b s . up to
.%)Or oftltr time drlay is rltw to t h RC ~ <IPI;?\. of Ions intrrm~~nwtior~s."Therefore. the
r h \ i c p intrnonnrrtinn nrhmrk hrmrnn a limiting factnr in determining cllip perfomlanu
tttrtrim stir11as dmiw speed. cmss tillli and po\!rSr consllnrption I$ ULSI circ~rits.
Rrd~lcingthr RC time mnstant of ULSI circuits requires intrrmnnection nnaterids
~ i t ln\r h rrshti\ihand interlayer films uitlt lmv capacitance. Note that C = E,N(I.where
E, is the d i r l ~ d r i prrmitti\ity
c A is tltr arra. and d is the tl~icknrssof the dielwMc film.
R q m l i n c tla. Imvapacitancp issue. it b not ray to lower tlte pan-itic capacitance by
i n c r ~ . l r i nrl~icb~ess
~ of the interln!rr dielectric (x.l~icllmakes rap filling more dificulll
or dwrr:~qine\\irine I ~ r i c l and ~ t area (\vhicIt rrsults in t l ~incr~.;rsr.
r of intrrmnnrct psis-
~ A I I C Y ) Tl~rrrfnn-.
. n~aten.ds\\itl~ lo\vdirlrctricmnstant (Imvkl;trc wquired. Tl~edidee-
tric pcmtilti\ihis M ~ I I ~ I to I tl~rpmluci ofk anrl ~.a.ltewk and ~ , N P t l diel&ricmnstNI~
~
and pt.rnlilti\ih o i lrw .qxtw. r n p ~ ~ i v ( . l ~
n ~ . p m p l t i c so i t l ~ intrrlayr
r c and IIW it is fornled h a w to meet thr
d i r l ~ i r i film
f r ~ I l ~ n ~rrq~~irrrnrnts:
inc Im\. (lirlrciric mnstant. Imv residttal stress. l~iglrplanari7atinn
 8.4 Pohlsilicon Deposition 4 165
EXAMPLE 3 wMPLE 4
~.~i,,~.,t,.
1hr ;,,~,illsic RC of l a x , pnmllrl :\I s.irrs 11.5icln x (1.5 Llln ill cnnr a.ninl,,1 ,,
,,, I*.,,*I,. ;,,,c~,,.l,,,r:,~,TlI,? :, l ~ , ~ ~ + , , , (i kc ~-c2.71 ~lie~lcctri~~
I : y r tl,:tl i- 0..5 p!n tI>ick TI,
ti\rh .d I i\ 2.7 vCl.css.

8.3.4 High-Dielectric-Constant Materials

I litrl,.(. tnnt~ri;~lsaw also q n i r r d k ~ ULSl r circuits. esprcially for ll?nvnall~icnndonl arrcsr
In,.gnoF I I)It:\.\II cixr~its.TIII. s l o r . ~ <c:tpacitor ~~ in a DRAXI 11;to s maintain a certain
,:,I,I~ of c;ap;tcit:tncv for propcr o p m t i o o (r.g.. 40 IF). For a @\.en capacitance. a ,in!. t 8.4 POLYSlLlCON DEPOSITION
rnutn d is t ~ a l . t l lsrlectr~l
~ to inprt tllc "illlllitions of lllr nl;~Umulnnllo\vell leakage cur- Usin$ polvsilicon ns the gate electrode in hl0S daices is a sipilicant de\,cloprnent in
rent and t l ~ I.I I ~ I I ~ T I I I I I rrqr,ired
II lrrrakdoun \r,ltagr. T l ~ earea of the capacitor can lx X10S technnlogv. One important r e a o n is that polysilimn s n ~ , u r e aluminum
s for elec-
inmn*,we~I IK usins starkrd or trenclt stnlctures. These stnlct1rrt.s are considerel in tmrlc rrliahilit): Figure 8.15 sbo!a the maurnurn time to hreakdmn for capncitors with
Cl1aptc.r 9. Hmvmr. for ;I planar stnlctarcv.; m a is rcrlu~~,d uitll iner?:LSins DRAM den. both plysilicon and alrtrninum eleamdcs." Pol!~ilicnn is clearly superior. especially for
siv. ~Itcn>forr.. tllr ~lielrrtricmest;~ntn i t l ~ efilm r n ~ ~be s t incrr:ard.
Sc$rr.d I~idl-krnatrri:ds h;nr invn pmlmsecl. sucl! as lh?riuln stnmtiuln titanate (BST]
and Irirrl rjm,nitlm titanatr (P%TI. T l ~ r s ematerials are sllo\n in Tahlc 8.3. In a ~ l d i f i ~ ~ ,
there arc tikbn;~trsdoprtl t r i t l ~one or inore ;~ccrptors,S I I ~ as ~ I alkaline earth metals, or
rlovcl ail11 nnr or nlorr donors. s u c l ~ns Elre eatill elrmrnts. T:tntidtll:~oxide (Ta:0.)11~
a ,liclrr+ric mnstant in t l ~ er;Ingc of 20 to 30. As a refrrrncr. the dirlrctric mnsta
Si,S, is in d ~ nr n ~ ocf 6 to 7. and that for SiO, is c.9. A 'l':1:0; filln ,7111be deposit1
;I CVD p m ~ . s s sine <;~<cons T;tCI, and Oi a? the starting inatrrinls. ---
-4 lrrl-

--
la-
TABLE 8.3 High-k Materials
hl~tmialr IicIect~cCon
-C-
.-

-
nin;tr\. TazO;
TO,
25
40
-
..E
8
4.

Y:O,
Si.S,
-
17 10' -
l'amrlwtric ,wnn4itc SrTiO, ISTO! 140
( h . , S r , ! TiO,fUSTl 3M-5M
B;I~T~,,Z~,!O,(D%TI .UYI
( P h , . , h , l ~ Z r ,,~~~oT, ~ I ' L ~ T I SIW)-IMO d(nm1
Pl~!>lc,-,Sl~~.~lO,i~~lX~ 11m-2OM
F t ~ m l r r l r ,wrmsLitc
i~ ,,,. 1; ,,., ~ ~ j r f l )
PI,'Z~ >IOMI Figurn 8.15 hla~imarntime to brcnkdm\n wmrr oddc tl~icknc%s
b ~ar lml!.iilimn r l t d d r md
all aluminom rlrrlnxlc."
 C h a ~ n 8r Flm Deoositlon 8.5 Metallization 4 1 ~ 7

,,,,at., c,,lr. TI,? i,,h.rior t i m ~to h n ~ ; ~ L d oof\ \ ;al~llllilllflll

~ elcctnxlrs is d,,, lo Pol!silimn Mn 1~ clopcl I,? rlifFf~sio~~. inn implmtntion. or tl,,. ;,,ldition ,I,,,,:,,,~
,,,,O.,l, ,,,,, , , f i l ~ l l l l ~ i l l ,i l~~ t~(~t ~into
gwes 'Illrills drppitioe. r ~ f i ~ m to
.(l
,I,.. t ~ stilt. thin odde t~ntlrr;III (,L.dric:ll field. Pnl!sili( 1,,, nlrirnplilntatin,,
in i t l a d,ry,f~,c. nr,.tl,orl ir n,mt
, .,I.<,,,rc,{ :,,;,,lin;,,i,,,, sollnr I,, ~ n s ~sI~:tllcnv t t ~ j ~ ~ e r l i aa11d
t ~ s 10 tlrls!lrc o l ~ t l m,l.
i~ rn~rllnonl?( 1 ~lrclllsr
~1 ofits lo\\rr prnrsxio~tc~mprnt~~res.
rrristimn of sins!?-cnstal silimn osd of.UHI-nn~lx,lpilirnn +,.,l
F~v,,,.x . I ; ~ ~ tllp , ~ d,,.cl
,~
,,ill, pl,,npl,on,r ;,,,,l
zind lliS~,_
c.n,r.,~~i,,~,iltCr,,,.,i,l,lition;~l !trvs invludv tllr ~llilllll~~l~*(ln'~~~~~ll~l~l~tom
sntilnnny IIS~IIC ion i~npl;~nt:~tios."~
Tlr. inn inlpl:tnt;,tir,n Pr,KIls ,(CL5 n,,,xi,lPr(.,) in
(:ll;nptrr 7. Inlplant d(>st..annrltling tcmpctntlln., ;anrl :alncalil,s tim,. il,flllrsn t~,,.
shprt rrsist:mw of inlpllnt(.d prl!silimn. Canirr tr;lps : ~ tthe Fmin Imtlsd;lnr< c7esP a
v r y II~SII resist:inw in the lisl~tlyi~rlplat~teel pIvsilicon. AS ~ i q ,8.1;, ~ i l ~ , , ~ t ~ ; ,N+.
t,~.
t:lnw drops nlpidl!: a p p m ~ r l ~ itllat
l ~ s of implantr.ci sincle-c&td silio,n. ; ~ tlle r mnirr
t n p s in*mmcsattlntrd \ritll rlnpa~tts.
"(t~,,. h,n ,,,o~tmrnnlorl Imnv.pre<~t~re p m s s r s . one op'nltes at a pn7ssilre of 25 to
1 : ,:I ~ ,,sit,q ItwIPr sil.a,p. a.ll<,n.;~xtlw a t l ~ r intr,ln.s r n rlillllrll midllrr of 20%to
ri].,r,r ,n nitnr:,.t~ :,I tllr s;ttap tr,t:\l presslln.. Rat11 p n w r s r can deposit pl!silimn on F 8.5 METALLIZATION
,,,,,,
1 {,& ,,f,,-,,ft.m Fr n,,, ~ i t xh ~ ~ unifom~ity xl (i.e., t ~ ~ i c ~ l l e s\s~eist ~ l i5l l 5%).
8.5.1 Physical Vapor Deposition
F , ~ ,\.I(; ~ . \lanrs tllr d~qwsitiornmtr at frrur drpavilion trmprnll!ln's. At Ina~silane
F'*,J I,R.wt,w, t l ~ ~l,.lwl~iti~rj~ . r.11~ is prnlx,rtiotl;d to tllr sil:lnr prrs-lire.' At highersiliInp Tllr most canlmon metllocls ofph).riral \upor deposition (WD)of tact;<ls
tion. r - l r a m r\npontion. p~:umaspray drpmition, ant1 spultrrin~.\let& and inPt.l mm-
....
~.,,,~,.,,tn,~,,n~r. a t ~ r , ~ t ~ofthv
, r t dqn,~itionnh. uccua. I)c'posililnl :It n'dllcrrl pressore
i' rcI)CP.lll~ I c ! l l i t ~ l to t,~r~lpcrntt~n's 1~.1\$1%.1164lI)'C rind fiWec. 111 this tPlnprr.th!re mye, por1nd5 SIICII a?Ti. Al. CIS.TiN, and Tax can l r deposited Ity P\'I). Ev:tponttion m l n
tllr ,{i.ms,tjnrt c,tr-v:uie< ;rv espi-f:/kT). tvhc.rt> E. is 1.7 P\'. \\JlicIl is (~ssentii\llyinrle. \r.llvn ;Isoarw mat-rid is Isnted above its mpltinx p i n t in m e\aorated nlr
ptntl,.i'lt c,itlar tnt;d l)rc,sstm in tla. rt.artor. At higllrr tmlprnlllres. gx5-phisr reactions e n q w ~ ~ t ratonls
rl then travel at l ~ i gvclocih
l~ in stmisht-line trajjprtarir$. TI,,, soure ran
th;tt ~ ~ , , inl ta mnqh. I<nu.l! ncUtwing d r p s i t I x ~ c n ~ nsienilia~rt. e and sil:me drpletion IK. ~nrltcdI n reshtanw heating. In &heating. or\rith a fmtrecl cltrlm!~lram. E ~ ~ n t i o ~
M T U ~c3t1sine , ixwr i~nilbm~it!:At tc.lnlwntsrcs tnurh loa.rr than filI)*C. tlw cleposi. and r - l r a m evaporation s e r e used estet~si\~Iy in earlier generations of intrqratrrl rir.
tiott fill? i< t ~ n slmv to IP pncticd. . tlrey haye i r e n rcplac~dhy sputtering for ULSl circuits.
c u i t ~ but
Pnrrss ~ I C I ~ C th:tt ~ P :~t Yf f ~ the
i pnl!si~imn stmdunSaredepsition temperahzn?, In ion l r a m spotterillg. ;Isnllrce of ions is >lcuelrntedto%;vrlllte larget a d impinem
~ l o ~ ~ nand t x .tltr lw;it ?rle npplirtl fr,lhmin~t l ~ edeposition step. h mltllnnar s t n s n u ~ on its sc~rfacr.Figure 8.1% sho\w a standard sptlltrrinq ?sten,, T I I sputtvrcd ~ matrrid
r r \ l t l t \ u.ltpn pnl!-ilimn is clrlx,site<lat a t e ~ n p n h r r of r fiOODCto 6JODC.This StruQllw depocits on a w f r r that is placed facing the target. T l ~ eion current and e n e p can l r
mnsi.;tr of pnl!rnstallinr grain rancin< in rim from 0.m to 0.3 pzn at ;I preferred a indt.lrerlr~~tly acljratetl. Sinw the target and \rafc.r are p b e d in a c l l ; ~ m htllnt
r h.x<lmwr
cnt.rtinn o f , 1 I O ~ \ilx.n . pl~nspliontsis <liffusrclat 95fl°C. the stnrctorr chanses to cr p r e s x l ~ r more
~ , target material and less mnta~ninationare t n n s f r m d to tllr unfer.
trllitt.. ianrl qfiutl s i r i n c r r m ~ to . ~ a size Irhveen 0.5 and 1.0 pm.\\Iten t r r n p n t u m ultr n~ethodto incrcae the ion density and. llcnw. the sp~~tter-tlrpsition ntte is to
inrrr.xwcl to IlE4c(: ~lt~rinearidation. ~ s a fin;\! rim of I to 3 pnl. ~ l t h o5"
tile g c u ~ reach u use a tllird el&r(~le that pm\ides Inare elwtmns for ioni7->tion. Another mell~mlis to IIX
tlw initidly drpoqitecl film apppaa a r n o ~ h o t l srvhm drpositins ayun hrlmv 'C.
pm\%ili rllnfi~ctrristinsimilar k, tile p,l!c?+t;tIlinc-pn~ir~ cnl!!n~o,r strurturc ;Ire
ohstm'rd itftrr rlopinq and itr:ttin~.

loll d m (em-'1

figure 8.17 S I , rcsistnn'.~

~ ~ rrnw ion dtxr into 5M-nm lnl~silirnn.I! XI kc\:"
 164 .Chaptar8. Rlm Oeposltion
CVD Tunnsten -
8.5 Metalli>atian 4 Is!

T~tngst'n is llscll imtb as a mrrtsrt plug and nc a l i r r t - l ~ ~ l

1,.
cantplll.
clrpositrd 11). wing \s'F,, as the mlrrrr, gm. since it is a liluirl that h i l s ;,t rmlll
prn~turc.\VF, ~ ; I I he
I re~lac~ byd silicon. l~ydrogm.or sil:,nr. Tllr b:~rircltrmistv lor
C\:D \V is as follo\vs:
\\'F,, + 311: + \t' + 611F (Ily~lmgcnredttclinn)
(2.01
2\W, + 3Si + 2\1' + 3SiF, (silimn rnlttction)
("11
2\\'F. + RSill, + 2\V + DSiF, + 6Hl lsilane reduction)
(2.2)
--
On a Si WnhCt, tile s~Iecti\.eprocess starts from a silimn reducticln pmss. n,is
pmN'SS pm'ides a llucleation 1;lyrof\ V ~ n v on n Si hut not on Sir4 n,r l , , ~ l ~ ~mlur.
,:~
tinn p r m s s can deposit \\'rapidly nn the nlrcleation layer. fonnirlp tlrr .rI,r ilr.tlrr,.
gen reduction pmcess pro\i<l*s excellent confom~alcovcra<e of tltr tnp,lSraplb): Tliis
process. bo\\,e\rr. d w s not haw p e r f ( ~ selecti\ity
t and the HF ss I>y-prc,dt~dof tllr
re;~ctionis responsible for the encmachment of the oxide. well .lr fir tlip mtzgh sur-
, firld, sl,rl,<, ; p / ~ m ,cYrlr,,tmn
l naotlnrzcr (ECR). to c:lphlrc and spin1 e faw of depositerl I\' films.
Tile silane reduction p m s gives a high depsition rate and much smdler\P grnin
tmm, ill~~xvi~~~tlleirioni;.ing~~llirin~c~ in the\icinihof tile spl~neringtarset. Tl~is1,
n,fmr,l to :a ,n,le,r.,tmrl v,strm",~g. ha$ ~ > ~ I I I\ridespread
II spplic;rtinns for size than that ohtaincd \at11the hy~lrng~n rrductinn p m s r . In addition. tllp pmlrlemsof
drpoPitian of;J,,zsi,l,,nl a111 its allrqs at a rate that -In ap~m:lcll1 Jllllflnill. encmachment and a mrlgl~I\' surfiiw .w elirninnted b m r ~ s ethew is no 1IF hy-pm~lud
~no.t~lmx.sp,,ttrring isanother tcclrniqur used t o c o ~ ~ t m
thel anp11lardistribu~ generation. Usually, a silane rerluction process is used as the first step in blanket \Vdcpo-
\.IS,i l o t ~as Iung-t~~m\v sputtrring s!steni. IIIstancLud sputtcrins m n l i g ~ n t i sitinn to serve a3 a n~~cleation layer and to redlice junction damage. After the silanr mlur-
tl,rrr are hro p,j,nar? rp.uons for :I nide ;lsplar distribation of incirlrnt flux ; ~ the t >,IT- tion. 11)rlmgen reduction is used to grow the blanket \\'layer,
f;lw:the lrse of a stnnll ti~rget-to-suhstntes~paration.4.: and sc:%ttrriogof the flux 11).
tlleuarkne as tll? flllx 1mwLs from the tilrget to the substrate. Tllesz hvo filctoni are CITY EN
l i n k ~II,&& a s~nallrl,is n m l d to acltirve gmil tl~mngl~put, unifomlih and film p m P TiN is \\idely usedas adilfr~sionbarrier metd layer in n~etalliwtiona n d n n he rleposit.%.
erties a.llm thmre is rubstnntial gas scattering. I\ sol~~tion to this probleli~is to sputta?rat by sputtering fmm acornpound target or hy C\Q. O D TiN n n prnikle hetter rtrpmv-
vel? Imr pressures. n apahilih tllat Itas bern r!e\rloprll rlsillg a rariet). of s)r;tems tllat em;: than P\'D methmls in deep si~hmicront w l ~ n o l wC\'D TiS be depnsitcrl""
n n sustain the rt~:r,petronpl:uma under more nrefird conditions. T l ~ r s s!rtems r a11mv usir,? TiCI, \\it11 NH,. H JN,. or NHJH?:
for spattrrinqat working pressures of less than 0.1 Pa. At these pressurcr, g:s scatte ring
is less important. and ~ J I Ptarg~-t-to-s~thstrate distanw can be greatly incre;~sed.Fmm 6TiC1, + RNH, + 6 E N + 24HCI + i\': 123)
silnnlr eeonletrical arCarnent. this dlo~vsthe angular distribution to he arratly narm\~~ed. Z'TiCl, + S , + 4H: + 2TN + 8HC1 1%)
2TiC1, + 2NH, + H, -+ 2 TiS + RHCI ('5)
....~.~~~
.- .
s o n r r i n e r \ m b nttsr the top oprnin$nftlle iiolr to seal h r b r e apprrci;#l>k'm:lteria The deposition t e m ~ m t u r is
r ahout 400°C to iOO0C for NH, redl~ctionand is hiqher
~lepmitnlon its floor. This pmhlrm n n h r overconre hy m l l i ~ n ; ~ ttlir
i ~ ~sputtered
c at t l ~ 700'C
: ~ ~ for the NJI1, reaction. The higher the drposition temprmturt,. thr h m e r
hy placins an arm!. of mllimntin~tnlws jr~stalwre the a d e r to restrict the depositing tlrp E N film. and the less CI incorpmted in TiN (-5%).
lo nomjial 5".Spnttrrin~with it mllimator is sl~mvnin F i p r e K.1Xr. Aton~s\vl~oserm-
j m o is~lnorr tllan 5" from normal arc ~lcpositrr~
on the inner sufiac'~'~ ortllc mllinlaton. 8.5.3 Aluminum Metallization
Alt~rniult~ll :lnd its iilln)~an. urn1 r~lcnsi\.rlyfor nlet.?lli?-,tlon III intcmtrd clrrllitr -
8.52 Chemical Vapor Deposition ,\I filn~C;~II11,.d r ~ m ~ ~lrri lP\'D
~ d or (:\'I). Since altmlint~mialrcl it< .d11ns 11:t\1. lo!(. r w \ .
C\'D is ntt~ictivefor metalliwtion lwcaasr it nflen coatings that are mnfr~rmnl.has g m l tivities (2.7 PO-CIIIfor Al and up 103.5 pQ-cn~for its alln!?il. Illex n~etalss:rtizfy tlw lo\.-
step mvrra:e. and mn mat a l a ~ nnmlwr e of \vxfen at a time. Tlrr h;~sicC\'U setup is resistance req~~irements. Aluminum also adlleres u.ell to silimn di~io~ide. Iloav\.c.r. t11e
111" &?me a? tllat use11 for rlrpocition of dirlrctrin and pl!silicon lsre Fis. S.90). h \ v -
pnlnnre C\'D is cgpablr of p n x l u c i n ~ w ~ ~ f o r m a l coverage ovcr a \\irlr range of top*
step
mphical profiles, often \rill) imver electricat resistitit) tllarl tllat fronl !'\ID. allimlioo a ~ l dtheir SO!II~~OIIS

Onr of tllr n~ajornmv spplintions of C\W metal deposition for integrated cirruit
prah~ctioni q in the arra nf rrfrxcton. mrtal deposition. For example, tungstm's l o \ t r ~ l ~ - Junction Spiking
trim1 rrsisti\ih /5:3 @-c1n) irr~clr(.'fractory nahlrc. makc it a rlesirahlr tn~.talfor OW in Figure 8.19 slr~~\\.s
the pl~ssediagram of the AI-Si s)5ten1211 1 atni."' T ~ plr:~%r
P rli81m.lrn
inlr~ml<vl circalit fahrintion. relates tllese hvo m~npnnentsas a function of teolpwhlre. T l a AI-Si ?slrsi r\l~ihits
 Rgun 1120 Dimtsion of silieon in nl~rminummetdliration.~

diffusion in d e p s i t e d aluminum films. Assuminq that this lend11 of aom,sum is mm.

plrtely saturated with silimn. the volume of silicon m n s u m ~ isI tllen

(26)

a41erep,, andp,, are the densities ofaluminum and silicon, r e w t i v r l y . and S b the ral-
ubilih o f silimtl in aluminunl at the annealin!: tempmturc." Ifth? consumption t&es
r mntact area)\ (\vhereA = ZL for uniform diwlutiani. the depth
plitc? u n i k ~ r m l y w r the
t o s.l~irh silimn \\auld be mnsumed is
I
4,Xl
0 10 '31 30 40 .X fdl 70 50 'XI IIRI

mmir F
' "limn
Figure8.19 Pl*zwrliaprn o l ~ h d~m,inurmilimn
r nstrm."' EXAMPLE 5
Let T = YN)"C.t = 30 min. ZL = 16 pm'. Z = 5 pm. and H = I pm. Find the dcpth 6. arrumi
ttnifwrn disulltttion.
nrte,iir elonr;nirristic~:tlmt is. tlt~;slrlitiono f r i t h r r m m p n c n t lo\vrrs tllr y - t r m i r
ittq p i n t lrlou. 1h;h of e i t l ~ m6st;d. ~r I l r r r . t l ~ minimum
r n i r l t i n ~trnlpecttare. c;LIIP<l
-
SOLUflON The dilh~sionmlficirntofsilimn in alttminum st5M'Cis a b u t 4 x 10-'cm'lr: thtra.
rvrrrctic roaq,+.mfr,rr. is .5;7'C. m n r c p o n d i n e to n 11.356 Si and N'I.7C6,\I m m p s i lion.
V I l l i.ifill pm. Thr drnsity nlio is ?.in33= 1.16. At ,W"C.S is 0.8 r\i%. Fmm Eq.27. u.e haw
Tlac 111r1tin~ p i n t %of pure altlrninurn anrl pure silicon a r e 6Ml"C ;tnd 1-112LC. wsF"
tiv~l!: RCCIIIW of IIIP r ~ ~ t P C trilc~ ; m c i r r i s t i c ~luring . a l a ~ m i n u nd~r p ~ i t i t ~tltr
n ternl p r -
n t n n on t l ~ esilimn s~dlstratelnllst lw limited to Irss than 5 7 7 C .
The i n v t i d F i ~ r r r 5 . 1 9shoas tllr solid ml~thilihofsiliconin : J n r n i n ~ ~ mF .o r e(am- Aluminum \\ill fill a depth n f b = 0.35 pm from which rilimn is mnn~mnl.llat thr contari point
pl?. thr. urlllhilih ofsilicmn in nlttmintlm is 0.25 ~ i ?at 4IWl"C. 0.5 n i C $ a t 450-C. and thrn. is a rhallmv jnnction whose drpth is less than b. thc difhsion of rilimn into alumintnm cm
O.\ at? : ~ t.-fl)'C. n i ? r r f o r r . U.!IP~P\C~ ;~l!~!ninum contavts silimn. 111,. silic~m\till dis- short-circuit thr junction. 4
solve. intn tllr .~ln~nin~x!n ~ l t ~ n ;~nnralin<.
ne Tltr amount o f silimn d i s s o l v ~ xill ~ ~ l clrl
not only nn t l ~ snltth~lih
r at l l ~ ,innenline
r tcrnper:~tnrc.hut :tlso o n the vnlurnr of In a p r a c t i n l situation. the dissolution of silimn does not take plaw imilonnb but rather
ntinllm to 1%. c l t u m t r ~ul i t h rilimn. Consider n l o n r . a l ~ ~ m i nn1et;J ~ ~ s ~lint. in ntntact at only a f m v p i n t s . I l l ? effwtiw area in Eq. 2 i ic l e n than t h r aciual mntnrt arric I~cncr.
:*
:MI :arc:* Zl,o f siliwr~. d m w l in F i p r t - 3.20. .Alter ;an :+nnealinc tinn~rf , 111" silimn
- b is inttch larger. F i p r e 8.21 illustmtes the actual sitlnatioll in the #I-n j ~ ~ n l i i o:Ire3n of
r l i f i ~ r r <list:mcr.
;~ n f a p p r , ~ u m n t r l \VUf d r m c the ~ l u m i n t ~line m fro111 tltc rdcf 01 d u n ~ i n u mpenetratinp t h e silimn at only the le\vpoints \vhew rpikes are fnnnvrl. One
~511t.1ct. wl~vrt,1) is the (lifi~qic~n cwffirirnt c i v ~ hy r ~ 4 x 10.: <.vi4)32!kT) for sil uay t o minimize alrlminum spikne is to arld silicon to the alulnint~mby co-r.va~nntinn
 g,5.4 Copper Metallization
11 is \vcll kno,\n t1111t Imth liicI~-mnlIuei~iy uirir~g ~ m , . . , l i ~ l ~ ~ " ~ . ~ ~ ~
t o n :rrr r r q l l i ~ t to
l lo\vpr the RC time drlny of titr intrrmnncd ,lr.tlv~,rk. i5 (I,,,
ob\'iolls clloiue for ;Inm' illtcr~nnnrclioemPtalli~;ltinnlxc~or[,it llas I,iSlllr c,,s,l,,ct,,..
it? and iliehrr r l r c l r l ~ n l i p ~ t rosist;~ncr
io~~ than ; r l t t a ~ i ncopprr
~ ~ . c;lll ,\rpwilpr) I,,
PVD. C\'I). and olrctmcl~rrnical~nrtl~rxls.
rial to AI in ULSl circllils ha$ dr~i\vhi~cks.
IImvowr. tile ,,w o ~ c , , ;,,,
altcn,;rti\.,.
such xs its t r n d e n ~to mnrrlr ilrldc,rrt;lnd;ml
,,,;,
tr.

until ll,p l,,,,,l,,lt ,,f 9ilicll, ~lll,kti,i,y~hy tItc ~ 1 1 sltisfics 0~ t l ~ rsolt~bilityv\tirelnml,
r,,,tl,t,r ,n..~l,,nl is lo i r l t m l , ~ ~ ya:. Ib;trrirr nlet:d I t ~ y Irhtm.11
~r and the ~(1.
thr il~lllllill~~nl
im,, s,,ln~crt,.I I?;<.'r 221. Tllis hrrripr mvtd 1;nrr n111s1mrrt tl~rfi~llo\\ingi r q ~ ~ i r r r n ~ ~ :
11 ,,,,,< ion,,I<,,,. cont:,~tn.siska!~m~N ~ I I IsiIi&n. it n111st not react \\it11 d111trintt111, al,<l
its , j r l ~ s i t i o t ~ .II,LI (i)nni~tio~l l~itjstIW comp:ltil~l~ \\it11 the orrmll p n w s s . Barrier m ~ t .
nlq surll <,. tit:ulilll,l ~ ~ i t r i dIl'iS) c II:~vI~1wen P \ : I I I I R I ~ :II)II fo1111dto IIP stithlr for mn.
r.,rt . m n c ~ t l i l t ~~ , . , , ~ ~ r . , t t tnfw up
s t a ,55O0Cfi,r 30 ininatrs.
chip m~ti~ifnc~llring conrlitions. its 1;1& o f a fr;~ril,lc.dn. rtcllinp mrllanl ora stal,ll ,,.I(.
pi~ssi\.atinl:o\iclr sitnilar tnAL,O, on Al. :rnd its p m r adllrsirrn to rlit,lcnrip m;lteri;41s.n,rh
ac SiO: :mrl low-k pol!mcn. This s r c t i o ~disorsul ~ y p r in<.tallirntiol~itxllchni<lllr.s.
S m r n l difirrrnt trchniql~esfor f>~l>rication olmaltilrvrl CIIintrr<ntinc~iqI~:~vPlmn
'
mpnrte<l." The first metlaxl is ;I convrntio~lalmctlad to pattern the lllrtd linrs. fol.
lo\vrd hy dirlcctric clrposilion. Tllr s m n d ~netl~rxl is to patten) tltr dirltylric I;t?rr first
and fill m p p r r metal intn trencl~es.l l ~ i step s is fi)llmvrul I? rlavmirol rrtrcltnrjtrnl ,x,l.
ishing. d i s n a s d later. to n n o v e thr rrcess nietal on tlir top SUK:+LY of the dirlq.ririr
and lrave CIImatrrial in tlrr lrolcs and trenches. This methal k also ho\\n a a ,laln,,~o-
s c r t ~ cpmcrss.

ti,,,, rrirn to lhr t m l w r t of m;r~r1.i.p..~ t o t n sin

) 111rtalcilndrr tllr i~llluc~~ice
ofalrrent. Dnmnscene Technology
I t ~ t t hyn thr tnnsirr of t s o n ~ e n t ~ frorrl
~ ~ athe rleTtrons to tllr psiti\.r metal ions. T h r approach for bhria~tinp,a mpperAou.4 dirlrctric intermnnn? stnlchrrr is hy tlte
\\I,?" ;t lligh wrn.nt p;~rscsthrnugl~llbirl rr~rt;dcondrlc'tors in intrr,ltell circllits. metal dan~rnct.~~r o r dual dam:ucr~reprocrss. F i ~ t r 8.23 e sho~vstlw 1111aldam:rwnu srqurnce
inltr in sonv. rqions \\ill pilc up. ;inel voicls \rill for111 in otlrcr reeion<. Tlds pileup can for an arl\anwd 0 1 il~termnnfftionstnlatlrr. For a hpid <hm;lrrmr stnzar~re.tn~sclws
sl~or+.circt~it :acIpwnt c v n d ! ~ c t o~vherr;~?
~. the \nids c3n rt-sttlt in an uprn circttit. lor metid lines are d e f i n d ;l~lrletched in tllr intrrlayerdirl~<ric(ILIII, follor~wlI)? lartd
nw nzrar, t,r,u.~ofoiltin. 1XlTFI ol'acnn<l~~c.tor ~ t he related
due f o r l < c t r n m i ~ t i ocim drpocition ofTaNICu. TllcTaN layer sewer a%a difTnsion barrier I?r.r and pn-r-cxrtsmp
to thr o j n r n t rlt.nsih I]) and thr acti\atioa r n r q I? p r from penetrating the lmv-k clielerMc. Thr r r m s m p p r mrtnl on tlrr S I I K . ~is.
removed to ohtain a planar structorr \ritlr metal inl:i\s in lltr dielectric.
Vur tlre <III;II I I . I I I I , L p~w~ r~s ~s .>1 1 ~ \I;>?
. ;lnd trt~nclteqtn tlw ,li,,lrcl"c :an. clefit~t,tl
.
.
.. .
usinc 1 n . c ~litl~om~nln.an~l
7
n'.~ctivv ion rtchine IRIE t 5tms lu-inrr clr~vxili~lc
(Fits. 3.Zk-c).Then a Co cllemiral mcclranical p l i s h i n ~pmcrss is 1ts.d to reo~orr
- tljr (:I,I
Eywrim~nt;Jlya \ a l u ~of E,I 0.5 P\' is obtitinrrl for d e p s i t e d dsniinum. 'This indi-
c:rtpr t1t:fit Lm.-trmpmturr min-ir)rreclan llilli~sionis thr priman \.clsiclr of olsterinl metal on tlrr top surface. lrwing tlie planariretl \\inns and \ia imh.d~lcd in thr in
transport. since an I.:, s 1.4 r.V \vo1111lelraractrrizr the self-difirsitm of sieqle-cnstal ala- tor:" One sprrial h l ~ e f iof t t l ~ ed u d il:tm.rcwnr trcltniq~~r is tllat dw \ia pl~lgis nt
minunl. lllr e l ~ c i r o m i ~ ~ ~resistance
tion of alt~lniettrnr n n d ~ ~ c t o=in
n In. incrc;rrrd I)? tlie sntnr m;ttcrial ;L% the i n ~ aline l and tllc riskofxia e l ~ l r o n l i p t i oL~illlre
~ ~ is m l n m l

EXAMPLE 6
If\w mplan. Al \~\\thCu\\ire~srri;hd\\itl> romr lmv-k diclwtric 1 1s 2 Tr\ inrtnd of r Sin, I;pvr.
what p e m l a p r of rc<ltlaionin tltr RC tirnr mnstant uill lr i ~ c h i ~ ~ ~ rt.ri\li\il).of
~ l ? I l ~ r Al i, ? I
pR-cm. and t h n,sisti\lr).
~ of CIIis 1.7 pRcm.

SOLUTION

Chemical hfeehanicd Polishing

Figun 8 2 Cm%~-w<in!rl \in\ '4 ;I \IOSFET nilb $8 I?arnrrmrtd h,hvc.cn ihr alurninxtm and I s r e n t ?ran. tlre den.lopmrnt ofclrr~tricnlmccl~rnicnlplisl~inp:(CXII'I 11:~sI x m m r
':lh.,n .find.8 rrampn>trtit., vl.ctn.L. of s i l r ~ i ~and
lr pl~~ilimn. incrc:~sinf$~ important for inl~ltilr\~!
istrm)nneCfio~lhralrnr it i v tll? only t<clllln!lT?
 ChspCer 8 film Deposition 8.5 Metallization 4 175
I,ut is not desirahlr &.IU olrxtmsiw x < s ~ + a t nr~amaCr
l to tl,c ,,,alerid s,,rfacm,n,crr
I".
arc tl~re*mnill parts oftllp prne-IS:(in) ~ I I P~ t ~ r l :1"~ ' ~ ~po~is~,ccl: (1,) tl,e ,,-,I. ,rl,icl, is
t l ~ ekey 11lcdi~lll
ennl~linstltr tr:mslrr of m~cllanicalaclios to tltr. s,,rfaw lu.illKlw,lid,p,l:
and (c) llle s l u q \vllicll pm\ides i n t l l cll~miadnud mcchaniml cfl~rtr.Fig,. $2.1sl,mn,,
tllr C \ I P srt11p.~'

t l &,I,.
IIw odd? rcmor.d n t e and thr rerno\ltl m e olil lit!~r , ~ n l l , . ~ ~the. , ir;di,.d a stq,
>areI r and 0.11: n ~ s p ~ t i v cTo
l ~remove
. I prn ofoxidr ancl a n.nl wm stnp I;:rr. r l , ~lOt:,i r<.rnc,,nl
tin~cis 5..5 ~nim~I<.h.Find Iltc o~iclcrt~mwalmte.

8.5.5 Silicide
Silimn fonns many stnble metallic and semimnducting mmpounas \ \ q t l ~metals. spvcral
sits, metal silicides sl~o\\~ lo\$. resiskity and high thermal stability making tllrrn suitable for
Cu linr Diclwitic ULSI :ipplication. Silicidrs such ;is TiSii and CoSii 11;lve ~ n c o n a hIm\-
l ~ resisti\itips ant1
Dlr!dnr
, r.. I
-~ Si,S,
arr nenecdly mnlpatihle uith it~tegratcrlcircuit processing. Silicirlrs lmqmc important
mrt:dlization materials as de\ices l r m ~ n snldler.
e One inlportant applimtion oisilici~le
is fur the S I O S F E T p t e eledmle. either done or\rith d o p l pnl!silimn (~x>lycidr) aimy
'E,Y
tllr gate oxide. Tnhle 5.5 sliaus a mnlparison of titasiunt silicidr and mhalt silicide.
(dl hletal silicidrs have heen ~ ~ s to e dreduce the wntaet r~ristanwof thr source and
drain, tl~rgate elrctrdes, and intermnncctions. Sdf-nliqell metal silicidr trchsoloq
Figurn 8.23 P-s s c q u r n 1~ ~ x to1 fahricatr a Cu line-stud stnlcturc r~rin:: dud dam- ne.
i o Ilcsi<tstencil npplitvl. ( b ) Reactiw ion rlrhinr: diclcdrir and resirt ptten:ine. ( r )Trcneh and
\in drlinition. (dl Ca dcpitiosr follmwd by rhcrniral rn~h;tnialplirlnine.

that d l m n ~ l o h aplwariwtion
l (i e.. makes a flat sllrface across the \\holr wafer). It oi
- .
m.m\.ad\xntaees ovrr other h,w s of technoloeies, incll~dine
k. ~.h r t t r r ellbal danari7ation
over l a w or small structures. rnll~ceddrfect d e n s i h and the avoid:i~lcrof plz~smadarn-
ase. Three CMP appruncl~~s are s u 1 n a ~ a r i 7in~ ~Table
l 5.1.
The C l I P process mnsists of moxing the san~plesurface against a pad that carrier
s111rnhrhvrrn th? sample s~lrfaceand thr pad. i\hrasiw particles in tllr s l n m caaa
mmllanical damncr on the san~plesurf;tw. loosening the nvaterial for enhanced cllemi-
r;d attack or fracttlrin~off the pieces of sllrf;rce into :I s l u m \vllew tile? (lissolve or a n Figure 820 Scl~ernaticof a ChIP pdi-her
n w p t R I ~Thc . p r m s s is tailnrrd to provide an enhanced material removal rate from
hioh points on surfac~s.t h w ztffrctin~the planari7iition Iwaitsr most c l ~ e ~ n i caetions ;~l
arc iu~tmpir.\lechmical pillding done may tltm~+icnl!\. a c h i c ~ the r dr.sirrd planaiz~tion. TABLE 8.5 A Comparison of TiSi, and CoSi, Films
Pnrlxrlics XSi, CnSi:
TABLE 8.4 Three M h o d s d Chemical Mechanical Polishino (CMPI l~csisli~ity IS16 .=-?$

Slrthrrl \Y;*lvr F,icin< Pialcn Slo>vr.m,.nt S l u Feeding

~ Siliridc*!mct.l mtia 2.37 0.56
SilicilrtSi mtiu 1.IU n5):
R"l;m. CSIP Lh%n Rolar). ap;ainst ml;ltin<uafer
otrrirr Drippin< lo pat1 rudm Il?ncti\x. to native ondr YCS Y ~ D
Orhilnl (:SIP Dmrn Orhital n~ainrtmlalin~\vafcr carrier n l r o n ~ hthe pad n~rfaw Silirklatinrl tcmpmlarc ('C) SIXLW 53L~XWI
linr.:cr CMP Dmw Lint-ar aqdn.it mlatin~wafer carrier Dripping to p d ntrfaw Film strcqs l~hnc!cm?) I 5 x Illlo 1.2 x 10'"
176 r Chapter8 hlm Deposition I

SOLUnON nlr rrriqti\i?\.is rr~llslto the pnxluct ol the rhrrl , ~ $ a ; n,,rl

,~~
nl,,, tt,ichr,,:
p=R,xr
Thcn

~- ~ ~

sl,;,Ri,,c tllr ~ ; , tto r tllr <nu& ;tnd ,Inin during l l ~ siliriclntian

ritl,rr .fi or c:<,. is l,l:,~~k,~t-sp~~ttc~rr~l
ins Siliri,lr is fiInec~l.
r pmces. h metal la\?
or1 thr. rntirc. stnlctllrr. fullcnr.rd I)? siliridr sinic
ill prinriplr. or~ly$vllrrr tll? nlebd is in mntilct \tit11 Si, i \ \ $ ~CJt
ir,ll s:ucl, tIIC.~trinr(.s ull tllr unn~ndcd111r1al. I P ; L \ ~ I Io111y ~ the silicide. This krhll
.8.6 DEPOSITION SIMULATION
SUPREhl may be used to sin~alntcthe depsition pracrrr. Like etch simrlation. depo
sition olmleting is ,,el). stmiglltfonvartl. Sinlulation is cxec~tedwing the D E M S m O N mm
elinlin:4~er t l ~ t -t ~ p n to
l pitttrm the nrntlx,sitc iwl!ridr satr stntcturi. and :trlds siliri, mand. u.lric11 deposits a piwn amollnt of user-sprcifiwl material on top of tlrc nlrren
tl,,, arm 10 ~CYIIILY the c~~nt:ict r~~sisblnff. stmctorr. Tlte matorial deposited may be either , d o p e d or uniformly doped. irrinSIe-
Sillci~ll.san. pmn,isi!!$ ~natrliatsk,r ULSl circllits iwcilusr of their lo\\. resisl cqstal siliwn is deposited. tl~enthe cnstal orientation must :Jso be specified. If p l p i l .
~ ~ ( ~ ~t1b#~nn:dl l ~ st;~I?ilih.
~ n t Colxdt siticidcs1 1 ; ~heell ~ WidcI? i1~vrsti~;ltPl~ ~GIIL! imn is dcpositrd. the tcnipernhmre must l r qwificd for SUPREM todeteminethepraprr
its 1 , n.<ivti\ih;tnrl
~ l ~ i ~ l ~ - t ~ ~ ! n l wtl,rr~oal
m t u r e rt;d>ilit) Ilo\vr\.rr. ml,slt is sensitir p o l y i i ~ i mgrain size.
native oritlvr m a.vII ;IS:In apern-cont;lininS rn\ironlllcnl. and :I hug. :Ilnollnt of sil.,,,,
i~cmnioni,xl rll~lincsilicid;~tio~l.
L~pp>se \\T. \*ant to simulate the deposition o l a ~ ) A
CVD silimn nitlidc on top n l a d~ o t i h lqvr
appmdmitlrly 4 ~ : \thick. If the p-hvsilimn suhtrnte is doped nith lam" at a lnul of 1O1'cm-'.
Sl!PRELI to detenninr lhc final oddc and nitridc l q e r thichnrr. m \\rll a- the lnnn d q
in: profile in tho oxide and nitride la!urr.

SOLUTION The SUPIiEM input listing is a follmrs:

TITLE Deposition Example

COWENT I n i t i a l i z e s i l i c o n substrate
INITIALIZE <lee> S i l i c o n 8oron Concentratla-lclS
CNENT Grow 488A oxide
DIFFUSION Time-PO Temperature-1090 Or!
CMENT Deparit 800A CVD n i t r i d e
DEPOSITION N i t r i d e Thickness-0.08
PRINT Layers
PLOT Chemical Boron Net
STOP End Departtion Example

Aftrr simulstion is rnmpletr. the rert~ltsare rhmm in Figurr 8.?6.\~1cnmn~narr;In:d osidc md

nitride l:tver thiclnesrs ol3i9 vncl li00:\, rrsFti\uly and drpicts thr lnmn inc",rpor.~tionin thr
4
oridr lnvr

b 8.7 SUMMARY
blmlern selnimndllctor device falr~icationrequires the use of thin filnls. In the epik~da1
~ \ S I I Iprocess, tile substnte d e r is tltc s m l . Higll-quality. sinslrcnstd films Gill l p
Fm,,.,nat a tempmtaw 30%1 ~ 5 0 %I(nn:r than thr lnrltin~poillt.T l ~mmtnon r t(~llniq~~~.
fi,r Ppibnjnl p,I~l, ~IwmimIwpor d e p < i t i o ~mrtalarymuc
~. C\'ll. and molwtll:tr ~ ~ ~ l n
 Chapter 9. Process Integration 4

Process I n t e g r a t i o n

\licm%:t\r. photosic. ; u ~ix,\\rr l applintions grnrnllh. P I I I ~ ~ O(liscrete

- dr\iws. For P ) L ~ .
; a t I\IP:\m diwlr i t~sml;w i~inirmaaw grnr~ltor. ;III injwtion lmer a s an optid
solnn~..iltlcl :t th!%stor s a i~i~I~-pn\vt'r nvitch. tlo~vrwr.lll~lstc~l+.tn~nic?5tenIs arc 1,
on t h r in,t.cmtrrl rirnrir. \vllicll is :in rnsr~~nl~lc, of lmth : ~ c t i v(r.g..
~ transistor) and
sitv t r . ~ .n,cistor.
. c;~p:~ritnr.
;tml inductor) dc.dct.s fonncd on and \ \ i t l ~ i na sioglr.cn?
srnmimndttctor suhstmtr : t n ~ lititrrconnrctrd hy :I mrtnlli;r;ttioo pnttrm.' ICs l~a\.e&
IW,IIS :~,I,i~nt;qrs m r r disewtr ilmices c o n n r d ~b\.\viirr
l lxrn~linp.nrr ad\antages it~cll
;:I) mltjrtion of tllc i~itcrc~,nnection panritics, brc;~oscan IC ail11niultilrvrl n~etalli
tion mn a~hct:lntiall~ wduw thp o\rr;dl wiring irngtI1: (b) ft11I utili;.ation of a semi0
clltctor u;ifrr's :m'. Irnllu. rlr\im n n Ir clost.lyp:rltrd\\itl~it~ an IC: chip: a~ld(e)dm Figurn 9.1 Schematic llm\, dingr;~s~
of integrated C ~ V U ravn~dclun.
O ~

mluction ia prI~t.~~ingtVSt. Ixatlse u i r ~bonding is a ti~ne-coosun~ing :tnd error-p~

oprcltioa.
This 41;ipter rlisn~serscornhinations of tllc buic pmvssrs drscril~rtlin the pn follo\ved by litl~npphy(Chapter 4 ) or impurity doping (Chapters6 and i). Lithograpll?
our elr:uptrm to f;Bricate activr sn~lp:ssi\se mlnponrnts in an 1C. Ren~uset l ~ keyele. r is generally follo\ved by etching (Chapter 5).\v11icI1in tum is often followed by anotller
~ r ~O~~ ~n I IC tI I is t11e transistor, sprcific pmcrssi~lgseqnenn!s arr drvt,lnprd to optimkr impurity doping or lihn fonnation. The final IC is made by sequentially transferring d ~ e
its prfinn~~ancr. T l ~ chapter
c considms t11rt.r in;Ijor IC techaolopies ;~<sociatrd wit11the pattens f m n ~each mask, le\.el by lewl. onto the surface of the semiconductor wafer.
tllrrr t~tnsi~tor families: tllr hipolar transistor, tllr 1IOSFET. an11tllr \II?SFET. In a<ltk. After pmcrssing. each wifer mntainr h a n d d c of identical redanplarcbips (or (lice).
tion. it ~~iscussc.s thr fnbrirxtion of micrnr1ectrornrcllanir;rls!+trrlls I,? lnicromacllin: hp'cal$. behrren 1 and 20 nlln on each side. as sho\\n in Figure 9.20. The chips are srp.
lrcl~niq~~rs. Spzcificdl!: it mvrrs the follo\\ing topics: aratrd bysa\\ingor laser cutting: Figure 9.31sllmvs asepnntedchip. Schematic top\ir\r.r
of a single XIOSFETand a single bipolar transistorare sho\w~in Figure 9 . 2 to gi\r some
Tlr rlrsi~.lland fabrication of IC resicton. capacitors. and indtlctors persp?cti\.r of the relative ssiz*. of a component in an IC chip. Prior to chip scpmtion.
The prnc~s~ing sequc.nce for standnnl bipolar tr~nsistorand ad\iincrd bipolar eacti ellip is electrically tested (see Chapter 10).Defrctive chips are usnally marked \sit11
rlcticc.s
Tllr prowssine sequence for XIOSFETs. \\it11sprcid empl~xsison CXIOS and
mtSrnor\.<lt.\im,s
n ~ pmcrssing
e seqllrnce for I1igI1-performanceXIESFETs and ~nonolithic -50 10 IMQrLipr
n~icro\ra\.rICs IU' 1" loq
T l ~ lllaior
r challengrs for fuhlre microelectronics. inclndin~ultr.~~l~allo\vjunc-
lion. ~~ltrathin ovidc.. ne\v intrrmnnrction materials. low powrr dissipation. and
I to to prn
isolation
Xlicmrlrctro~nrcl~anical systrms fonnrd hy orientation-drpende~tetching. sac- Bipolar
rifici;~lr t c l ~ i ! or
~ ~LlGA
. ilitl~ow.~ rlrctrnplatine.
~l~~ and molding) pmcesses
Tl~r.sinl~~lntion of IC f:~l)ricationpmcpssrs using SUPREXI Collaor

F i ~ r9.1 r ill11str81tr<
thr intrrrclationsl~i~ i r h v r m thr major process steps ~ ~ s eI-.r l (0.5 to 0.i55 nnlm thick) B.w 1:mitIcr

IC f;~hrimtion.I'olisl~rtlaafrrs aith a sprcific resistidty an11orirntntion arr llsed thr (4 (h) k)

\t;trtinc m:~trri:d.Thr filrr~formation strps inclutle tItrrmdl!.(7o\\n oxirlr films (Clr~pter3) Figurn 92 5i.m mnlparison of a \wfvr to individual mmponcnts. lo) Scmimndudnr uxtrr.
: I I I ~c l q x w i t r d pnl!~ilimn. dielectric. and metal fi1111s (C11:iptc.r8). Film fnrn~ationis oftrll (hl Chip. ( c ) MOSFET anrl hipolar transistor.
 ISI Chlaer 9 Process Integration
a)esi<lcr111~ l > a r - d m dresistor lint. rile dillrrential mndudpnw ,,fa titin la)vr
of the 1 1 - h v ~mat~rialtlli~tis of tl~icknrssrlx p;illcl to tllr s,,rfacr .ul,l
sl~o\\nby tile H-R cross srction) is dPPtl, jilq ,

\vhrrr IV is t l ~ uicltll
r of the bar, L is t l ~ lend11
r of tltr har (\$,. neClm tile cnnk,d
aress for thr time lrinx). P,, is IIIP roohilit). of a 1101% and p i x ) is t l , ~doping or,ncrntra.
tion. The total rnncl~~ctancr of tllr entirr imp1nntr.d repion oftlle bar is ~ i r c nI,\.

t;ulls o\-t.; 3 billion mn,ponrnls

\vhrrr 5 is the junction depth. If the \ d u e of y, (wlrich is a hlnction of tllr llolc mn.
centc~tion).and the distrih~~tionofl~ix)are known. tlte total mndl~aaneecan ile e\.a~,r.
9.1 PASSIVE COMPONENTS ated fmm Eq. 2. \\'r can \\.rite
9.1.1 The Integrated Circuit Resistor
r0fi,nrl .,,I IC n~sistor.m r am drlx,sit a resistive Ia!rr on a silicon s~lbstmte.then pat.
tcm tllr I:lwr by pl~otolitltom;q~l~~
dio\iclr h \ ~ qmw
r
eocl rtcliin~.\\i.call also define a n i ~ ~ r l nin
tla.nrt;tll! on a silim~ts~zI>stmte i ~ n dtllcn i l ~ l p l ~(or
\ va silicoll
n t iliN11se)imp,,.
wherr g 7
when L = \I!
lor'
yp(r)fl.r is tllr conductance of a square resistor pattern: that is. c = g
riti~.~nftllr oppnsitr mndtlcti\ih t!p? into tile r\?lli'r. Fiplre 9.3 sllo\\~tllta top and cross.
s,r(lonzl \ie-us of h$nrpshton f o r n ~ <11~:. Ithr latter appm:ic1l: One 11s x meander shape, Tlic resistance is tl~ereforcgiven hy
;and the- otltrr 11% n hiir sl~apr.

\vl~ere1Ig nsndly is defined by the symbol Rz and is callrrl the slleet mistanw. T I I ~sl~eet
. .
resistann has itnib of ollmns hilt is co~i\cntiondh.Mfied . s~11;m
in units ofal~mcm.r . (MI).
!.lc~nyresiston in an intemted circuit are fahricatrd sinil~ltanenuslyhy d e f i a i ~dif-,~
-
ferent crotnetricnattenls in the n~.zck.sucl~as tl~osesho\\n in Fimtrr9.3. Sisw the srrnnr~~ ~

prncrssine~.cycle is used for all these rrsiston. it is convenient to srnanttr tlw resistancv
iotu bvo parts: t l ~ sheet
e resistnnw R-. rlrtrrminrrl h? the i~nplantatinn(or diffilrion) p m
wrs: :md t l ratio .
~ ~LnV. determinedl\., the nattrm dimensions. Onw tlw \;~lurof H - . is
kno\\n. the resistance is @\.en I)? tlie ratio Lnr'. or the numbrr of sqn~res(cnch square
. area of \%'xI{') in the resistor pattern. The end mntan a r e s \\ill intmcluce addi-
b : ~ an
tional resistance to the IC resiston. For tile h~ sho\\n in Fiptrr 9.3. vrcl~m d mntaci
correrpnflz to appmkirnately O.Gisqtlnre~.For the meandrr.sl~;~pr mistor. the rlrctlic-
fielcl lines at the l r n d s are not spaced uniforn~lyacms. t l ~ p\\l\idtl~ortllr resistor hut ;ur
crnwv~ledtoward tllr inside corner. h squarr at t11r Iwnd dars not m~~tribulte rlinctly 1
square. hut n t h r r 0.65 squares.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the t.;<lttrof a resistor 90 pnn lone md 10 pm uidr. s ~ r rils~tl,r irwd~aydnvirtor in Fiosn
9.3,The sheet rcsist;mc~is 1 kn5.

I 1. ~ \, A
1 dr 9.12 The Integrated Circuit Capacitor
R - R m , , ~union
Agum 9 3 lstrernkd cirruit n t i r t n n . :\I1 n a m v lines in thr lar~t.s<plarritmi* haw the ral Raically. hm types ofcapaciton arc used in intrStatrtl cirntits: NOS clpcih,n and )'+I
\\?,!tl,,\\: avK1 ;,I1 <.3nt:rt< .,w tl,,. 5.,,<. ~i,l.. jllnctions. Tlir hlOS capacitor can Iw fabrintrd by tlsins u I~cavilychrlrd n.@on isllcll
 :hapnr 9. Process Integration 1 9.1 Passive Cornpanems r 187
an r,,,itt,.r ,,.rionl plate. t l ~ top
r metal r l e t d r as the other plate. and th, SOLUTION
,ntm,.,,inS ,,,jrl,, I , , , ~iLr~ tlre divlcrtric. TIN,top ;111rlcross-swtional\ ~ R \ Tofn JIOS (aPC-
@=s-xAx-\'rl
I
arr slar,,,, ill ~ i 9.h. ~T,, form , n \lOS
~ r;~p;silnr,
~ il thick o.ide la:rr is tltrnna{lv (a1
m,,,l on s i ~ i ( "sil~r~tr.,tc.
~ ~ r s t a. v+ndow is litl~o~n~pl~imlly clrfined and etched I
orid?. ninilciotl
o r ion impli~ntatianis used to for111I 11' rrgio~rin ~ I I P\\indn\v ;lrea. =3.9xR.RSxIO " I ' 1 ~ ~ x 4 ~ 1 0 \ , ,x-, : 5v
I0 ' nn
,l,.m:ls tllP 511mlllldinx
,,,,,l[, Lm,s it, ~ 1 ,,inllo,~
tl,icI. side S C W ~ Sas a nl;uk. A thin o.tide la\.pr is tllrn tiler.
, ~ \.lrea. k>I,llo\\rdhy n ~~rctnllizntiorl step. nplcitnncp pr i =6,9xlO~"C
unit art..) is Ciwa I,? i cIccirnns=6 . 9 I~O . ~ ' C , ~4,jX10'
NIIIIIIW~O~ =

I
(b)Chanens fhr dil+ctric cnnstant from 3.9 to 25 m , ~llrr t ~ , i fro,,,
~ h ~ ~ ~
ohtnin 0. ;8 S5 x 10"' (:.nnd t~lt!nlrrof ,.lwtmls = s,&j I O I (:, = zi3
lo ,,,,,,,,.
r
,,.llPrr<,. is tile &Lirlmric prnnittivih. of silimn dio6dr (the didrctric constant E,& is
i 9.1.3 The Integrated Circuit Inductor
3.9) d is tile 06,1etl,icbtes. TOinCrcav tile T.~pncitil~lm h~rtl~er.insulaton uitll
clic)arirmnstnnts arc Iring sturli~l,sue11;L$ Si,K, and $0,.\vllicll h:l\te dielectric,.nn- 1C inductors llave brnl \rirlrly usrcl in III-\~-IX,SP~I ,nonolit~~ie ,r,icm,,.;,\l. illtPeratcd
of 7 and 2% r q w t i r c h : T l ~ 310s
r ca[,acitnnce is essentiall! i~~de~x.ndest of tl1e circ~tits(hlXllC:s).'tIFtl~ tl~rincrer fsilicon clr\icrs and nch.anwmmt ill ,,,,,I.
am,lid I m u s r tllc lotver pl:~teof t l ~ cap~citor
c is 111mleorllra\il! dopd n1ate. tilrvrl irltrrconllectio~~ tecl~nolo~ rs iraw started to rcci.i.i\.rlnore anrl ,nor?
rial. ~ l , i also
< ,duces 1111. ;~roci:~ted srries resistance. attention in silimn-had radio fre,l,zc,lL> ..,,u I r i ~ I ~ - f r r q ~ ~ \la,,? c n ~kin,ls ~ ~ ~ ~
:\p+tjunctio~ is sonr~timesosrd a s capacitor in an inteprated circuit. Tile top alld of inrluctors can be lal)ricated using IC processrs. TIM. Innst popl,lar ,nell,rxlis tl,r
cmss.a~ional,it?,* oin!~)I.-JI junctio~tctpwitor are s11o\vnin Figure 9.41~The cletailn1 tl~in-filmspirnl ind~etor.Figores 9.70 as11 b shots, the top tie,r.a,,(l tlle sr,<ia,l
fabrimtion p m s s ir m~uidrretlin Section 9.0, brcause this stnlcture forms part ofa
hipollr tmncirtor :k a: npacitor. tlrr de\ice is usrt;rllyre\mc biased: that is, tile p rep;," '-.. a silicon-h:~vd,hvo-level-~netnlspiral ind~lctor.To fonn ;Ispiral itillduetor.a tlliek n.;idr
is t h ~ m a l l ygroun or clepnsited on a silicnn substrate. The first mrtal is tlrrtl depositPll
h rr\vmabinwl\\itln r p s ~ x dto t l ~ n. r rpgjon. The capitcitnnce is not amnstant, but v;uin and defir~rrlas one earl of the isductor. Sest, motller dielrctric is deposited onto lnrtal I.
a (\k + \;.I-~:, wI~.-re 1'- is t l ~ cappliml rrrprsr ,nlt:~geand 16 is t l ~ l,uilt-in
r p t e lotial A via l~oleis dcfinerl litl~ograpl~icall!. and etcl~etlin the oxkle. \letale is rlepritcd alld
of the junction. The series resist.lKv is c o n ~ i d r n l rI~io,Iler
l~ tl~anthat of a XIOS c alad. ~ the \ia llole is filled. Tlrr spiral pattern can ba defincad and ctcl~edon irtetal 2 :u tllc
tar lur:~nsr tllr 1, region 11;higher s resisti\ity tl~andors the p' regjoa. second cnd of the inductor.
To ev;iluate the indnctor, an important fiptre of merit is the quality Laor. Q. \vl~iclt
EXAMPLE2 is defined a5 L d R ,wl~ereL. R. and w i ~ r etl~rind~rctnncr,rrsist;urcr. ;~ndfwqarnry
\that iq the s t a d ehsqe and the numbc.r of elmirons on s \lOS capadlor uith an area of4 pm: rcspwtiwb: The 11i:Ilrr the Q \.doe. the lo\wr tile loss from reskt,uncr.. and l e s w the
few n dirlrarir of l a ) 10-nrn thick SiO, and (I,) 5-nrn thick T+O,? Thr ;tpplicd \vltasc is 5 \' for htt;.r tlre performann. Figure 9.52slro\\s the equi\dent cimit r n ~ l efor l an IC intltr-
Imlh cscs. tor 3 ,is the inllerent resisti\ity of the oletnl. C,., an11Cr, are t11r mnpling capacitances
heh~cen11ne nnrtnl lines aarl the s~rl,stnte.n~rcl an11Re,,, are tlre rmistances of tlte
silicon s~lbstmteasociated \vitIr the rnet:tl lines. respectiwly. The Q \.:rl!lc inrrF;ser lie-
early \\it11 f r e q ~ ~ ~initially
n c y atid then drops at lti~lrcrlreqomcies k.ausr of ptc~~itic
resistallccs and cap:sitancrs.
Sonle appro:~rl~es exist lor inrpro~ingt l ~ eQ talue. Tire first is to tlsr lo\\,-dirlrrtric-
corlsta~itmaterials (< 3.9) to reduce C,,. Tllc otlrcr is to use a tliick-fill11 tnet:~Ior 10)\v-
resisti\ih nretsls (r,p,. CII. Ae to replace hl) to rrdun R,. The thinl ;~ppro:lcl~ rlscs all
insl~lsti~l< suhstrnte (e.p,, silicon on sapphire. silicon on plnss. or ql~artxlto r r d ~ ~H,,,,. n*
Tool~t;in~ I I Pcx;cc<,-aloe of;, h~in-filmiarl~rctnr.~ r a ~ l i c i ~si~~it~lation
ted tmls itnat 1xa
e 1 n p l o ~ for
d llotl~circuit sior~~lation and inductor optimimtion. TI\(. IIIMIVI fnr t11ia-fiI111
illdncton 111usttake into acrount IIIP w s i s t n ~ of~t l~~ c111rtd.the c~~piacikltlce of tl~t.UUIIP.
I
line-to-line apacitancv. 111errsist~~mcc of tire s~tbstmte.t l ~ a~p;sit;s~cx.
r to tlrr n~hstn~tr.
and tile inductanc? i t ~ ~ ; ~ ol f l l ~ rnrt.4
l ~ ~ ~ iraluct;~nn. r lines. Ilrnns. it is man. dilficlllt
SiOi SiO,
to c.l~ol~ate tile intwltr~liadudance t l , : ~to~nlcl~latri s t r p t ~ draptrcir:t~lffor r&tall(*.
11~,,.,-\.~~,sillll,lr cclllatio~~to estin~atetllr squaw plm~arspir.11 illdllclrlr 1%~WPII
-
:lqi

L fl,,~t'rc 1 . 2 10"n'r
~ ifi)

(b) \,.llere ,,"

is tll(. I,erlllnlbilit).in vaclll~ln(471 x 10-' kll~n).I. is in ilmrir.s, 11 is tl*.
her of trims. and r is t l ~ r.111ius
r of tlle spirt11ill 1111'tPn.
1111111-

figun 9,4 lo1 intqalcd UOS c.lp;~de>r

ihl Intul(r;~trrl
p-n junction capiritnr.
 Iss * Chaoler9 Process lntepration 9.2 Bipolar Technalaw 4 189

("1 Ibl (cl (d

Figun 9.6 I1~dacti<m nf the hnrimntal atd wrtir.al dilnensions of a l>ip,lnr transistor
in I ]#lnr.ti<m
ikol:tti~m.(bl Osiclc iw,lation. lr and dl S d w l oxitlc iad:gtirm4

loc,ttrtl on t l i ~top s~trfaceor lbe IC \\%~frr. and eacl~transistor mtlst Iw ~lrctricall~ iso-

r>
latrrl to pre\.e~itinteractio~lsbehveen dc,irrs. Prior to 1970. hot11 th? lat<.ral and \.erti-
~ . \$*erepmbidrd hy p-?~jttnctions (Fig. 9.b). and the l a t e ~ t l pisolation r e o n
c.I. l) >.. I . ntno~ls
\ws ;!lu.:i!.s reverse bksetl \\it11 r e s ~ c to t the 1 1 - h p collcaar. In 1971. thrrrnal oddr

ln~.,,
1cr,

*
n...!.:
\<a*tlsrcl for latrnl isol;~tion,restrlting in a sd~stanfiilrrr(luclion in dr\iw size (Fix. 9.%)
hcettsr tlie base an11cnllector contacts a l i ~ tllr

(Fig. 9 . k ) .:\t t l ~present

r
~ t isolation region. 111tltr n~id-IY;Os. the
emitter e\trnded to the \valls of tllr oside. rrsldting in an a~lditionrtlrctludion in area
tinie, all lateral and wrticnl dinlewioiis I ~ a \ hern
;tnd entitter stripe wvidtbs 11;tverlimmsions in the snhrnicrnn r@on (Fig. 9.full.
r scaled dam.

(cl
Figun 9.5 ~ n Srhrmatic
l \in\,of n r p i d intluctor on s silimn substrate. ( b j ?+.rsprctive\ i ~ w ' 92.1 The Basic Fabrication Process
nlno? :\-.\'. Ir.1 An cqttC.dent cirntit mulrl for a88 intrpnted inrlltclor.
Tile n~ajorityof bipolar tr~nsistonusrd in ICs are ortllc ~I-~>-II h~ I m u r r the l~iclter
nlobilih of minority carrirm (electmns) in tllr h u e region rcsslts in I ~ i ~ l ~ e r - ps pr -d
fonr~aticethan can be o b t i n r d \\it11 1>-#1-j>bps. Figure 9.7 sl~o\\sa prrsprctivr \irw
EXAMPLE 3 oran 11-11-II hipolar transistor, in \vhich lateral isolation is prn\icled I?\.oxid" w-.dIs :in<
tic:d isolation is prodded 1,). the "'-1) junction. TIIPlateral odd? isnlation :tpprn:tcIt
For an in1emte-11indwior\\ith an inductance of 10 nll. what is the w(1111rwI
radius ifthe num.
not on$. the dr\icp size, but also the pamitic c;~pacitmlwlrc.a!lsr ofthr rnlalkr d
I r r of tunlr i~ 203
lric const;lnt of silitnn cbodde (3.9.cr~lnpareduith 11.9 for silimn). This srdion nov
s i d r n the 811;ljorprowss steps tltat :Ire iisrd to &lbrici~t~ tllc d r \ i ~ vs11m\11 in Fiwr,r 9.7.
SOLUTION :\rmnlinc tn Eq. 6.
For an tt-l)-n bipolar tmnsistor. the startin? material is a p - t ! ~ .li?Iltl!. <loped
(-10'' ctn-'), c I l l > - or <100>-orieaterl, polislird silimn \tafrr. Rw:a~~sc tile jlia clions
are fonnrd insidc the sen~ico~idnctor, t l ~ dloiw
r of cnstal nrientnlio~lis 1101 i ~ci"tical
a for hIOS devices (src Section 9.3).Tllp lint step is to f o m ~a li~~riwl la!rr. T l a
pl~rpoceof this 1:lyrr is to n~inin~izc dlr sc.rirs redsla~lcrof t l ~ collrctor.
r A thick
9.2 BIPOLAR TECHNOLOGY iO..%l pla) is thmnallYg r n w ~on the uabr. and ;I \\inrlo\v is tbrn oprnrrl in t l ~ r
For IC :~pplic;~tions. ~ . y v i a l l yfor \ 2 S I and ULSI. the size of hipolar transistors ~nllst A pmisrlycontroll~~l ;umumt of Io\\*cnrqvanniic ions (-33lid! -10"' olii? b i111pxaan~c7~
Ir n ~ l ~ l c rto r l lltrPt llicl>dvnsity rt~quircmmts.F i y r r 9.fi illustrntes tlie redaction ill into tllc \\illdotv rrgior~to serve as pn,deposit (Fig, 9 . a ~ ) Xest. . tI~igl~-te~n~r.~t
~ I I Psize u f t l ~ hipolar
r tr,msictor in rrcrnt !ears.'Tl~e main differrncrs in a bipolar tmn- ( - 1 1 ~ " &iW.ia
~) strl, fi,nlls tile 11. borird l;~y~=r.
\vIticll 11;u :I t>pical slirrt n:xirla~lw
si\tor in ;In IC. wmparccl \\it11 e discrete transistor. are tl~nt:dl rlrctrocle mntacfs a n orapprosin~atrly2 1 R D .
190 chapter 9. ~ m c s s Integration
s 1
a crnss-srctionnl \ic*v of the dc\icr after thr rpit:Mnl prrrrss. Sot<.tltat tlier,. is wmr
ontdiff~lsiallfronl tllc bllripd I;lycr into l l ~ rpi1;aial r i;1!.r.r. To mininti7r otltclifftaion,a
t asdsds h o ~ ~ lI rrlrelployd, anrl l m w l i f l t ~ s i \ i y i m p ~ ~irci t.i~
l o \ ~ , . t m ~ ~ m t ~ ~ r e e ppi m ~ ~. ,
,\I) sl>oolrlIw l a ~ idn 1 1 1 ~b~~ticcl lii\,rr.
111etl~inlstep is to Cnm~tl~alatcr~loxirle isolation region. h tlrin oddc pad 1-50 "rn)
is thenr~nllyg m w ~on tll?rpit:~~id I:t)rr. Collm~rrlIy:~~limn-nitriducl~ition (-IMnm).
If nitrirlr is ~lrp~siteddirectl~onto the silimn \b~tltoutthe thin oxide pxl, tlte nitriclr may
cmse damage 10 tile silimn surl.tcr dtlringsuhwq~~rnt higl~-trrnpent~~rr step. S C .tl,r ~.
nitride-oxide l:~ycrsand a b u t llalf of tlle epikuinl layer arc etchnl lain< a phalorrdst
~s mask (Figs. 9 . k and (1). Boron ions are t l m i~nplwtrdinto tllc rxpose<lsilicon antar
(Fig. 9 . W .
The pl~otomistis removed. and tltr wafer is placed in an oxidation furn;icv. Sinw
the nitride layer has avely lo\r.oridation rate, thick oxid~suill be gram onlgin the areas
not pmtrcted 1>ytl1enitride layer. The isolation oxide is ss~tz~llp xro\n, t o a t l ~ i c h e esuclt
tlv~tthe top of the oxide \rmmes rnplallar with thc oriend silimn slnrfac~to ininimiz
tllr surface topoppl~):This oxide isolation p r w s is callrll local mi,!otion of .silicon
(LOCOS). F i ~ o r e9.90sl~o\vstlic cmss section of the isolation odde after the rr:maal
of tlw nitride layrr. Because of segregation eflectc, 111ostof tile implanted horon ions arc
pt~sl~ed underneath the isolation oxide to form a 11' layer. This is calld tl~ep' clmnriel
.S~O,I (or clmn.vto~?) because tlte big11cu)ncentnlion n i p - Q r semimnd~~ctor \\ill prevent

fa)
Bomn bast. implant

(d) (4
Figun 9.0 Cms-vdonal \ia\.i nfbipnlar transistor hhricntion. (oi Buried-layer implantation. Anmic impla81
i b ~Epilxial Ia!vr. (ci Pl~otomsistma+. (dl Chanstop implant.

Tile seinnd step is to deposit an u-hpe r p i t a d layer. Tile oxidr is removed and the
wxfvr iq plawd in an epitaxial reactor Tor epitaxial gro\\th. The thichn~ssa11d the dopine
mnwntmtion oftl~e epita\ii~IIa!w mdetern~inmlby t l ~ e~~ltimate ltse of the clevice. Amlm
(dl
d n ~ ~ iinit11
t s tllrir l ~ i e l ~voltaxes
rr for amplification)require thicker layers (-10 lrml
Imvcr dopings (-5 x IO" cm-'i, ~ h ~ r rdietalx r circuits (\rith tlrrir lo\\:r\.olt:tges forw Figurn 9.9 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ofbipolar
,ir,,~ . ~tnnristor
~ dfabric~lion.
i ~ lo)~Chid?
~ iu3lalion.
l IWl H w
~ ~R t~ .~ O V of
i n ~ ~ , l(c) I oxide. id! Emitter and collcvtor itnplant-
I ~ thin
in<)rrquiw tllinllerLi!?rs (-3pm) and hiqI>~rdopingS (-2 x 10'hcm~'). Figlre 9.N) SI
 i~ppmncll.(7llh.d (Ilt~l,r.crlr1.~0lnfion.is itsod B, fomr inatI:itin< tul,~to is,,l:,l,. s,,,,,)wr
oflxx.kcts of sit1~11~-c1?staJ s r s n i m r ~ d t ~ cI n t ~(Itis
~ ~~ppm.~clt.
. tl>rderiw is ~ ~ l . ~ t r [n,,,,
.<l
llotlt its C ~ I ~ I I I s~~l>str:~tr.
~ I I ;wd its rtlm,lnndine nviKlnlnn I,,. a <lit.l,.r.ttir1:tlr.r
. . . .......... ,,
I\ prcm,sx srquc.trn. for ilid<dricisolation is \ l t r , u . ~ t is'finLrr 9.1 I . A;, oriel,. I.,\,.~
is fon1w.d ilaidc :I <llW)>-orirntccl)I.I?x- silir.orl r8!lslr:$t~t s i n ~ l ~ i ~ lr,qqt.rp ~ n inn ~ r ~
impl:u~t;~liotr (1%. 9.1 In). h'~.xt,t l ~ \v;lfc.r r an<lcrpwva I~i$,-tc~n~,r;~ttlrr annrxl~r,epr,,.
t r d \$ill wtcl \\ill) silirnn to inmr IItt. ~,riclcl:\vt.r. TIIvd;,lt,.
n.ss x,Illat lhv i ! ! l p l ~ ~ ~ii*).g<!n
zgc r c ~ ~ l ~ tfi mn gn ~i ~ l l ~ ) ~ : ~ l l t is
: ~also
t i i ~ :innv:tI(d
~~ otnt in tliis prwvss i ~ i ~ . ' 9l1>1,. 1 :\ftvr
tlris. \\rol~lilinan 11 silic~mi;t!.er lllal i? hnlly isnlatc.d on an ori<lcI n ; ~ ! n ~xl ~ r i. l i < ~ , ~ r - ~ ~ ~
instdator, or SOT. I:?\.vr).Tllis p r w a is r:dlt.d SIhIOX (wp.r;itian h? itnplant,*l o y c c n ~ .
:,,,, cT,ll,d8,r, :s, ~ 1 in I:im~rc
~ 09 7 . ~ ~ ~ ~ Sinw tllr top silimn is so t l ~ i t r .thr isolnlir,r~n.giorl is m a i l s forna,d 1111. I.OCOS pm.
I,, I , ; , ~hiF,l:lr
,~ p n K ~ r stllc.rr
. arc six filnl fonnntion opemtiolls, sir litbomPllir wcs i l l ~ ~ s t c ~in
t cI'iq~rt.
d 9.* or Iyc.td~ing;~ trencl~(Fit. 8.11rl and refillinSit witlt oyi<lr
oF,ti 4,,,.., ica, ,lllpl;,,lt;,tion~.; ~ n ditntr etcl~ingoprr.~tions. Eacli oprralion nrust lx (Fig. 9.1 Id). T l ~ othrr
r p r w s s r s arr ;tl!1~o5ttllr. ~ ~ 1 1 1 1zs. tltose in i:iplrr5 !).* ll~rotn~ln
pnv,sr~,.m,,lmll,ql m , ~, , ~ ~ , n i t c ~F:&iltlrr
r ~ ~ I . of RII? one 01 (llr o p r . l l i o n ~generally \till . .. hxsr. II. emittrr. and n collr.ctor
9.9 to fornr tllr 11-hlu.
;<.,,,I,.~ t h wxfc-r
~ t~srlt~ss. Tlnr main nd\mtagr ofthis f ~ c l i r ~ iis~ its ~ ulticll
c l>rc.ak(l~l\n volliagc IYI\VP(.II the ~ t t ~ i t .
TI,,. clol,inc pn,tilt.~ of tlrr c o m p l r t ~t~msislor
l along a modinate perpendicular to t ~ andr t l ~ cnllc~*or.
r \ v l ~ i dC~~ I I Ilr in PXWSS of S~V(.KLI hundred snits. This t~rl~niqn,,- i~
ll,c, s,,rl:,cu .,,,<Ip:rssint tlmrn,,chtlrr i~ntittrr.IV,LCC.an11 ~ ~ l l t v t ~~110\\11
r ~ r in
r F i q r e Y.1n. also mmpatil~l*with mwlern CVOS intcgr.rth,n (Swtion 9.33).Tl~irC \ I O S m o q r ~ t i l ~ l ~
mlr Pmitt,.r pmfilc, is ; , ~ , ~im:~use
, ~ t ol'tle rnnccnh;t(io~t-<kpn~k~~t ~lifilsi\ihofa~~i~ prcxrqs is w n 11wfnl61r n~ix<.dI~igI~->nlt:#sc :p:uncll>iel>-clcnsit? ICs.
TI>,. Ikw dopin? prnlilr lrnl.ntll tllr rt~rittrrn n be approenlatt~lI)!. a Calrssi:m distri.
h,,tion fnr ill,llt,.ll sotlrn. dilh~sion.Tltr cnllcctor doping is pivm 1)). the epitaeal doping Self-Aligned Double-Polysilicon Bipolar Structures
( 1, I , I (or3 n.prrwtt(;ttirr svitclting tr;~n~istor. Jlo\vc\rr. st larger depths,
1 1 , ~mllrr+or llnpinen ~ e ~ ~ n t r , ~ilrc~.zws
lion brcatlse nfoatdifilsion fmrn the buried I:?\rr I l i e p m v a slro\\n in Figlrc 9%- n r n k anotllcr l i t l ~ m p l r istep
c to ~ b f i nan
r oxide +on
to s r p a n t r tlrr base and cnrittrr mnlact r?*ons. Tliis civrs risr to alarcr inactive clr\irt.
awn \vithin the isolated boundary wl~icl~ inrrmmrs not only tlw pzmitic rapncit:src~,c.
9 2 2 Dielsctric Isolation but :xlqo the resistance tlrat d e p d e s tmnsi$tor priormancp. Tlte most r.fftr.tivv \ ~ t yto
In ,Iv. inhtian sclwlne described pre\iously for t l bipolar
~ tnnsistor. the dmice is iw. reducr tlrese rffmcts is by using a rcrf-olig~stlstn~ctttre.
I.ltnl fn>nzotllrr (!P%~<M111. t l r odd^ lilxer arnund ib p r i p h e ? and is ia~latedfrom its
rnmnnn atlntmte l y a n' ,t junciion lbnrird la)~rl.111Iri~~-~olt;i?e applications. adifferent
 .
19( O . ~ I C ~ Y Process Integration

n,,. ,,id,.l\. uuyl s r ~ i - ; ~ ~ i Cstntcture

n t ~ l is the rlot~ble-pl!silim~lstn~cture,,jth
,-I 1i~,,],,tio,, l,tT,,itlt~l!)I
,;,,,cyq tn.nrlt rvfille~lwit11p n l ~ ~ i l i ~ nSIIO\\?I
2, -.
n . ' in Fi,ww 9.19
,.- ,, ,I ,,,,,?tl,,. c~c,t,,i~cvls w l , ~ ~ ~ ~t ~, ti~s .t t ~forp the
~ scli~:~liw~~~cl
~~~t~l~l~~~~l!siliwn
\tn~'<tnrt~ ' I ~ I wtr:~n<istor is 1t11iIton a111 1 1 - h ~,pit:~~ill!
~ I:t>~r.A twncl,
,,,n,y,,,,:, t,,l, 5 . f ~
p , ,n
~ cl,71~tlt
is c,tctzd n,:t~+iveion etc~lillC~ ~ the 11. 1suIxn). ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1

I , ~r,.3q,,l ~ ~iatll, IIIC,, ~ n~I)rtr.ttrR ~ ~ O A I Ithin

. i:t~vroftI1en11:11 o ~ i d ir ~IIPIIgnN71;lnd
,,,!I,,. wnrl, lor thr cln;tnnvl stop itr~plalltof h r o l l ill Ill? imttom of^,^
tnncl,, n,,,tW,,,.l, is tl,,.,, f i l l t ~ al i t l ~ttnrlnlx,l pl~siliwsand rapp-I I!\.21 thick pI;a,,,
fi,.lrl odd?.
lint pol\silimn I;t)rr is drpositcd nntl Iten\iIib.d u d \rill1 homn. The p. p~l!~il.
,<,,I, ,c:,~~,.c{ ,,,,I,. I ,ti11 1%;t,sel :a soli<I-plt;~w11iN11sio11source to hrtn t11~~ s t r i n ~ i ~
I,,,~. n*,,,, I),,- e r l t ~ n ~This
I ~ lityc,r
. is m\vr?d \%it11a rbemic:~l\ a p r deposi.
ti<,,,ou,lc ;rn<lllitnrlr {Fiq.I).I:L,I. Thr t-ntitlcr nl;rvk is used topattcni tlte emitter resinns,
,,
a,,,f (In- ,.tell pnKrcc IS ~ vto ~~ K ~lI X I L Y;an . nprninx in t11e CYD usidt* and pi,l\. 1
,pie 9 I:$,. 4 ~ l ~ ~ . n,bride r ~ ; ~isl tlacn q \ % m o w r the ~tcIt?dStnlctllrP. nnrl a relati\:elv
!ltlVk t3vicle ~:ll~pm%rt~:~tt~ly 0.14.4 pntl is y o \ \ i ~on the v<,rtioilsidm\dls of tltr I t m &
, ~ ~, ,I,. , ~TI,. ~thicl-rrr~s d ufthir oxide d r t r m ~ i n the ~ s sparing behwrn the e d p s oft],;
Ir.,>.. :,rlclt,lrtiltq,r mst:rcs. Tla. rxtrinsir p. I,;r~rrreons arr alco forr~trdcltlrin~the tllrr.
n,.,~c,xicl,. Srq,\\il~> I P :c; ~ :l r~sttlto f t l ~ oe u t d i ~ t ~ s iofhomn
nt~ f m ~ nthe p)ly 1 into the
all,rtr.,t,. i Ftc. 9 1 3 I. RPCXUX. Iwmn <liRtns<?I:at~~r;dl~ ar a r l l .zc \rrtictlly. the extrinsic
nqott ail1 In. ahlt- to n1;ll;r mnt:tct uitlt the intrimic bmr meion tl~:~t is f o n a ~ l n r d ,
~nntler1 1 rmittpr ~ ~ ~ mnllrt.
Fnllowin~tltr oddc step. the intnnsicb;~u~re@on is form& tningion implan.
riltintr 01lamn I Fie. 'J.I;+I1. This a n P s to self-;dim lllc intrinsicnnd mtrindc ha* yionc.
\ f t r r t11e mntiwt is c l v w d In rtSnto\r an). o d e ln!pr. tlre seml~lipol\.jilimn la!~r is
<lqxxitrrland implilntr~lnit11As o r F! Tllr rr' pnl~silicvs1 d l ~p>ly I 2' is ~jser! as a solid-
pl,;~u.~ l i ~ l i s iw c ~utn r to fnnn the emitter region ;utd t l a emittrr e l r c t d e . :\ ~ b d l ~ ~ e m i t -
tr.r rt+nn ir tlten b m ~ r rtltrnr~elt l dopant o~~tdifftlsion from p l y 2. ;\rapid tl~ern~alanned
for tla. I n w and emitter ot~t,lifi~sion steps I.icilitat~sthe fom~iitionolhdlmvemitter-lwe
and ml!wtor-h:~rr junrtioss. Finall!: Pt All11 is rlcyositrd and sintered to fomi PtSi over
tht. n. Inl!~ilimn rmittrr:~ndtl,r p' pol!silimn lhue mnt:tct (Fit. !ilk).
T l l i < wlllaliymd slntd?ln. nllms the fal~ricationof emitter r q o n s smaller than the
rninimtlnt l i t h m p h i c dimension. \ t l ~ r ntlte sirlo\<dl-spner osi<lt. is <ro\rm. it fills the
c~,ntortllolr to u>rnrd ~ q r ~~* Ce. I O S P tltr themla1 oxide m u p i e s a l a p r volume than
tlw ori*nal wltlmr o r p,l!rilimn. TIIIIS.an openine 0.8ptn a i d e will sl~rinkto a b u t
0.4 pnn ~fsidr<tall oddp 0.2 pm tlrick is p \ \ 7 l on each siclr.
 9.3 MOSm Technology lo?
P-*a,,

,. .
m,nsun,ptinn ol';all I(: trrl~sol%?.
~ j g1.c ~sllO\\5 , t I ~ credt,dion
~ ~ i n the size oftl~t'XIOSFET in rrccnt years. ln tlw
PnrkI+,;o~, 1 1 , s,~;lcr lcllpll,v;u 7.5 pnl and the m n r s p o ~ l d i ~dexiff ~ g m a \\% a b u t
MYXI ,,,,,'.
.+s tllr <lt.\icv is sc:~Irrl down. tllpn- is a dnutic r~.duc.tionin the dcbicr area
F , ~ , ~~IOSI:ET,,~~I, 3 gatr 1~n.911 of 0.5 pin. t l ~ (Irvicv
r arm s l ~ r i n kto Ivss tliali 1%of
tllr arlv hIOSFET Dcviw nii~~iat~trb~ltiol~ is e x ~ c t r rto . p t r lengtll sill
l ~ l l t i n i l rTIIF
pm),a~liyd,Tn.xq,. to lp.;s tl~an0.10 p n in ~ t1w mrly h\voh-first cx*ntrtl?: TI)* futurr trnllv
of ~ O S F E T <lr,iws arc, mnsidprrrl hrirfly in S~.ction9.7.
latrr.ll odde isolation. tl~creis no need for vertic2l bolation in flit S I O S F ~, ,, . I , ~ a ~ ~
Iluried-l;iyer n'-;'junction is required in the bipolar tmnsirtor nlr dnpillg profile in a
The Basic Fabrication Process hlOSFET is not Xs cnnlplicxted as tll;~tin a bipolar transistor. and mntrol uftllr dnpmt
r i g r e 9.15 sho~: e p q w c t i r r riew of an n-cl~annrlMOSFET prior to final i~~rtalliz~. distribntion is also less criticalnl.Tltis sec+ion nmv mnsi(I,-rs t l ~ clnajor pmcerr
arr esrd to fabricate the d o i c e in F i p r e 9.13.
t i o n . - n r top la\pr is a pl~osl)l~ona-dope(lsilimn diodde (PQ:L~s)t l ~is~11se(1
t w an insll.
lator ht\twn 11,- pol!siIimr~ gatr ;ual tlie git~ e1etnlli7;1tion nnd also iu a xettering !ayer To process an n-cllannel hlOSFET INJIOS). the st.zrtinprnntrri4 is ap-t)F. liKl,tly
nlo[,i]r ions. Conlp;lre Fipl~re9.15 \\it11 Fi~gure9.7 for the hipolar tnulsistor and note (loped I-10"cmn~'). <lCO>-orirnte~l. polisl~alsilim~lu;~frr.Tlbe <1C1)>arirntation ispw.
tllnt a .\(OSFET is m,nsidenl,l? sin~plerin its bwic stnlctllre. Altlloil~hlboth de~icesuse frrred over c l l l > because it 1i.u an i n t r r L ~ vtmp density dlat is almut one-tmth that
of < I l l > . T h r first step is to form tllr oxide isolation region using LOCOS t w l ~ r t o l ~ .
Tlir p r m s s sequence Tor this step is sin~ilarto that Tor the hipolar transistor, ,\ thin F?d
o d d r (-3.5 nm) is thermally grnm follo\ved L?\. a silimn nitridr (-1% tin!) deposition
(Fig. 9.1Fn).'Tlie actiw dmicv area is defisnl I): a photorrsist mxsk m ~ da lnron dvanstop
I:tyvr and is then i~nplnntrdt l ~ r o ~t ~l ~~maipnsite rl l nitridcoridr layer IFiz. 9.lfd>),)Thc
nitride l:~yernnt covered hy the pbotorrsist m:uk is sahsrqi~cntlyrrrnovrd I)! rtclting.
Aiter stripping the pl~otoresist.tlte \nfer is placrd in an odrlntion furnacr to grnw an
usillc [ c ~ l l ntl~ejirlrloxicl~).
l \vllere the nitridr layer is rrmo\.nl. :mcl to drive in thc lnrnn
inlpl:~nt.The t l ~ i c b ~ cof s s tlir field oddr is h~>ic;dl?0.5to 1 pm.
The second step is to p r v the sate oxide arid to a<ljitstt l ~ tl~resl~old r wltnp. The
mlnpositr nitridr+ddr layrrowr tlle :~cti\.rdr\iccare;l is rrn~mprl.mida tl~ione cddr
l;iyer (less tllan 10 nni) is growll. For ;in rnhanwrnent-mode ~~-cI~antirl clrdcc. lnmn
i<rrlsarei~n~lanted i s ll~r c l ~ m n rregion.
l ;is dlo\\n in Fi,q1re9.lt?. to incrrm the thrrsh-
lrlcl\nltepc to a predctmninrrl \slur (c.g.. r0.5 \;I. For a deplrtion-omxlc i i c l ~ ; u a ~iloicl.. d
anenic ions arc ilnnlaated in tile rllannrl re-cion to dt.cre;c\e the thrrsllohl vnlklee
1c.g.. -0.5 \I).
The tliird stcbp is lo lomi thr gale. h pol!silimn is dcpoitnl and is iirail, doped by
cliiftision or itnplaotation of pl~ospllonlsto a h-pirwdstert rrsistanff of 20 to 91 RI2.
This resistance is adcqliatr for hlOSFETs \sit11 p t r lr~i$l~s larger t l i : ~3 ~11111.For SIII:LIIP~
dedms. pol!cidr (a c~r~nposite I;tvrr of nlrtal silicidr anrl [nl!silim~ri. s1s.11as \Lpnl?cidr)
c;in br used ;LS the gate 111steri;llto rrduw tllr sllrrt rrsiskinw to :~lmi~t 1W O .
n ~ fol~iib
e stel) is to fonn tlw sourm wddmin. :\fter t l r s ~ tbr l*?nmiml IFi&9.1Ml.
it s e w s ns a III;L+ iortlir arrrnicinipl:aat;~fion(-30 lie\! -5 x 10" cni'! to Timl 1\11. so~lrc?
dr.lill (Fig. 9,lioin).\vl~icl~ are sdF-aligicd nit11 rrsppct to t11r RI~I..'At this rkiec.. I ~ I C '
only ovrrlnpl~iepor tllp gate is (Itlt- to latvml s t n ~ ~ c l i of n gtbr ilnplantnl ion.; (forJ)-krV
AS, 0, is o,IIy ,j ~ f ~ ~ ~ p~ m s~s r .s art.t i!.;c~! ~ for~ s ~n ~ ~~s n p~l rsteps
n~t tot mill-
~ r
Figure 9.14 Rrrltta!on i n the an? of the MOSFET :r< thp gate leneth lrniniln~~n~
ft-:ntt~rc imkc l:ltmll r ~ i ~ , l s i O l l .tllCp ~ m ~ t i c g i t c - ~ l and
r : l i gate-so-~w
~~ co~~plinec;~~xicik~~~
lt.~x?hI I\ n d t ~ m ~ l he ~IIICII s111allrrIllan the g:ite.rl~nnnclc;~pacikuln~.
19* * F a I r l r r g Process lntsgraf*on

4;-
,- ,--- --s?-
- : 12.

I--+ I,?,

(dl
Figure 9.17 NJ10S fabticllinn aqt!~nc~,.. (01 Si>ttnrmd clr~in,ihi P.~la<rclrywtion. lr! (:urn
r<riirarr r,f t h . .\IOSFI':T ( d )Top \ir-vof thr \IOS17ET

Tlw l i ~ St I ~ isI n ~ ~ t ; ~ l l i z ~At i pn nl. ~ ~ p l t o n n\jdr ~ ~ ~1P-glass!

l ~ ~ is d drpositrd over
n . :IIIII is flm.c(I I?\. l ~ r a t i 1111.
t11r~ r ~ l iwlfvr n ~ \vakr to Rib.? :I srnno!ll r!lrfa<c topoprapll!.
9.32 Memory Devices
\Fie. 9.l71,I. (.:unlact ai~r(lmtsre rlrfinvd :tnd rtcl~rclin tlr. P-elarc, r\ n l ~ t a layer, l sur11 hl<.~noricsare (lc.\icvs tlr;~tcan store diqitnl infom~ation!or dnfa) in tcrnts olhl!v !l>io;kr).
:tlt~min~tns. i.; t11r.11 ilvpxile<l:tnd p:tltt.rn~d.:\ cmw-sc.ction.tl * i m . of tllr r n ~ n p l c ~ t ~ d clieitci. h r i o o s aicnlor). chips II;~VPhrrn d r s i ~ ~ l;lntl r d f:~l,ricstrcltnsin~S\lOS tr~rbnnl-
\10S17ET i.c shmln in Fie~zrv!). 17r. ;ul<ltllr corr~spot~rliee, top \ic.u. is sl~mvmin F i p w om: For most larpr slt~mories.t l ~ rraa<lnnl :icww nlernrtn- (II:\\Il orf:aaintion i.; pn,-
9.I:,/. 'rllv $itIc c ~ n s t ; c tis I I S U : ~ ! ~rnndc.
~ orllsi(lt. 1111. :stivr rlr\iw i1rr.a 10 ;t\aid pssiblr Fr.rrr<!. In ;i Rhhl. toernor). n4ls art- onr:~aizrtli11 a iu;ltria sln~rturt-,and ilnla GI,, i r
<!:+rn:lert c ~t l ~ c *ftltin g:ttr oriclt.. at.n.scc<l(i.c., rtornl, rrtrir\r.cl, or rr.lsc.,l) in nndom nrttrr. inrh.pntlral or ils pIl!sic.l!
lon,tilrn. I\ st;llir r:tll~lom:Icrrss nlrnlr,? (SH:\\li ran r~tnirlstoml <l;rt;l irl(k.litrit<+ :a
lonS np tllr pl,\\rbr stlpplyis OII. TIICSRA>I is Irnir;rlly :I llip-llnp cirruif th;if rztll sloW
o r ~ p!>ito f i ~ l ~ ~ n l ,\,I~ ~SR,\%l ~ lII;L<
l i ~ ~crll . four ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ : ~ ~ I \lOSFlCTs I I <Ifw>
that .*\IOSFET \\irilh n 5-ntn c:+tcclridr can uifh-
~ v I I ~ ~: I ~ ~I ~ - I ~
Nh:tf i' ill,. nl;ninlllrr, <;~lr..trwmrn\r>ll;ty~
-1.lnd' .\~llntv 111:1I lllr. tlucll. hn.;,L%clcntm .a1 6 \I\'i<.rn ilnd llvaf llnc rtnl,sfmtc. vfrll;ter is 7rm. drph~tirlll-lllo~l~ \IOSFETs. Tlw drplrlio~~-tn<xk hlOSFF(Is ran lr n3pt:~ccd '!I rrci7-
t o n f ~ ~ ~ (illnundopc.(l
rl pnl!silimn lo lr~i!linli~c pu.r,r n~llslllrlplina.'
~~~~~r
T,, rr<{,,cy. 1flpcy.ll : I ~ , > ~aI ~ ~ ~ wnstn~nption,
l 111~ d\n:i~!lir cln~~n111 :ICYY.<S l l l ~ ~ l ~ l -
,? ( ~ l t \ h lhas ) I ~ P L~P\.~I,,PCd.
, ~ ~ i p , n 9.1%
. sslto\\~tll? rirrllit d i ; ~ q c ~ofn lllr
~ ntu.-
tnnsistor 1 ) ~ h h (y.ll,
f in wl,icll lllr (r.lltrislors,,n.rs ;lz an\itrl$; ~ ~ l c ~ oisitl t ofillblml~ltioll
r
 I 9.3 MOSFElTochnology 4 203

$;~trslnlctlln'. illu*tr.ltf,llio Pip~n.!J.?lr:n~.cl~;~rg,. ~ t ~ ~ ,ie. ,I),,.

l mp,,torI~,)r-,,,v-
sl~iflit1 t111- t!~r~~sl~c~l(l \~o~t:tc~-. :~IIC!tlw <I,*viwr~,t>1:,i11~t!,,. [,i,,~,~.~ t1,~,.<\,~)1(\v,,ltz,cc
state. ilr>fir1). R l r ~\vrll-il*\im~~gI 1111.11103.d~ti<t~. ~ ~ . tilne.c;,,, I,,. o,.,.r
tl1v c l ~ :n.t(lllti,)n
I I N I yntrq. 'ti1 crc~<t. t 1 1 !~ n w I u n li.<~,., t110 stored c l n ; # r <;,n,l ~ ~ rctt,n, 11," ,I,.,,~~ tc, ;,I ~ , . , , ~
tl1n41oI(Ivoltas(. statr ( l ~ ~0 i) .ca gate vnlt;~q(.or o t l ~ r irlr.;ttir r (nlrll :atlltnt\inlet lirllli
can lw. 13srd.
I Sor~\.ol:~til(. s . ; c ~ n i a ~ ~ ~ dI I~I ~aI tI IoOr~ (l'\'SSI)
). II;IS I r c n c r t ~ . n ,,u.,l
~ i ~ill ~prt;,l,lc
~ ~
<~lrctmlliCs c)strllls, sllrll :I5cTllltlnr pllollrs m d rlipitnl csmmm%.A ~ I O ~ I ,i Pn~t r n ~ ~ t i ~ ~ ~ ; ~
c;~tionis t111. chip c:~r(l,also c:*llc~l1 1 11~C c%ar<l. ;,I,
TIM.pl~otoi r b Fip~r,,9.22 is 11: c:,c,l,
T l ~ rliapraln
c at Ole imttonl or I ' i p ~ r e$1.22ilh~rtnitmllw non\.ol:ttilr i s r t ~ 1 ndr\icy* ~ tI,:,t
stores I l l ? d:ltil. \vllidl call Ix. r?ild and \ \ n t t ~ ~ 1t1l l r o ~ z ~lllr ! ~ lluf to :a n.ntr;d prw!,,srit~$
unit (CI'U). III mntr:ut t c t11~~li111iterl
~ vulnmr (1 k R i ittsidcnmr~\.~~ntinn;J m;i~~t,tict;ip.
atrd. t l ~ rimr O ~ I I I P no~~w~lati[e 111e1110ry~111IK. increacrd to IC,lil>.M kB, a r r.vm l;trcrr
~ l c ~ n c l on i n tl~r
~ applie.?tios (e.p.. orlr collld ston. p~nos:llpl~oto$or finct*q~riritq.
Tllrwlel~tl~rIC cxrtl rt.:rl/\witc t ~ ~ ~ ~ c h itile . c2n I* nlrr.cl in nunlrmmlr appl~cn-
a c sdata
tions. inrllldit~gtc~L.cntnrn~~niwtir,s ic~rrltr~l~phonr. mohilr ndioi. pa!mrnt tculr;~ction<
( ~ I ~ ~ c t m~nI iI cR P credit
. c ~ n l ) . trl?\isior~.triIrIymT1 i~lrctrnnictick~t.p1111Iic11;2119-
pi), 11t~:dtIla r e 1p;htirrlt-data cardi. arid :lecess c,~lltm!.TI),, IC cilrd \s-i!I likrly p1,ay a
-
Figura9m \ : , . I I'I:\\I ,',.,:,,,,.,.,,,i \ i I I I I: 1.11111111 &11!1II..i!.i I!. I ! . , :...:.ill#i i . , , , 1 , . . \ 01 crlltml role in tllr ~lol,;lli11fonrl;ttiun and senicv mjrh or lllr flllllrr.'"
Il<\! ,:, , <.,,
\ ,".,1, 1):i:I.: l i l t ~ < 1 1 1 1 \t.ttc.
1 (:111.111t 1:11111rn.111.~'
9.3.3 CMOS Technology
r r sI~o\vsa CXIOS invrrter The sate n l tl~r1rppr.r PMOS d r \ i w is cannruird
F ~ q ~9.2%
to .la? gate of t l ~ lco w ~ NMOS
r device. Both doices are r n l ~ a n c e r n ~ ~ ~ t - mHOSFETs
tnlr

Smtrrr.

figure 92(
\.7!,1!#l,.
,&
-- C: f
(I,

Zonrnlat~l~~
7 ':.""
&
I

ss,,t,tr,,t,.
(rl
nle,wr,~
Drcin

In' FIc~,tinp~alc.
<It.ria~. nonvolatile mcmon 1 1 2 ) xIV?S
i>fcitltt.r hpc. nomalatil,. s~rs~,y
rr,v?nrnn , r - * I~~l~!i\nlvnt
rirout
20.1 c Chaoler 9. Process Integration
I 9.3 MOSFEITechnoloqV4 en!
nrpdcd to n ~ n tkl ~i p-cl~annrl
~ XIOSFET. t l ~ nllmlvr
r :,
of strps to ~,~:,k,. (:\IOS drt.,,,
is rss?nlinlly clo~~blr 111:rt to m:lkc ;In NMOS circuit. n n ~ s~. l n c is ~ rn tndc-ofll,r.t\wr,,
tllr rnmplcxily of pmcmsing nllrl 1111 rnlti~.tiosin p \ w r r o n s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t i ~ ~ .
1nstr;ld of111~p tub just drscriln.11. an altemltc appmacll is to IISC an ,I t,,l, i,,,mlr,l
in )~-t?pPndi'Sll"l1c. as ~ I 1 0 ~ 1 1 i1l l liipllre 9.2rkr.In Ilti5 CLV., 11,~. ".hF ~lr,p:,nr cT,,,eTn.
,,
tn~tionnus st IF hidl rnoclel~to o\.crcnmprnsxtr for tllr l ~ a c k ~ r o ~ i n d ; l o ~ i n ~r,,h. ~ftl~~
str.~tr(i.r.. A', > S,l. In 11oll1tile JI-II~I, ;and the n-lul, nppro:sl~,tlnr cll;arnrl ,nohilily
will lr d r ~ c ~ d rhcrl~ n a s einobilit).is dctrnninrd by tltc ~ o t ; clopant
~l c~,nrr.nt~;,~i~,, is,
+ A',). An approacl~using hvo srpnntrrl tubs inlplantrrl inlo a liSlltly rlnFd suhrtr.,tr.is
sho\\m in Fic11rc 9.2411. 'Illis slntrlurf. is call~d:I twin frrb.' H~cit!t<<. 110 o \ . c ~ ~ ~ , ,
tion is nepdrrl in cithcr nflllr !\uin tubs, llielter cl!mnrl inohility cm hf. obtninr<l.
hll C>!OS circ~~its hwte thr pote~~tial for a trol~blesomepmhlmm c3llnl lntdt,rlr tllat
is zssociatrl1\\it11 p:lr.\5itic hipolar tmsistors. Thcs? panr%iticile\io.%consist af ,Ilc ,,-,,-,,
tnnsistor li,nnrcl by tllr ShlOS n ~ ~ ~ r w k l rregions, a i n p 11th.and r t - h p r s~~l~str:,t~..
m,,rll
as tllr p-n-JJ tr:~osistorfonnrtl I)!. tllr PlIOS so~rrcvf~lr~io n.gionr. n - 1 ) ~seI,lr.lte.
~. :tsd
IJ tub. Undrr appropriatr <nnditio~a, llle colleclornftl~rp-WJ, dc\ice supplies hwe atr-
rent to thr n-11-n. :IIKI\iw \.erm in a positive ierrlback arnngernent. This I;ttrl,,~pcur-
rent cxn h;~\.es r r i o ~ neeativ?
~s rrprrn~ssior~s in a CJIOS circuit.
An effective prorrssing tecl~nir~ue 11) eliminntc tllp I;~lehupproMcm is to ILW dwp-
hpnclr isolation. a$shmvn in Fiplurr 9:&." In tlnk trclmip~r.atrend1 nidt ;tdeptl~clnlx~r
than the u.t.11 is formed in tllr silicon 1)).:lnisotmpic reacli\,r sputtrr etclling. n oxid?
I;lYrris thermally gmum on t l ~ elmtto~nand \r.dls of tllr trrncl~.\%,l~icl~ is tllrlt rcfillrd hy
(lrposited polysilirnn or silicon riioxidr. This trcllniq~acan elin~inntclatellup Iwiarsr
tllr rt-channel and ~~-ch;mnel dedn.s are p11)~inllyisol:ttrd hy thr rcfillrrl trclsl~.TIIP
Rgun 923 CornpIcnwn~a~ JIOS (CXIOSI in\rtirr. (01 Circuit dinram. (hi Circuit laynut 11~tailcdsteps for trencl~iwl:~tionanrl sonle related CJIOS pmcesses nrr rlircuss~dn ~ x t .
i,. (:nns &ion ;donq clottrd I\-:\' line of ib).

\,it11 tile thrrsholrl tnltaee lrTV I? than zero for the P\IOS de\ict, and ITTn pater t
E m for tllr S\IOS dr\icr (hTlc;llly the tllresllold wltasc is ab111 I14 I1,,l. \Illen tile
inplnt \.ohage (V,) is at g o ~ ~ norr lat small positive \.dues, t l ~ P\IOSr d ~ t i c eis turned on
(the gatr-to-pund potential of I'>IOS is -I;,,. \r.liicl~is more nr~ati\.ethan I\), and
tllr SJIOS dmice is oK Ilrncr. tllc output wltage (1') is ver). cloir to V,,, ( 1 4 c I).
\\lien thr input h at I;,,. the P\IOS (aitlt I::, e d and (11rh'\iOS is ~ I Ined
= 0) is t ~ ~ r n om, I
on (V, = 17, > I7- ' )' Thrrefore. V,,eqrtnls zero (logic 0).
The C\IOS inverter It= a unique feature: In ritller logic star?. one device in the
series path frr~mI$ to,, groa~ntlis nonmodtstiw. Tllr current that iln\w in eitl~erst1lllv
state is ;a small lrakaee cllrrent. ;md onlya.llen hotll d e \ i c ~ are s 011 d r ~ r i ~ ~ s s \ i t c ices
l~ing~
a sipificant alrrrnt flo\r tllrouoh thr CMOS inverter. Tl~as.the n-:rr:~~crpower dissiipa-
tion is small. on thr order of n;~nnrmtts.i\s the n ~ ~ o ~ l x ~ r o f m m pp.r o nellip ~ t sIces.
~ ~ ~incre; ..-.,
poiver dissipation ix.cnnles a major limiting factor. Low po\\rr mnsu~nptionis the I I I U ~ L
itttr.stive feat~rrroftllc CMOS circuit.
Fieurr I):23 sl~o\\sa Ia\n~!tof the CXiOS inverter. m d Figire 9.- sho\\s the rlolniw
cmss section alone, tllc ,\-:I' linr. In the prmssing. a p tub ii~lsocalled a 1, rcell) is fist
inlplantrd an11 sohscquenlly driven into the 11 s~rbstmtc~. The J J - h ~dopant
r COnRntIa.
tion l~lustI r Itich enouch to o\.ermn~pensatet l ~ bnckgrotzntl
r clopil~gof the n s~~hstnte.
Thr s ~ ~ b s r r ~ ~p mr r ,nsts r s for tllr ,~-cllsnnrlXIOSFET in tile 1) tub a r r identical to t l 1 0 ~
rlc~scrilwdprr\io~rsl!.. For tbr p c l ~ m n r \IOSFET.l "B. or "'(BF;)' ions are implanted-.
into t I ~ en suhstratr to form tllr s o u r e ancl drain re@ons. A cl~annrlimplant of "As' ions
m:ay hr itcod to atlj~~st t l ~ tl~rrshold
r voltage. and an 11. cl~anstopis fonnecl ~~~ldrrnralh
t11r hrld odd? ;~munrIthepchannel drtim~.BW,IIISPoftlle 1) tul) an11the additional StepI
\r'ell Formation Technolo!??
,.,, , , . I, 0 , ,
In isle I . a I
,,vll pnxvss rxl,il,ils so,llr disad,701tilg~.~.
1 1 11 h i .
!:or rrralsplr. it needs 1li~ll-tempmh1r1- pm
!, Advanced Isolation Tcehnolnev
."
.flip mn\rlltional isolation procvss (Section 9.3.1)has
~llls~lital~l('
~ir;lrlcanlaS,.s
for cll-p-sllbnlirmn 10.25 pm fr;tturcs nnrl smaller) fn[,ricalion.~ 1llipl,.
lnakr it
~ ~ .
rrsri,,s ,;,luxr l l , j t l ~il,,c[ :,
~ ~ lolls lliift~sio~t tinlr (lonpr tllall S Ilolln) to achirvr tile tcmpcfiltllrp oxidation of silicon nnd long oci<Ltiontimp res,,lt i n tllr r.ncrnad,mcnl of
..,....;,I ,v.. 11 ,~,.,,~l, to 3 u l n I,, tl~isp m s s , t11rdopills ~nmlltrntionis 11iglas~
,1,1 ,....... . . ,..~~ 1 Ill? ellenstop i~~~pl;n~t;llinn (~lsuallylwrnn for N5loS) to tl,,? nctiw an,] I,,
tl,c r,,r&,cy. 2iln,l rlwn.i~srsnar'rtoto~~icaill?
\ \ i t l l (lrptll. shift. Tllp nrr;t III*. :tcti\.e region is r ~ d t ~ c IX.C~UIP
rd of tlle letcml 1" adrli.
To n,d,,rr l,rO(Ps tPIl,per4t,I~ and tizllc3.l ~ i $ b - e ~irnplnnlation
le~ is ~ ~ s (i.e,,
ed tinn. thr firld-oxidetl~icLx~rsc in s~rl~rnicron isnlntion spacings is ~ i q ~ i f i ~lS:s , ~tllm t l ~ I),,.
ion to tllp desin.d dpI)tllinrtr;ld ofdil'iusinn the sorf:lm). Since tile tl~icknrssof firld oridc grouil in uidcr spacings. Trr.nrl~isolation tr.cltaolw cn,~avoi<~
i,llpl;,ntine
<lrptl, ~,,tl,n,linrll !,I tl~ci~r~~>Iantittio~~ r n r w . ,?:wcan desi~ntllc \\,eII depth witll~lif.
rrrrllt i,npla,,llt;on mlrlR: TIIP l>rnlilrof t l ~ c\wII in tl~is can Imave a peak nt a wr.
tl~rsrproblcms nod 11:rc I>~comr tllr mainstrc:tm t.. p.
~
n..~.n n tnr
r .l.,.n..
..I. ...,
. ;r-l+:-..
.."" ,.",
Figure 9.26 sl~o\sstllr prurss sequrnre Fnr i o m i n ~n dmp (lnrprr [Ilan3 pm) ),,,I
.

tain rl<,ptl,in silim,l s~~l,stfi>tr. This is called :I rrfmgrofl" ccfll. Fisure 9 2 5 shotvsa narros. ilrss tllall ?. pm) trenc!~isobtion stn8ctore. Thert. arc foer st,+: pattcming tile
i n l p o r i t ~ l ~ ~i n~tile
i l rrrtrognde
s \\felland the mn\.rntional tllenn;dlV arra: trencll etcl~ingand oxirlr gro\~rih:refilling wit11 dirlectric materikIs.stlch a$ mi,~e
n,,,,pafiwn
<lifiLudurll.l: TI^,. r,lcw k,r tllr ,I- ;mdp-l)p r e t r g n d r \\'rlls is nrolllld iOO ke\rmb or nnrloped pol)rrilicon: and planarimtion. Tl~isdrrp-trmcl, isolation can k used in lntll
JIWl kc.\: n,sPLdi,P~\: r11ention14Prr~io~~I!: tile adssntagr of iligll-cnew i n ~ p l a t ~ . a d c ~ n c ~ChlOS
d and l~ipularrl~\icesand for the trencl~-t:p DIth\f. Sir><?tl~eisoln-
fon',l dIP,,1'~~ t ~ n dlo\v-tr~nprmtuw
~r it~lds l ~ o r t - t i ~mnditinns.
n~ firnW, i tion material is drpusitrtl by C\'I), it clws not z~cnla long time or ;t higI,-trmpemtnlrr
is t)IHt i t
it rm rPdllwtllr IItefiJ diN~rsionand iacwasr the device densih: The r e t r w d e url[ p r m s s , and it elin~inatesliitcntl oxidation and lx,ron mcroacl,mmt nmhlrms
olfi.n ;Ir]rlitina$;rl\ant;~qesover tllr coovention:ll \!*ell: (:I) Ber~taseofl~igbdopine Anotller exa~lrplris sllidlo\v-trencll (llrptll less tllan I pm) isolntk,n1~~~~ for ChIOS, s l ~ a \ , ~

i
ncia tllP JmttoII1. tllP \\l.II rr$isli\iy is loarr Illan that of tile mll\~lltiollnl\veII. md (he in Figure 9.2i. After patt~ming(Fig. 9.270). the trrncll area is etched (Fig. 9:2;11) and
latclluppmhlrln CUBbe tnini~r~izetl: (b) the ellanstop n n he fonnccl at tllc sanlc time a tllrn refilled \vith wide (Fig.9.2%). Rrforr refilling. a ehanstop implantation can he per.
tilr rptruFr.alrWFII i~r~plnntstio~~. redncing processing steps and time: a1111(c) Iligher\Spll iorrned. Since tile mide luu overfilled t l ~ etrrnch. the oxide on the nitride sl~oul~l he
&p,ine ill tllr lmttorn r . u ~rnluce t l ~ e c l ~ a ~ ~ c r o f ~ u r ~ cfrom l ~ t ltll?drdin
~ m ~ l g ll~o t l ~ e s o ~ ~ ~ . rr~llo\~ed. Cl~elnicnllnrcl~aninlpulislling. \vl~ich\\;rc discussed in Srction 8.5.4, is used
#
to remove tlle oxide on the nitride a i d to gel a flat sarfnec (Fig. 9.2idl. Bec;~uspof its
lliell rrsistallce to polislling. tllr nitridr acts a a stop layer for the CLIP p m s s . After
mq r Chapmr 9. Process integration
Chemsinp

i I
(c) (dl
~ ~ ~ Sfl;Jl,nv.~n.,lrh
~ $ 2 7ikr,lalion firr CSIOS. ( a ) P.1t1erning with p!s*on.sisl 0. nilrid~/,,~d~
(ill,,q I . ~n ctrhinl: rind ch2a,r1ol,irnplimt~tior~.
(r)C:l~rmiml\ymr drprsitinn (0'0) o-irlc to
wfill I$I planarwrf.~cvahcr rl,rxsicd nwcl~rnicllpolidli!l<.

thr polishing. tltlr nitride laxer anrl tllr ohid? i;?\?r can h remowd h? H ,PO, and HF. Figure 928 !ol A mn\~cnfiunallonpd~nsnelCMOS an,rt~lrew ~ annnew p,~).iltlmnCAI,.in.).
rpcprr(irrh: This initial pli~nnrkationstep is brlpful for the subsrqnrnt pol!3ilirnn pat. ( b , .\dinnml C\IOS rtnnctttrrs \rill) dual polyili<~m
gate..
tc~n~inqand plnoarimtions of the multilevrl intenonnwtion pmcr..;ws.

Gate Enencering Technology

l f u r use r t . poI!silimn for lmtlr PXIOS and NMOS gates. the tl~rrsholil\r~ltagefor P ~ I O S
{I;? z -0.3 to -1.0 VI ltns to lx. acljustc4 by tmmn i,npI;xntation. T l ~ i >n;rkes
r t l ~ ccl~annrl
of the P\IOS a btnriml hpe. as sllo\~nin Ficure 9.2%.TIte buecd-hp? P\IOS suNen
wrioos s l ~ o n c h a neffrcts~l as t l rlrdm
~ size shrink helmv 0.25 ltni Thr most notice.
a h b phmo~nrnafor sltort-chitnnrl effects arc the 1; roll-ON. drain-ind~tndOxnier lmv.
mint (DIRL). and the large lealilcr current at thc ofC statr, so lll:!t even with t l ~ egate
\nlt.s<r ;,I rrm. InLcc nlrn,nt fllnrr l l t r n ~ t wunr ~ l ~ and dnUn Tu .illv\i:~t#. tl>i< pml*
l r n o~ n c c ~ ncl~.,ncv
,-
r: rrth~!llm~l
, . 7
tot,' l n h v l ~ m nfor P \ l O S DIIV10 llteunrk funnmo
. .

rljlfprrnm i 1.0 r.V fmrn 1,' top. pol!silimnl. onr can obtain a d : m ~ p - h ~ x ~ c l r a r t n e l ~ I o ~
witltout the h r o n 1; a~ljljllrtmrntinlplantation. Henm. a3 t l ~ twl111~11p r s l ~ r i n kto 0.3
p n mtl
~ less. <br;rl-~atr stnwtlrm arc requirrrl:p' po!,Tjlimn gaB for P.\IOS. and n' pl>ril.
icon for ShIOS 1 F i ~9.2%). . .A comparison of \; for the serf;~crcl~antlrland the halied
rhnnnel is shntn in Finlrr 9.29. Sole that the 1%of the s~~rl;?cls clt;u~nrlrolls off Inow
sln\vly in the deep-suhmicmn r@me than in the hnried-cl~annrldv\ice. This nukes tl~e
s~~fi;aw-cl~annrl r l ~ \ i w\\it1111' pnl\silirun snitahle for d r r p - r ~ t l ~ r n i ri.lr\ice
r o ~ ~ opention.
~ p' pl!silirnn gat(.. ion implantation of RFI is mm~nonl!~usrrl.Ilm\.r\rr.
To f o m tlir
h m n penrt-cltrs earily fmm thr pol!rilir~m t l ~ r o r ~ t11r g l ~oxidr into the silimn suhstmte
at hiel! ternpcnilorps. r r s ~ ~ l t i ninq it 1; sltift. This pmrtration is r-nliancwl in the pres.
e n n nf an F atom. I l ~ e arc r ~n l ~ t h tod ~r r d ~ ~this
m effect: rnsc of rapid tl~ermal:inned-
ins to ndsm dtr t i ~ u eat hiell t<7rnprmtur~s and. c~nsrqst-ntI\: tlir rlifitsion of hornn:
IISP of n i l r i d ~ od~lr
l to s11ppr<.s51111. boron pmetmtion, sinw Imrnl~n n ra~il!.mmbin~
\rifh n i t n w n ; m ~Il m r n r s Irss mohilp: anrl thr n ~ n k i nof~a rnultil;l!vr ofpol\silimn to
trt1' t l ~ vlr,mn :ltnnlr at the intrrfnt~.of t l ~ hto r ln\.rn.
-"10 .
chapter9 Process Integration 93 MOSFETTechnology 21 I
F, 9.31)~ rll,,,,s~ ;,Il~irrn~~nnvssor
~ ~ cltip (Pmtilim 4) 1Il:tI I~:L*an ansib of
"01, cr,nl;linr41 ,nillion ,wtnpc,n~nts.This UISI diip is Ll>ri=ltrd u s i ~ ~ g O . l ' i . ~ ~
C\lOsI,.(.I,,,,,I,,$\. ~ i t l :I, siy.llv,.l :~lttntinttr~~
~nrtzllimti~~l.

~ ..

H~(:\IOSis t t y ~ ~ , tllat n o m,,l~,in~s

~ ~ lxltll ChlOS and bipolar c l o r i ~stn~ctrlres
. in
s,,,clr 1 ~TI,. . w:sOIItOnllllllin~ IIIPSL' h$ndifkrr11t IPCIIIIOII*(.S is 10 Create an IC cllip TIw initi:tI t~iateri:~l
is :I j J - t > ~~iliwtn
lo rrdllw m i k t o r resi~tRII(~~.
c
TIICIj11riwl~1
s~~l~str:fit~-.
,\,I
liyrr i5 fonll~<!I>\.i,,,",.,~ ,(.,,
I ;3,Tr is tl f 1
io~,illlpl~tntilli,lll 10 inCmLY1
I,;,- tllr ;al,n,l:,Srs ,,I'hlltll C\IOS iind bilnlitr ilr\i<r.s.(:\IOS caliibits advantnxcs
\vlirw:s 11i1mI:ir t < v l ~ n oS lI ~
i,, pcn,,.r ilissipjtin~t,!nois<.n~sip$n,ant1 I X I C ~ I clc,~isity.
I~ ,~,~ thr dnpi~lclc\.r.l to prrvt3a( p ~ ~ r ~ c h t lI\ ~liqlttl!. ~ ~ l ~ . byCris no,,o on tl,r
n ~ ~~l<,~n.li
ad,.,,,,tag,.s j,, ~,itCl,inl:sFrrl. c n m n t clriw r;qxtl,ilit!'.:aid :ulalog~~:lpabilih hs n rrslllt. \rnfrr. i~nd:I t\~i~i-\r.rll prwv\s for t l ~ C\IOS
r is pcrr,,nnt.d. 'L,aclti~.vc l,i$, prrfnnnanlr
fi,r ei\.,.n rL.5isl RiC\IOS c m Ilavc a 11i~lt1.rslx~,d 111~1CMOS. lwltrr perfor. f o r t l ~l>ilmlar
r tn~nsistor,~ C J Iaddition:~l
I ~ tn;~sk:$rc n ~ ~ Tit?!.
~ I ~:trc~t ll, I,,,ri,.<l,,~
~. l,,:,sk,
,,, ~l,,;,~rv2cin.,lit~ tl,:,,, (:~Ios. ;I I o \ \ ~pcrwer
r dissipntion tllnlr 1)ilmlnr.;uidn hiSllrr tltr cr)llr~dorclc~,pa' ~llosk,tllr. I).lrr p lnwk. and llbr pc8lycrnitt<.rma&. 11,otlrr pr,,.
rcssi~~fi strps. rhr p' region h r h:~rcconcart car) iw kjrrnr.cl \ r i l l , tile 11. i~npl:tntin thr
n,tnlr,,tmt d<.ll'iiytlr.an l,ilnlar. Figlrr 9.31 mnip:trer ii HiCMOS :ttlcl a CXlOS logic
Catr. F~~;,(:\I(>S invvtter thc. rurnmt to driw (or to c l ~ a v rt)l ~ cneat load. C , , is tllr
sn~~rcc*I<lr;lin inlplnnk~lionof tlw PMOS. and the :I' rznittvr can lu. fonnrd \t+tl, tile
,Ir.", n t m n l I,,, For $1 RiCXIOS in\.rrtrr. Ilxr cllrrnlt is h,,.l,,,. \vllcn. h , is the ci,rrent sn~~rtr/(lr:lin impli~nlntionortllr XUOS. Tllrr athlilinnd ~n:rsk* asfl lnnCvrp m s d n q tin,,.
c.ti,l tIIP hiIx>litrtmnsistor :an11 I,,, is tlte lwsc cttrrent of the bipolar tcinsistor 2nd is comp:~rrtl\\it11 s rl:~nrl:sd CMOS arc tltr wain iln\vl,acli\ of HiCJIOS. TIIV:alrlitinr~:tl
~ c l l l l l to tilr clr.lin n~rrt>nt of ,!I, i s tl~rC\IOS. S i n e h,, is rnucll i n v r r l11:m 1. the speed cost s l ~ o ~I)?~ ljustihc.d
d hy t l ~ cr ~ i l ~ ; ~ prlonnarsc.
nr~~d

(a) Ibl
Figure 9.31 ("1 ChlOS lc*c ptr. Ibl Bipolar ChIOS iRi<:JIOSI lo$c gate.
 9.5.1 Bulk Micromachining
Is hnlk ~~ricromk~cl~ining. 1131. d r \ i w ( t . . ~ . . x msor rrr ;m fic*,lalorj is sl,alw.clby ,.lcl,inS a
large sillsh.-cl)stal suh5tr;ltr*.TIII. films ;arr p ; ~ t t ~ m on r d tllc l,,,lk s,,~,slr.,ta to ,lrfin,. ,I,,,
isol:~tioxl;aid tmlabrcvr filnctir,~a.O r i e a t ~ ~ t i o n - # l r ~ :svct t ~ ~chla.miml
l~nt rtcllisS trchnilllcc
pro\i~lrI~ik~-rr.sol~~tir,t~ r t c l ~nnrl tisl\t ilin~ensio!r;dmntrnl. Often. a: I,lllk-microls;s~Iil,rI~
rlr\in. llscs Wo-sidrd pnnYc*.ssing. crrali!,e st srlf-isf>l:ltr.llstnrctllrr \\,itll one ridr. rvutd
to tlw i i ~ r i ~ ~wriablrs.
~ ~ r e d S I I ~ aIs ~nerl~;tnic:al or clt~nriotlrivals. \vttil~tltc otller sirIr
is ~nclosrdin n c1r.11 packimp. T\vo-ri~lr.~l slnacturer an,vc.3. n,l,>lstfor oprration i s cmi.
rn~~nients liostil~~ to ~rricnx~l~vtrnttia dc.\im-q. Simplo rnerln;tr>inl daxicrs sllrll as
<liaplmrgmpresnlre srllam. ~ncnrhr:inrs.and clntil~rr.r-Iran,pi<,mresisti\.camlclrr;rtion
spnsan ;are fiihricat~dcn~litncrcidly11). tl~istrcltni~lur.Figurc 9 . 5 ill~xstr~trs a f:thrica-
I tion p m ~ . s sof ;I dnlplr. silicon? n111lx.r rnernhr.~ne.''
I

1 9.52 Surface Micromachining

St~rfncc-a~icromacl~ined rlr\ices arc cnnsln~dedentirely from tliin films.TIrun. an. w.
era1 (di&.rrncrs nnd tndr-ofls hchvffn stnstt8res rnnrlr imm 11ulk awl Illin filni mntrri-
01s. T \ p i d dimensio~isfor I)t~lk-~nicro~~~acl~in~~l
sensors ilrr in t l ~ tnillimrtpr
r xinp. hut
sa&~~rr-nticrornacIii~~vd dr.\icps arc of micronetrr dinlrsrions. Surfnw nncnm:icl,ining
prnnits tllc fahricatio~iof stn~durnll\.co~nnlrrd e \ i c ~ In.
~ ~
s stacltine .- ar~dnatternine .
.- Iav~m
.
or "l,t~ilclingblockc" of Illin films. \r.l&rrs~iultil;tyeredhulk devices ;ire dilficult t o m s -
struct. Free-standing anid movnblr ptrts can be Ethricalnl insins s:~crificial1aycs. Fimrr
9.36 ilhatr.ites l~o\vsacrifick~lrtchine t~cliniuurscan l r usrd to create an ?lrdrort;ttic

I
1 95.3 LlGA Process
1 LIG.4 is n Crrznan ncrnn!m for lilhogrnl~hic.gnlm,rq{onnntttg. ol$>nn~#ng."It consists
of llirrr l).lcicprocvssi~lSsteps: litl~o$~ipl~y,
elec~roplating.and inolding.Tl~rLLCA prw
ccss is basr~lon .;-my ndi:ttion frnm a s!ncllrotron. Tla! pmcess can pra111rrmicrnslwc-
h ~ r r wit11
s lntrral dinnensions in tlir nricromctrr m s e and stntanr.d I~f'isIrts of S \ - I ? T ~
l~nn<lwd micronirters fro111a \arieh of nlatrrinls. Its potential applic3lioss w r micm-
i rlrctronics, srnmrs. nlicrooptin, micromeclt~iaics,;md biotecl~nolom:

i
10) (dl
9.35 ~,~,ric;,tio,,
prm.s* rilin~trnl1,lx.r nac!nl~r.~ne.
S ~ I ~ ~ I V la) Sitride drlxail~~
plllrmir,k (h));of1 ,,td,inL. silio,nr n l l l ~ r~piu
r msting. ~ dSi~ridr
) w~no\:d o n 1r.d
 An exanlple or the LlGA p m s s i s sl~mmin Figure 9.37 A" x-nv resin. mzing
Imm 300 ltln Inore than pm in tl~icknrss.is depsitrd on s s,,h5tritr ,,.itla an ,.lee.
tncnlly cnnrll~ctivesrarf;*cr.Litl~ofli~pl~ic
plttrrrbing is rlonr>\.itltextmrled CTS,~~,. fmm
I,isl~l~collimntedx-ray mdialion tl~rnn~ll at, x-ray ~~i&%li. EIIW FiprCQ.R;n. :!flmvrr.
sltapcd trencl~stn~ctr~rc
is lonard i s thr thick wrist a l t c r d c v ~ l o tnzttment
~r I Fi:. :.,,D;I,!.
 1
21s ,Chaoler 9 Process Integration

1. D ~ s \\it11
n a bigll-wsirtibih <110, ,).hpe ~ i l i s~, l ,~ ~t n t r ,
2. Crow a 400.A SiO, pad layr.
3. Deposit an 800-A silicon nitride layer on top 0 1 t l , ~pad orillr..
4. Strip nitridr from a r e a o ~ ~ t s i ofthe
dr aeiw
5. Implant lmmn into t l firlrl ~ ~rcqions.
Cor 3 1lo1,nat I(KXI-Cin
6. 0yi1li;rflt11e lid11 rrfiio~~s
I the pqmsed ln,ttonl m~alacti\rsurfilrr. filling the trrncll oP
J l r l , i,~ tllm , . l , . , ~ ~ ~ l ~ t ~ d 7. Etch dm\n to tllc silimn in tlw active repion.
m,rli,,e lllr s,lrfntl.oftl,r. wrist (Fig. 9.37~). Thr nlrt;ll stnldun? is formed
8. Ilnplant h m n to sct the tl~resholdvoltage of tllr J I O S F ~
n~,,lmi,ls tl,,. n.sist (Fig. !J.:37rll. This stnrvtllw r;ln ht- llr13rl relw;ltrdl!. % a nlold
9. Crow a 400-Agate oxide.
filr i,ri,r,,c,,l ,ll,,l,~illqto f i r m r ~ ~ t t l t iplx%ti~.
pl~ w p l i ~ ~ clftlle
q ~ri.$llal plating b;ue
, F,., !),:):,.,,, TI,<.
- Il:~.e r ~ ~ ~ l in
i ctl~nl.
~ . ~ ciln
. Iw 11si.d
~. .
to ( l I ~ l r ~ ~ l ? ~llan).
l i d c mctnl 10. Deposit 0.5 prn ofpol!silimn.
tllr i,,;,1 prtrl~~rts. cLr sI~o\\nin Fiwln>s9.37 and E. 11. Dopr the pnl)silimn \\it11 phosphonts usins POCI,.
~ 1llisti,,(,
, ~ 3~h.iDltlSI. ,,fthc L1CA p m s s is tl~rill>ilit!.to ( . w a t ~tbr*e-dinlensional 14. Etch the pol!lilicon in the arras outsirle the gate rP@o".
stn,&,lrr<iLs thick m b ~ r l k . r ~ ~ i c m e ~ ~drrircs. c l ~ i ~ , c\vl~ilr
( ~ rl~tnininetllr sanlc degree of
(lesio, f l ~ . ~ ~ , i is l i ts,,rf;,cv
~ r ~ ~ i c r o ~ t ~ ; ~ cllo\\?vcr,
l ~ i ~ ~ i n gt11e
. illitkll s~7lc~lrntmn racliation 13. I~nplantaneoic to lonn the so~ire/clrainreeons.
n m - r s i? w n .cnstl\- step, and t l ~ mold r s r p a ~ ~ t i nsteps
n I I I : ~rr~11lt
~ in clrgradntion of 14. Drive in tllr so~~rceIclrain at 1000'C in dl?. 0:.
11s implant for 10 n~inl~trs
ihr o r i ~ n a alol(l
l insrrt 15. O p n mntact holes in the gate. sotzrce. and drain w@ons.
16. Deposit p l ~ o s p h o n ~ s - ~ ~SiOi
o p r ~(P-glas!
l over the \ctfir sari:~rr.
c 9.6 PROCESS SIMULATION 17. Reflo\v the P-glass at IOOO'C for 30 nlinutcs.
SUPRE11 can I? edrrtnr!!. ~ l r r f t ~fnr l the si~ntllationof x cnllbplrt~IC filbrintion 18. Rmpcn thr contact holcs, and deposit al~rminl~tn.
s p c , 1 1 ~ 1:is1 ~an~ ~~am~lr.:"n,nsi,lrr a si~n,llntioaof thr S.\lOS pt3i\xili,:on gate prncrss Plots of thr doping pmlilrs in the pate (section A-A'). sourceI(lrain (section B-8'1.
d ~ ~ ~ lini Slrtion l ~ d !~.:3.1.TIIP cmss sertiorr of the d r \ i r r to I,<. ~ i ! t ~ t ~ l a\cis t r t l shm!n :tnd nrlrl (section C-C'! regions are sIlo\\~lin F i p w s 9.39.9.40. end 9.41. rrsprcii\vl!-.
iaiti:~Il\-in Fim~rr9 . 1 7 snrl ~ is n , p c n t ~hrrcl in F i g ~ ~9R'i.
n . T l ~ n ,\.rrtir:ll
r rrlions of thr Tile SUPHEhl input listinp is a5 follo\n:
d p \ j ~~~l (. ~ ~ ~ oIn. . d lint-s A-:\: B-B', nnrl C X ' , a r r sirnn~l.~tc,il.
t , clrt TI~c.srt11rr.r sinlala-
tinns repwwnt 11,;. crntrr of the. drticr. tla. s o ~ r r c r l ~ l c ns~fion. ~ia ;lr,,i the lirld refion. TITLE NMOS Polysilicon Gate-Deck 1
rrcprrti\c4! COM'IENT Active device region i n i t i a l processing
Tls. Elnlchlrr is simttlnterl minq a tnkd of 1k.r SUPRE\I inp~ttdrcks. Tllr lint clcck COMMENT I n i t i a l i z e silicon substrate
sinlt~l;ltv% prncrsring in 111~.adivo rt.$on nf tllr de\i(r. Ilp to t l l c p l i l l t 31 \~.llidl1 1 1 ~pW INITIALIZE <lo@>Silicon Boron Concentration-lelS
COMMENT Grw 400A pad oxide
w w crtltlencr divt*rqrsfor t l a ~gztfr. ;~rtdcotcrcr/rlmin rt.giotts. TI>,,%!.(.~,nr! and thin1 deck DIFFUSION Time.40 Temperature-1000 Dry02
<l.~rtu i l l ~tltc result'i fnnn 1Iw I>nt drck an11 wl~,pl,.t(. ~ T I H . I . S \ / ~ rnr ~ : t11r pntr md Deposit 800A CVD nitride
COMMENT
s ~ u n ~ ! a l ~ "rroinns.
n r r c p c f i v ~ lThis
~ . is nrxnmpli~l~c~~l hy t ~ c i ~t lthc. SAVEFILE rtntrmcnl DEPOSITION Nitride Thickness-8.08
;at lllr rnd nf t l l r fint clwh in SRVP t h ~s. t n t c t ~ ~itnd r r S I I ~ I S ( . ~ I I t~sirne
~ ~ I ~ It Ih~r sawd StnK- CWYENT Grow f i e l d oxide
hlrr in tllr. INITIALIZE rtatrmratr in 1111. srcnnt! :trld tlfirt! <lw.kc. TJrr ir,vlrtJl cl<u.kis ""* OIFFUSI~ Timed80 Temperature-lBBO Wet02
1I;brtn t l ~ t .f h t . mivpt tli,tt it si111111,ttrs tlw prw+winqin tI\t. firld rvqinn. Tile fiftl CWYENr Etch t o silicon surface
r n m p l r t * iit.lrl
~ ~ rtyion pnmssilq. ETCH Oxide a l l
T l ~ onrnplrtv
r p r w x s s c ~ l ~ l r ~isn ca5r f O l l ~ 5 ~ : ETCH Nitride a l l
SO ,Chapter 9. Process Integration 9.6 Process Simulation 4 421
COmENT ReoDen contact holes
ETCH Oxide a l l ETCH Oxide
COmENT mplantboron t o s h i f t threshold voltage CMENT Deposit Aluminum
IYPIANT Boron Oose-4el1 Energy-50 DEPOSITION
~ r ~gate l r oxide Aluminum Thickness-1.2
CMENT PRINT Layers
DIFFUSION Time.30 ~em~erature-10S0 Dry02 HC'&3
PLOT chemical Boron Arsenic ~hosphorNet
CWENT Deposit p o l y s i l i c o n STOP
p o l y s i l i c o n Thickness-@.5 Temperature-600 End Deck 3
DEPOSITION
CWEKT m p e the p l y s i l i c o n using WC13 TITLE NMOS Polysilicon ate-~eck 4
DIFFUSION Time.25 ~ ~ r n ~ e r a t u r e - l 0Phosphorus
00 solidsol CMENT I s o l a t i o n region i n i t t a l processing
PRINT Layers COWENT I n i t i a l i z e s i l i c o n substrate
PLOT chemical Boron Phosphor Net INITIALIZE
structur ~i1~name.nmosactiveinit.Str 4 0 0 > S i l i c o n Boron Concenrratim-le15
WEFILE COYYENT Grow 400A pad oxide
STOP End Deck 1 DIFFUSION Time-40 Temperature-I000 Dry02
NWS p o l y s i l i c o n Gate-Deck 2 COMHENT Implant boron t o increase f i e l d doping
TITLE IMPLANT Boron Dose-lel3 Energy-150
CDmENT Gate region
I n i t i a l i z e s i l i c o n substrate COYYENT Grow f i e l d oxide
COIHENT DIFFUSION
structur-nmosactiveinit.str Time-180 Temperature-1000 Wet02
INITIALIZE
implant arsenic for source/drain regions COYYENT Implant boron t o s h i f t threshold voltage
COrrrENT IMPLANT
Arsenic Dose-5elS Energy-150 Boron Dose-4ell Energy-50
IMPLANT
Drive-in arsenic and re-oxidize source/drain regions COYYENT Grow gate oxide
CWENT
Time.30 Temperature-1000 Dry02 DIFFUSION Time-30 Temperature-1050 Dry02 HC1)6-3
DIFFUSION
~ t c hcontact holes t o gate, source, and d r a i n regions CWYENT Deposit p l y s i l i c o n
CWENT
Oxide DEPOSITION Pol y s i l i c o n Thickness-0. 5 Temperature-600
ETCH
Deposit phosphorus-doped Si02 using CVD CWENT Dope the p o l y s i l i c o n using POC13
CWENT
DEPOSITION Oxide Thickness-0.75 C.phosphor-le21 DIFFUSION Time-25 Temperature-1000 Phosphorus solids01
Reopen contact holes PRINT Layers
CWYENT
ETCH Oxide PLOT Chemical Boron Phosphor Net
COmENT Deposi t Aluminum SAVEFILE Structur Filename-nmosfieldinit.str
DEPOSITION ~luminumThickness-1.2 STOP End Deck 4
PRINT Layers
TITLE NMOS P o l y s i l i c o n Gate-Deck 5
PLOT Chemical Boron Arsenic Phosphor Net
COMYENT I s o l a t i o n region f i n a l processing
STOP End Deck 2
CO'IYENT I n i t i a l i z e s i l i c o n substrate
TITLE wsP o l y s i l i c o n Gate-Deck 3 INITIALIZE Structur=nmosfieldini t . s t r
CWENT Source/drain regions CWENT Etch p o l y s i l i c o n and oxide over source/drain regions
CWENT I n i t i a l i z e s i l i c o n substrate ETCH Pol y s i l i c o n
INITIALIZE Structur-nmosactiveinit.str ETCH Oxide Thickness-0.07
COWENT ~ t c hp o l y s i l i c o n and oxide over source/drain regions COYMENT Implant arsenic for source/drain regions
ETCH Polysilicon IMPLANT Arsenic DosemSelS Energy-150
ETCH Oxide CrnYENT D r i v e - i n arsenic and re-oxidize source/drain regions
CWYENT Implant arsenic for source/drain regions DIFFUSION Time-30 Temperature=1000 Dry02
IMPLANT Arsenic Dose-5elS Energy-150 I COWENT Deposit phosphorus-doped SiO2 using n/D
COuYENT Drive-in arsenic and re-oxidize sourcc!drain regions DEPOSITION Oxide Thickness-0.75 C.phosphor-le21
DIFFUSION Time-30 Temperature-1000 DryO2 CONVENT Reflow glass t o smooth surface and dope contact holes
COuYENT Etch contact holes t o gate. source, and d r a i n regions DIFFUSION Time-30 Temperature-1000
ETCH Oxide COYMENT Deposit A1umi num
CWYENT Deposit phosphorus-doped Si02 using CVD DEPOSITION Aluminum Thickness-1.2
DEPOSITION Oxide Thickness-0.75 C.phosphor-le21 PRINT Layers
CWUENT Reflow glass t o smooth surface and dope contact holes PLOT Chemical Boron Arsenic Phosphor Net
DIFFUSION Time-30 Temoerature-1000 STOP End Deck 5
 Relerences 4 123

Figure 9.39 I'!,>t, p i !lit. i)~rlRi,. 11,

~I~[)iol: 111,. <;,tv n.(.11111

, b 9.7 SUMMARY

"
FET. ;md tile hIESFET wcrc dkcasse~lin (letail. It iippcars tllnt the IIOSFET \\ill he
the dominant technolop at least until 2014 I)ecluse of its stlpriur prrforrnanw ma)-
pared witl~tile bipolar tmsistor. For 100-nm ChlOS t r c l l n o l n ~a: goo11 ca111li&1ris the
ro!nbitlatiotl o r a n SO1 sul,slr.tle \vilb itltcrmllnedions using (:u and lmv-k m a t r r i a ~ .
XIELIS is still :in enlrrging liel(l. \,lE\IS llns ;l~lopt~.dtltr l i t l ~ o ~ m p land
~ i c etching
trcl~nologirsfrom IC fal,ric;~tiu~~. Specinlir~arletcl~ingtt,cl~niquesIlave alw Invn drvcl-
oped for MEBIS: balk n~icmn,achinin~ ilsit~gNI oricntation-depend(~ntetchitlg pnxrss.
surf;lce micro~Il:lc~li~ri~~g
usin$ sncrific;d I;l!'!.rr;. and tllr LIGI\ p n m s s l t s i n ~ r - r : ilitlloe-
~
r;lplly n"tl~11igI1Iycollimstr~lnllialion.

REFERENCES
I. For r dcldlrd di<cas$innon IC i,nn.~$inlcfntiol,.rer C. Y Liu .v~tl\\:Y. Lv.Tmn,. I n l q h , n . - in
C. Y. Cbmp S.M. Sn. Ed\.. t.l.SI T,<!2nologg. \Idm~v-llill.Smv York. I M .
:,,,-,
2 . ~~~ l , i t-bqrn,f,l! mml~ ~ ~ k ; ~in@C.~Y,~Cllan<.url
g.- S.St. Srr. Ed'.. ('!.Sf Zrhlldq. Mdr*w-
Itill, S ~ ~ ~ ~I%,~. Y ~ ~ r k .
3. T H. llv, TI,< i)rqlca n J C l{n,li~r-Frrrpn~"l
~ ~ ~ ~ bllrer,i!nl Cimtllr. Camhndgr Uni\r,~tnFn-.
Ctrnbti~Ip~.. I1.K.. IW5. CII 2
J D,h. ,
-lsol,[mrr.~ sllrrIL,,,~,for S C ~ VIlri~lttri s P$.rlnnamol,: fl'dn~ni*. 33. I37 ilmJJI
5, 7 c ~l,,,,,, fl'rmw arir
;,I., s,,bs,ierus,,.er l ~ i ~ h . h . ~ b , ~Ripl.aTtci~~~~deR:'lEEE
~~;,~nr
Figure 9.40 I'!UIul tljt. cI,,j~l>l: I ~ ~ I I I I I 11:
, . ti,,. ,1311rrI. ,Ir.,ili r~.ri,,li IA.!, IO!Sl, X,l (1!199l.
 29.1 Chapter 9. Process lntegrarian

(: p 1 ,.(,,I, .\,,
,,h.,,my~ ~ ~ i d , . p ~ ~n.srl#-ln,lrlc~I
~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~S r~l C~ ~ l i~
q >lc ~ . ~Bipol.,r
!r . Tccl~nulr~: -.
rn3,,\1:1;,7nm, lk~t,.,.~,
3.1, i01. 5241;(l!lS7s. '7. I n NMOS pmcr.ssins. t l ~ sh8r(in):
r mateliitl i s ap-t!p. 111 n . ~ ~ <l~n,.,,ri,.~t~d <ilinln
7 \y 1~,,~.1,. 1 1. TS.,~,.,,,,III 1) Plt3,q21p,+.r,
&I. , <h,ick R~fin'eaw.\loftr~nl f i Sc8tti,?888<lt8ec?r
~ \wfcr. Thr sour<". ;and <lr;tinan. lirrmrd lq nnvnic itnplzmtati~rn o i 111~'iiosr/cln: at 70 ke\'
T , , ~ , , ~ , ~ \llB,,.
, , ~ , Sc.r Yt>&. 19% tl~n>ugln it gate oddc illZj nm. (:,I Eslisl;btc. the i l t n 4 ~ o l vcnltrKe
<l r h a n ~r,ithr
,~ C\rcr..
Y R \V
~ \ ~ "?<ip~ t ~ ~ ih! ~\I1. !1<>>~3
~ ~;andnTWh8~"k-: &, L!C! 1). \'. \f0"!:3!3, Ed,., h O ! * of^ (Ir) Dr;nv thr doping profill along :I monlinalr p(.wza!lcldnr 11, tbr ntrf;tcr. nnrl pa-ring
{,!,.<",!,,. \G! ,.,, X,%Vfi,rk, l!l%l t l ~ m t q hthr cla:~nnc.ln,eion or thr saarrr. rvrio~,.

9 \ K ~ l , ~ ~S.,n8~l,,lrl~tm>r
.,. \b.nl,rir.-Tiubn,.I~~~y. 7?sfing.on,$Ilrllnl~ilil~~.
I C W . Scu. So&, 1597. 8. (a) \t%"s cl(m> ~~rirntati<,n pwh,rn,d it, SXIOS f:,hricati,,,,? (1,l \\I,~~ ;,m diw~,%,.
(7 I(~,,,,,,,,,, -(:hip ~:,,c5-nl,~
.\pl~tl~tinn R~~"l~ttion."1f:EE lirb Dig. In1 flcrrmrr l>n.irrr bscs i r t m thin a liclrl ~xide.i- usnl in S\IOS ,hicv.? I?) \\h:,t p,t,l,lcmr ,xyl,r
I; i'rl: pol?ili~*n g:gtc is urcd for p ~ t len~ths
c Irrs tlratl R pm? can
anotl,,.r ,,,at,.r~ I", n,l,vli.
11 R II ~ , n fIt. \Iclnru., rtal Y. Y:qdxtho. "DwpTn.ttcIc I\ulation CMOS Dr\lrrr: IEEE Tcclt. Dig. ttlfrd b r pl!xilin~n?(d\ llow is a w\f.;di~ni plc ~ h v ~ iand ~ ~ d . iLs .rl,anl;,gc,?
(t.1 \Illat ~ I I ~ ~ does P.gl;~r r c m ~ ?
fll.*-lnn l h a,.r \I..,..),,
I V
lrzl . 2;1 I!&V?'.

I2 I, \I Hnm. \I l:llt~7Ja.;at61 1. 51. I'tilsl?l~~y,

Tnmb in .<l\;lnnrl CZlOS I'nrcrs Xrlall,lq: I'm '9. Far a flnrting-~atenon\nlatilc mrmory thc lmrrr innllator hm dirlrcttic mnstar,t .I
ICEE 13 lM6 lcl%:. mcl i s 10 nm thick. The issttl:tk,r alx~vcthe flontir~~ p t c ha% , ~ i ,,(
~ 10 and
l ~
I3 11 t ~ ~ 11 .~ I)\..
~- ~P ~tl (~o ni >. ~ ~ Slnx?~>n.
u ~ ~ ~ n i S ~ : ~ l ~ ~ Uilnl>r
d . I , ~Ih.\i<r.\
~~ \<rqr \\rllt i s 11Y) thick. I f the, ommcnt dendty J in thr 1cnrr.r insulaton is )?I = ,,E, ,vl,rw
(:\IO:FETI.- IECE z.<h D,: F J ~ . ~a.,.irerI,~I
~ w .~f.-.i 1., 6111
. II!IU) 0. 10'' S/cnl. and 1111LTlmnt is l l t r otbcr inrnlalur is n~yli~lllysmall,
fin,! the tml ~f,~d
of 10 \: applircl 10 thr. unntnll gate br o 25
vnlt:~eeshift of thr rlc-ire cncrrwl hya r ~ l l t a w
I4 \I. .I II~IICS 83r*,1 II ;\ >ttwpI>y,- l l ~ ~ ~ n t ~~~i ~
~ t~~l ~~ vlTcttwist<>m,"
-~ Et of i~ ~ t in S. \!. Sw, 131.. fligft.Spcp,i
W, and (1,) a suficiaraly long time that1 illtltc 1onil.r insul:ttnr lrrvrnrr ne+*bI? small.
S . , , ~ C C ~ ~ J , n., I,~,.
, , ~ , ~ ~ \V,I,?, SC-V snrL, I!FNI
IS 11.F slnclt. rr d . -<:.L\S LIn,. R w r Inltc-w,ttnl Cin.aitr hrr r tlidn SIX-l 1)icitd Sign:>lPR~\.s<oc'
10. Draw a rnmpl?to step-hystrp s r l of ma& for the CYOS in\.crter shmtn in F i ~ l r e 9.23.
IFEE Tronmr t:b.nnm f v c . Bfi. 3 0 i I!lS9l. in F i p r c 9.B for )nlnr xdo.
I'ny p;-rticul;nr nttmtinn to the cmrr spcfion sl><n\m

I 6 C.11 l.,rtr~nqrlo .md I\'. C. T.a~g.-Srs~iuln~cB~ror

& ~ ~ r TwllnoloS\:'in
or S. \( Srr.. Ell . '11. A 0.5-pm digital C;hlOS t r d l n o l has ~ S.pm-\,iidc tmnrhton. llnu n,inimum air', \\idth
S<!,<#3r,, \ \ i l t ~ snv
.~~~,io~,,,l,,~,~r , Yo&, I W . s I-pm-hick alamintlm. ~\snmntc that w. is
i s 1pnl. and tlw n~rlalli,.?tion I:tycr m n ~ i $ lof
I: 1. S F . ~ IS. 1: T:Y. .lltql R. S. \ttslli.r - 1 C - P n ~ r ~Elcen,sk~lic
r~rl \ l i r m n ~ o t oin
~ .ITET
~ lr!r flcornn 400 cm2N.s. r l i s 10 nm. \',,,,is 3.3 \! and thc tltn~rholcltoltagc i s 0.6 \: Fin:dIy, a e m r
fA,?P.*' JIP,~,.p w>lllY\'. that the nlwi~numvoltage 'Imp thnt ran lw tolrr;ttnl is 0.1 Vtvhrn n Ipm' cms scctitm
aluminam wire is n m i n g lhc madmttm cttnrnl that can lr nnpplinl h? thc S\lOS tran-
I S S ,:me, rt :,I . -4 \IE\lS Rlrblx,r \lrmhnnr \:Ilvr..- S o i i Ar.rnntz,rr. AM.
Silic~,s<,
sistor Ilo\\~long a air? can lr nllm\rd? Usc a simple qnair-la\r: Ions-channrl m d e l to
ldI l'm
predict the ,\lOS cttmcnt d r i \ r (rcristivity of daminam i s 2.7 x 1W' n-em).
19. 11' Ebrf-lcl.1.1 .)I-F.mhri<>tionof \licmrtnlRam V~inqlhr L I C Prmrr.-Pnu IEEC .!her R<zlnts
nnA Z.lo,lr.mo,n \l;tr*cL~~,.Ii!:mni~. \I:\. Sov. I!>% 12. Plot the cmss-swtinnal\~CWS of a h v i n - l h ChIOS structttn. of the follmviinq stager of
pmcc.;sinq (a) ,t-lld, ilnplnnt. ( h l p-l!th implant. (cl h4n-tnb drive-in, (dl nonsrlre(ivc 1)'
3 Y)C P 110,md 5 Il;m*~n.Sl'PRE.\I IllL'r.r'v .\bnnnl. S ~ m b nl!sivcnih
l 1957.
soum/clr:iin impla~t.(cl selective n' xnnrce/cIr~iraiain\plant usins phot~rvrists nwk. and
(0 P.glirss <lqmsilion.
13. \\I,).
do \<Tore a 13' polysilimn gntc for PhlOS?
P PROBLEMS 14. \\hat is the h r n n lmetntion pmhlrm in p' [xll!dliron PMOS? Ilmvar~eld
!nu cliniinatt, it?
.Asrr.nrk~
rlmntr ,l;filjffinrlt prnblnrr~ 15. To ol~tuina g~ml
inlrrfacial prolrrty a haNerrrl I;?,y>r
i s l~nm11~
d c p ~ r i tirh\ru.n
~l the
Iliglll m;ttrtirl and ro~bstratc.Cnlctllale tlw eNrcti\r oxidr thickness i i t h c rtsckrrl gate
dirlrr.tric stn~cturri s (;I) a balli.n~l nilridr of 0.5 nm and (hl n T:L:O, of 10 nm.
I. For a rhrcl rwirtancr of I k Q E . find the tn;r~imltn,rrristnnw thal nkn lu, fifibrintcul on n 16. Drcrilw tllr diradvimtrgcs of I.OCOS t e c l ~ n d wnnrl the ; ~ ~ l ~ ; r n f aof<s~ sh ~ ~ l l m ~ ~
2.5 x 2.5 mm chip using 2-prn linm \\ill> ;r 4 p m pitch kc.. dirtanw Irhvvvn tlnc w n t e n isolation t ~ c l ~ n o l o ~ .
of l h p:tridL.l
~ linrrl.
2. Drriwl n m;ak s r l for. S.pF \IOS r;lpacilr,r. llre oxide ll~irlmerri s 30 nm.:A~s~tnrc
that SECTION 9.4: JIESFET TECIIXOLOGY
thr rvtinimtml uindmv s i x i<2 x 10 ptn i d tbr n~:rvirnnmirsistration crmn arr 2 pm.
i s the purpsc oftlte ln,l!imirlc l e d in F i w r r 9.Mf
17. \\llal
3. lInn\v ;I mmplctr slrp-llyslpp s r l of mavks for tlw spiral inrlo~clor\ \ i t l t thrre ltzrnr un a
sllllltn,tc.
~I,;,I
istile R.asol,it is d i ~ l i n ~10l tmakc bipllar transistors wcl 1IOSFns in G : L ~ '
18. \~l,~l

SECTION 9.6: PROCESS S I M U U T l O K

-19. useS U ~ H E \ I simulrtr tllr l,ip,lnr p r o w s descrilml in Swlion 92.1. Plot the d<Vine
l,rnfilcs lllcfollu\,ing ,rvlic.d cmsr srdiow: (a1 fmnl lhr top of the ~~~~
~ ~ n t '
(1,) [,,, ~ ~ .( c ) fmm thv top o ~ t l mllrrtor
,,ft~,~r s i ~ t ~ r m n t i )and ~c N'ntM.
.5. IJctw t l ~ ccirwit ~ l b ~ ~ r ZLIKI
: t m <I<-iw crow wctinn of 2 cl;amp~dtcanslstor, -20, useSUPREXI losin,t,~atr thr C~IOS p m r s ilrscrilnl In. I'ig~w1)s. Plot ~ 1 1 c d ~ V i
6. 1tlvnti& thr potrpnsr of the li,ll<n<inc5tt.p~in srlf-nlism.mrd dc,~~l,lt~-[xllpilirnn
hilx,lar stntc- pmfilc,r ;,lclng ll,r fi,l,,,,ing \..rtinl rnns srctions: (it) tl~rn!~d)
tlw PJIOS sollm.'(lfilin
tun,: i.ti it!irlnpnl [wll>~ilimn i n trr.nclt in Fi$lrc9.I:kt. ( h l 1111. pol? I in F i ~ l n 9.131,.
, and rc *,,,, $, (1,) tl,m,,S), ll,r P\IOS s.,~p w@on. ("1 tltn,tngh lhc SJIOS mllm,!Jr.un nqrmr.
i c i tb+,prtl!2 In Fi~n1n.!l.I3rl. .?,,(I ( d l tlln,,,<Il IIII. S\IOS p t r rc.sior~.
 IC Manufacturing
Elrctricnl mrzsurrmPn1C p r f ~ ~ r n ann v l test stnlcturrs are ;Ira:tjor mrrl,:anistn &,r ;lcw*.
inq intecr;rtr,l eirnlit ! i r . l ~ l ism* Sectinn 10.5). w \vrll ;tr ot1tc.r italir;+tumcf, l>nul!~dpr
\I.,,,,,f.,~+~ri i q ,ll.finwl :rs lllr p n n w I??rvllirh mu. 111ntrri:lls1w ( n n \ . e r t ~into I fin. h,rn~;tnc~,.S~lclt~nc-nl~r<~nlents arc pvrfonnrd Ix>tltilwiatg ;m<litt t l ~ cntlrln~rion
r 01, tII,.
i,l,..,l p n ~ lAs o 411twt~~tvd
l ~ ~ , i u Fiturt- lll.1, ;I n~:~nct~,~cturing op~ltion can he ~ i e ~ w l fnhriration prmss. 111:alllitil>n. clrctriczal t r s t i n ~ < l f t i lfinal
r prrrluct i s cntri;rl lo rnslrrr
cr,l~l~l~..,ll~ ;,
,AS , ~ ~ t r n n t~ t l ntu
t t~t:atvrials;~IKI sttppli~ssrninq SI: its inputs :ln<If i n i s l ~ ~ l <luxlit\.T11rsrcnncrpts arr disc~~s.ir~l in omn. dct:til in tltr fr,llmvine rubsrninr~s.
,l~T~,l~~f~r~~~,31 i <v m i r ~ c ; ~ ~ oI!)
l ~ m l t ~ cs ~intmttcxl
~t~~~~ c ilr ~
t l i.l ! t ~ ~ ~ r l l ~ f ~ ~inptlt
~ < ~mate.~rirlg,
".,I, i ~ ~ c l t ~~v,nicl>t,d+~ctnr
lq. \u:~fvm.insol:\tt)rs. ~IO~X~II~S. itnd i t ~ ~ f i t lTsIC. n u l p ~ ~arc-
t s tllP
10.1.1 Test Structures
I<., II,.~~IL.~~IV~~ Tltv qx.<oipnx~~sst.s tIt:tt arise in I(;rna!~!~&~~turinc, ~ ~ l ~ li ~c il itlm,,
v~~
t l s~~lplrrir
~ ol pn.\x,ta\ r l ~ a p t in ~ ntllis tvxt. incltidr oxidation an11d r p s i t i o n pm~sses.
ticlrs. mntaminittion, or a t l ~ csoltrcrs.
r spcinlly drsigned trst rlnlcturrr a n oerl. Tltrsr
..
~ ~
ctnlchlrcs. also lino%\ii:rs I>mrrwmtllml trlorlifon (PC>lsl. includr. sinolp tnnristnn. sin-
cia1cll.~rmnicn.itvrns . m ~pnxlurts l isttch ;cr m t n p e l m . wlllrlar pllonrs. 3niI t[i@t;d cam. gle linrs of m n d ~ ~ c t i nmaterial.
g hlOS ctpacitors. :and i n t r n n n n ~ irnaniton.
i l'mhla
~.r.ni.a ~ r c totltt~r
l kt? p n r l ~ s s r ~tnt~stt.&r p l n c ~Thrsr
. irbrlndr vlectri, .,I kstiog wd \v;tfcrs hpical? mlifaill se\.rral PC114 distribated acrms tltr s~lrl.se.c i t h ~ in r clir sitr.s
p~.L.t@n?.li.*tin< is ne~r.s\.ty I n ! i ~ I d1tigI1-qo;dihpr<xlllcts. Ou:llih :c,v!iir?r mnfor- or in thr scrilx. lines behv?rn dic (SCPFig. 10:~.'
m.ww 01 ;al pnulltcq* to :I s1.1 of slx~cifi~:~tiuns a d t h r n311uctiono f ;my !a: .;xllilih in tile I'rmss qunlih r:ol be d ~ ~ c atk \nriol!s
~ d sta~esof rnannlhtc%!rin~tlsrouel~in-linc
a,;hntll:tci,!rinq p m v $ < .\I;tintnining iui~lih oftrn invoIve4 t l l O~S P ofst i~llc.ll p m s s !ne:~<t!renlrntson PCXI stnwti1res. T l ~ r w hpid inlermn~iecttest stn~cll!rvs:are s11mti1
mntml. :\ <lt,rvpnl t.ywrirn~ntis ;an c r t r ~ r n r l y~ r s r l itool ~ l for clism\.~.no:: k1.1.variables 111 Fizorc ln.3.' Usinr! s n r l ~t(*st stnxtltrrs. ~ n r : ~ t ~ r ( ~ marr
r o tprrfnnnrd
s to avsrss t11r
tl,:lt ~ n f l t ~ r ntI~t.Jihr.l~;tctc(~~ristin.
rr Statistirxl r \ ~ r r i o l m t dclesiq is a l;c1ac :-I!;Iappm?cli pwsrncr of drfrcts. \vhich can lr i n f r r r ~ I,d? tllc prrsrnw of short rirc~iits aroprn cir-
Inr n ~ t r n r . ~ h r ; ~\aninn
ll\ mntrrrllnhlr p r m s s mn(lition%;urd d r t r n i . i ~ i n p 1 1 e iimpactr cuits usins n
rinlnlr
a
resistilntr inr;r<t~n,mrnts. For i.r;amnle. t11(. mealder stntrtun fnril-
nu n o i t l ~ l[xbr.~rnf~t~rs
l t11:at tnrasurv q!t;dit!: ii.tt<bs tlir detcc.tion of ope11 circuits throtlglt incre;rse~lend-to-el111 rrsistalm. nf tltp
.\ k ~ . ~nvtrir.tlt;tt ~ t lnw msrtl 11, <?;da~atcany o~;rnul~tburin< p n ) r ~ ISs ~mst. and
mst i G diwrtl? imp;stml b??irl,i Yidd r d e n to tllr prnpnrtio~lo i ~n:tn.ci-ict,~n~tl pml-
ItC+s tl1:it p r f o r m :I< n q u i w d hv a set 01specifimtior~s.Yield i s in\rrjcl$ [>rnpr~rtionnl to
tltc tnt.11 n~.tnt#fxa!xing m5t: T l ~ lliqhrr
r tllr !iel~l.the lo\vrr t l ~cost.
r Ftn;?lI!, compater-
i ! t t t m l w l rn;mtrfxitl"n? i s ;timnl st optimidnq tlnr [nrt-rffeciivcness ofcli.rlmnin inan.
tl~ulllnn? hv llrille the l:%tc.cfilrzr,b,pmrnts in mmpltter i1anla;tre and svfhsarr t p c l m o l ~
1,) <.n!~:u>cv c\~r.nsivr~ m:muhrturi~i?otetllods.
Tilt< cllilp18.r c!vsrtilu~% r:~rlln i l l l r c r mnwpts. S p i f i c a l l y i t clircussrs tile follmv-
inq topics:

Figure 10.2 I:ktnfim~rd1inn

01 pnxl~tcts;!n<l lT:>l, c w i* t,y>ir.tI sctvim>r><lttctr~r
~-*it.r.'
 n.,rc. (,,,I,a,,.
l),*i<..<,prdir,<

1:.
2

I
-...~
-__--- ',

~A-
I 2 .I
I*,,
Figure 10.4 Cv;tn>pl<.
of t ~ v ~ ~ - ~ l i r \nl!~~v n ~ i c1,101~ nzoc
~ ~ ~ ~511rncm ~ al r~~lx,~;ar
1-,

10.12 Final Test

ft~tlai,,,J h.$linS;tt t l , m
~ n ~ ~ ~ l ~ .of i s tllr final arl,itrr ufpmcrss qtm1.
t i <n~;~nttf;trtt~rinji
,~,
it?. and !ii.lcl. TIt,, p t ~ l p w ni fin;tl lrsting is to pnsllrc Ihsl ill1 prmluct\ p.rl'onl~ to tile
~ p ~ i t " , ~ . , r , ~(or
, , ~ ul,iclt
~ tl~c,, t,r.n. ~ l v s i ~ n r tFor
l . i n t e g r : ~ t ~virct~its.
~I 1111.t w t p-ss
rl,-lx.rr,l< .I p a t <h.d on a.lwtlwr thr cltip tvstr<lis a heir or m ~ ~ n rlc-.icy. o n I n either
c.r~c...tl~lon~.ttt~I trxt q t ~ i p ~ n ri.\TG
z ~ t i\ I ~ S V10 ~ apply :I ntr;lsurrvnrnt \ti~nolusl o the
clup .tnd n.rrr>nllllr nw~lts.Tlw tnitjor f i ~ ~ l r t i o n u sr t l l r ,\TI' iirr inpltt p;tttenl Kenen,
ti~m.psttvm .tpplt~~ittiou. : ~ r i <otntput
l r r s ~ m ~d~~s tcr c t i o r ~ . '
I > u r i n ~ r : rh~r~rfioa;cl
l~ tr,cl c\rlr.. inl1111 t s sent IIBNIISII
v < ~ c t ~arc. the rhip by the ATE
in .I timt.11 st.qut~~~m~. Om~tputrt-sponsrs ;arc rrad nnd m ~ n p a r r ruitlt l c ~ ~ y w r t results.
rd
This n~lt~a,nm. i, npcatrtl k,r c.trl~inptlt p ~ l t e n I~t .is often n w s s : t n ~ IpIr k ~ r m stsh
tr.?t? at \.rious ntppl! vnltnwc aurl o[w!r.,tinc trmpr:r~tnrr5 to cnrntn. cl..\icc opemtion
at 311 ~ x ~ t v n t irt7ci!8w,<.
;~l Tlw n181nlvr:and srqI!6*ncf~ o f kult~resi u 111~ o~atpt~t sip:$tttre
;anin,lir.~livc.of irl.inafncit~"no pr<Krss hnltc.
X.4 r,<t!lts III'~?IW wprmstd in :t \:t"<.hof~t?i:s.'Xt~~ex:!~n~plcs arc dno\m in Fiq1n.s Figure 10.5 C:cll map rhmving roa~npl~~r
of C?iltxn, p;tltmms rnrl dc,fcn h ~ s . '
10.4 :and I1l.i. Fimsn. 10.4 s l l o a ~ it b~n-clir~tr.~<ion;d plot c n l l ~ d;I~l,r,cnt, ,,lot for a I~!.po-
thr~ic:rlhipn1.n prorluct. I n n 411ncmplot, tlte u t ~ t l i n ~ sd ~ ~ ~ l i~\ r l ~ c r tllr
l ~ i r dn.,@ort r ~lv\iw
Lq i n t ~ ~ tro~o ~ pm l ~t ~~~. l v ~ Ill? t I>lank
i ~ arr;,
~ ~ouIsid<~ rt~prcscllt~ t l ~ vIhiIt~rerr$on. Anoll~rr
h l ~tr.it~o u~t p ~l i~q llv
t wll ~n.\pslm\nin F i m ~ n
10 5. in:tps ;In. v r n uscf~din iden- I
tli\inc nnrl isnl;tlin? <lr\ict. hil18r<.s. p:8rtirul;1rlv in nrr!rbnr?.nrr;t!r. I n ;trl<litio~l.t l ~ e pt-
tvm. ~<'nr.rat<vI in 111~ n.11tllitp illity 1 ~ m~npilerl.
. catalog!cd. and later n,mpnred \\ith
;I I ~ h r a o
n f v ~ i c t i clrfcct
n~ h y q . tlt,.rr*h? nidioS i r l tl~,.~li.cma,sis of l i u l ~ s .

* 10.2 PACKAGING
h w l \ clc.fined. t i ~ trr n n parkoyirr~rr&n tn the srt of t r c l , n d ~ @ p:lnd ~ pnKI.SSPS that
ov~nn-tIC\ sit], elcrlronic \n-tt.ntq. \ ~ r r ~:midoc.? h ~ l is to cr,lvi<lcr an vlr.ctr(mic prod-
l!rl :L< tltr !~IIIII:*IIh~!! 1.ikc tltr I d ? . tlwu. prwlnvtq \>:>YP "Inii~,s: \vItivlt :IF ando-
wwr l o IC*. Elvdmnic p.a.br@~~c ~ \ "nrnr,~ls
l > m \ i < l ~tIw s\.rtem" :rs w<.II ;L< t h "skrlrtal
~
~ \ ~ t r n ! , " ' npackac~.
iv is r t ~ s r ~ n ~hi l~~i rnl ct ~ ~ r < ~ ~ n np(n~\ ~t irni nt < .
~molil)<.;tnrl pnrtrdine
1 I . TI,,, ,,~,,iv.pt is illtt,tr,,lc~<l it, l:ip,r,* 10.6.
 10.2 Packaging 4 23

1021 Die Separation

of pl;atic or wmmic. \viilll tllr latter called tlle CrrVlP VIP CrrDlP consists of a DIP
\trntt.. T!,t*
I\ t..;~c.nti:all$ 111~.
lirsl strp in tltc pil~kil@lll:p m ( C S P . I n m l l ~ n ~ onrtllo
n mnstn~ctcrlof hm piccvs nf s s ~ r l ~ ~ ~wcunic c l ~ e d\r,itlb lends pratntding from hrhVl.rn
t l , ~ !I,A<
IW,V ~ l rn:tr~\!r:tm, tlhc st~l>st~~tc,
t ~ s t l,tr nxi<,r is tnot1111?don :I l~oldcrandscrilw
thr (?x~tnicpl;ttrs.
in h,tI1 tI1rr .and !I iliwrtira~rtlsin: a ~li;trnon<l swilK.. This is done id~lngt r i l w lmnlpl
--
, 7 rr, 331 p m in aiclll8 t l j . t l .tn.for!t!rtl :lrn>llldtllc pripllc~?'of thr diw during f;~l,"~,.
I n tile 1~1iOs;mrl IBXOs. .571rj%fncc emstlf packogrr*\r.n. d e v c l o p ~in l rr%pnnsrt o n
nerd for l ~ i g l ~ c r - d m sint~rcnnnvct
ih than the DIP apprnacl~rnltld prmClr. I n contnst
tion Tls.ct, l n n l r ~ .rmn ;~ligwrl \\itln the y 3 l ; d pl.slvr of the s l ~ h s t c ~ift tpssilllr.
~ :\fter
to 1lIPs. 1111 lc.a<lr ofn rorf:tcr-~nount~l package donot pnptratc t l a p ~ i n t ncirolit
l lm~!
~ n l > i r qtltr.
. a:&r i c r.-r~cr\c.cl fn,n~ tltr l ~ n l d r end r p l n c ~ di~psidc-<lo\m on :t soft sup-
(PCRI upirn wliich it is monnted. This rltezms that the packaw can In. mountpd un l m t l ~
port .\ ~ , l l t ~i\rtlwrt 1 t w 1 ibppl, ~>ressurt-.i c i c t ~ ~ i i nthe s \!:~li-r alntiq Ill? scril~ lines.
sirlrs of the Iward, t l ~ r r e b yallowing l ~ i p l ~dmsit?.
rr On? cuznplr o l such ;t lx~ckaqci s
n 1 i
.imust In. arcc,mpli~l~nl vitl, inininl;d datl>i~qv to t l ~ eindi\idu:J dic.
tile q ~ ~ aflatpack
rl or QFP i F i ~10.91.
. \vl~ieltltas lrarlr on ;dl fnur sirlr5 to furthrr incrr.rcr
\Ion. r~urlvntclic %vp.tr.ttionprrx.t.<srq llsc a r!ianlond saw r;rthrr tllnn s diaalond
thr, nomlwr o f inp~~Wonlpnt (110) connrctions.
rrrilxs. 111 tlln p n ~ w l u n . tllr . \r:tfvr i s altacl~edto :I,) adhrsive s I ~ v <o~f tirylnr film. TIle
\lore recently, the need for grcnter and gwater n~~mhers ofU0cnnnec(ions 11- lerl
ua.is tlwn n m l to r i t h r r rrrihr tlnr n:tfer o r cut rurnplrtrls t h r o ~ n ~it.h :\fter sepa.
to 1 1 ~ ~ ~ r l r ~ c l o pofpin
r n ~ n@<lam).
t (PCA) and hall $rid array(BGAI p t c k ~ iFig5.10.10
~n
c3tion. tlw d i m are r ~ t n o v cfrom ~ l t l ~ t~~ylnr.
r The sept~mtml<lice t i ~ rea(ly
~ n to and 10.11, rrspertiv~lyl.iJCi\s Ilave an I/O drnsity of about Mn. and HCAs c i n h s t r
pl.tm~linto p r k a g c ~ .
densities grcator t l ~ a n1000. uc mmp;~rred\villi ilmut 200 for QFPs. RGAs nn lx. irlen-
tifietl I,? the solrlrr h ~ ~ ~ on n pthe
s 1)ottom of tlir p?ckage. \\it11 QFPs, rn t l ~ sp:tcingr
1022 Package Types IIehvwn Ira& Imvmcs tidlter. tltp ~nilllufac*lirin<)irld [ I ~ c m r r rs~ p i dTIIP l ~ RGA dhnrs
itizher dmsity anrl takes up less space than thr QFP, but its ~ n a n t ~ E ~ d t ~prri n wgw i s
Tl,rw ow a numhrr ofaPpro:rclirs to tlw p a c L l @ no~f sinel? ICr. I l j e d~tolir1-1inepack.
i n l ~ ~ r e n tInore
l y rrpenriw.
o:r. or 1)IP IFic. I0.S). IS tltr p ~ c k a e r no st p o p l r rrnixion \I.IIPIIt l ~ v ythink ofinte-
mrld riwt~its. T l ~ DIP
r u : ~~l ~ % c l r ~ inpt .l ~ l?I<Xinc.quickly I w a ~ n lltc
e p r i r , ~ packqe
a~
ior ICs. :mrl II:LCInn< r l o m i n : ~ t ~11d11.rlrttmnics packa@nxinarkrt. Tlat. I)Il'rnn I*lnarlp

Figure 10.9 QII:~,~tl~ttpack.'

Figure 10.10 1,111 cnql ilm\.p-cka~r' Figun 10.11 Rnll @<Iarr.,v p.nl.net. '
 nbrn , n i w r n t d r w b p m m t ill p~rlt;~@ng
is t l ~ chip
r rcllr pnrkngr ICSP). wl,ieh
, ,hmnin F I ~ I 11).W12. [:St'<, d ~ f i n.n~ piwki~qcs
l 111rgertl~iln20% ~ r c a t r tllall
110 r tllC
,,re. <XI tla. IC: ~liritcpli. oitr.n takr tltr h,nu of ininint~iriz<.cl
h;dl grid :1m!5.TIlo
.l,.inrtyl I,, 1. Iltlwl~ip i s o ~ ~ n t(se*
c ~ lSrctian 10.1.:11cui~+!mnn-ntio!~i~l rguipn~mtand
w,!?!,.~n t l ~ n vC:\PV :~r,.hpir;dl, ~n:tnuf:nrtn~rr<l in ;I pnn,ss t l ~ CtT ~ . I I ~ Prxtcrnal
S
A,,,[ .,p,,! I 0 <~,,tt:,cts;IS~,Ien~.ipsnl:~tcs t11cfirti-Iird silic~~n
cIits prim to ~ l i c i the
n~
~ ~ ~ . ~ , r ~CSI'S . , l !l,nniclr
\: ;m intmnntartion fr.~n~rx.ork fnr ICs so t l ~ hri<,rr ~t ~li~i,~~,
,I:,- I;,<*,111 ti,,. i~tr~?ions (r.g..t~xtc~n~id rkiric.11 m~lt~lcts. r n e ~ p s ~ ~ I ; of i c >fir,.
~ ttlte ~~
~ , l ~.,llcrln)
~ r l oian,n\-rntiuznel ftillyp?ck~g~l IC. Xvo rrst.~ltinlf c a t ~ ~ n ~ s o f tappmacl,
liis
;tnrl,.,! t l l r lr.tdc ant1 intrqwsrr I;l!x.r (:<nadded 1;ty.r on tla. IC used to p m i d e
tncJ f,illc<inrrJin. and n>trlt.u~intlst;>l,ilityl;lrc fleiihlr rnouglt sn that the p7ck1gnl rle\iw
is ~ w ~ ~ ~ p lIIW i ~t r~q tl ti~tttn.
t for islll tcstingi~~rl l,~~m-in.and t l ~ pack;~gc
r ctn a ~ ~ ~ ~ .
~ n t n h t t thr
. rrrtlwl nonpl.u,:tri~ilnrl tla.nnd i,.vtnsion and mntnctioll oithe I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ , . .
[ ~ n n t tornuit
~l lxunl <luting;~rsen,hl,:tud opmtion.

102.3 Attachment Methodologies

.\n IC elwt hc inountt~lnntl bondnl to i~pnchee.. and tll;it p ~ c k ~ murt g e he attaclld
tn n printnl cirnlit hn:~nlht-forr thr IC r;ln In. used in an ~ I < * m n i c?stem. M r t h d
ofatt:lrlt~ncICr .vr r e i r m l h~iu L r c l 1pnckneir~e.Tlir tecl~eiquensrd to lnnd a hap
<lieto a pcktcr 11:s el&rid. ri~rchanical.and tiler-
a vi~nificmtrffrct on t l ~ ulti~nate
r
m:d p m ~ r t i r , nfthe
< ~It,ctronics!sbn~ k i n g ~n:tn~~f:~ciulwl.
Cl~ip-t+p:~ck:a;lerintrrmn.
n m m n iq ccnerdly a m u r ~ ~ ~ l i s I,l?mritl~cr
l ,%in. Ix>edin~.tape-:a~ton~ntt>rl
Imnding, or
fliprl~iphnncling srv Fig. IO.I:~1.
pa& facing up\nld. The Au or Al \\ires are then attached hehveen the pads and sub
\\ire Bonding stntr usinc ~ l l t w n i ctllmnosonic.
. or tl~ennommpmcioninn(Iing.'Altlion~l~ ;a~tomatnl.
\\iw k,ndin. is the oLIrst attacl~mentmetl~ocland is still the dominant technique for tlsi.; p m s s is still time-miauming since each <\ire must l r attached indi\idl~ally
rllip uitlv i;wv t l ~ m100 110 connections. \\'ire h n d i n q IrquireT mnnruiing gold or In t l ~ rA~nnocn,~~prc.ssio,,
r technique (Fig. 10.14). a fine \\ire (15-75 pnl (liameter)
duminttm e i r m hchrven chip bonding park and eontad points on the pachgc. ICs are is frrd from a spool tl~roagl~ a l~eatetlcapillary A slnall h!rlmgen torch or elrcirie spnrk
fint an;arhnl to the suhctntr urine a t h r r n ~ . d ~ m n d ~ ~ cadhesiw.
tivr !t?til t l ~ r ibonding
r tlwn indts the end of tlw \\ire. forming n ball. The 11;tIlis tllrn positionrd ovrr the chip
:,:.n~lin$p;lcl,the capillary is lmveretl. and the hall deforms into a"nai1 head" due to prrs-
s:!rc ant! heat lront tlir c~pillary.(Tlw sobstx~tris maintained at a t e n ~ p c t t u r of r 1SliC
h>.'O(l0C. and tile bonding interface tempratare ranges frnm %O0C to :lWIC). S e d .
the. c~pillaryis raised. and \\ire is frd fmm the spool itnd positionex1 ovrr thr p~ckage
substratr. The bond to the pacbge is a rvcllge Inn11 p m l t ~ c I)? l drfonnine 1111- \sire
uith tlir r d p of 111r capilla3 T l ~ capillar?. r is tllrn raisrtl mid thr \ r i p is irmkrn near
till. edge of tile Innd.
Oxidation of Al at 11igI1trnlprratnrrs makes it ~lilficultto form :I g o d l d l at t l a rnll
of tllr \!ire: in addition. many ppnirs mnnnl \\itl~stan<l thr trmpr.1hlrrs necdrd in thl2r-
)nl~l.,r lull Elrh.lrr,,.
mc~m~npression Innding. Cltm.~orticIx,n~lingrrprrsentr a lo~vrr-trtepmturrxltrrnati\r
that relics on a mznl,ination of prcssurr n~lclmpirl rneclmnnic;~l\ibr.~tionto form lu)nds
(Fig. 10.15). In tllis :~ppronch,tlte wirp is fed frotn a spool t l ~ r n ~a~llnlr g l ~ in thr imntl-
ins twl. a.llich is tltrrl lo\wrrd into position . l an ~ i~ltfiw~~nic\ihrxtion at 20 to M k l l ~
cntrses the 111rtalto drk)rm :mrl f l ~ ~(r\m t r . at mom t r n ~ p e m t ~ ~ rAs
c )the
. tml is cuwd
aRrr tllc lnnd to t l ~ package
r is forn~rd.a clamp pulls an11l)n,aks 1I1e\sin..
T14cn~loso,~ic bortrli~~g is ;L cnnll,ination of t11t. ntl~ertwo tecl~niques.Tlir s~~hstr.~
tmlper.lt,,rr is m;unt;linetl :lt : , h l ~ tl5(l9C:.ntal ultfiuonic\ihr.~tiot~ and prcssuw are lid
to c;l,lse tllr lnctal to no,v un~Irrprcssllrcto Cnnn a\rrld. Tl~rnnosonivImndrrs arc w i t e
f;r5t-tlley are ~.,~,al,leof p~xlucing5 tn I0 Innds p r srn)lld.
 10.2 Packaging 4 2
'
Tape-Autornntcd Rondlng
'lhpe-a~lto~n;~tr~! lmn<lin):iT,\B) was d ~ w l r > p rin d 11,. lgios is oflrr,
bolld packegrs to printvd rirct~ithnnr~ls.In TAB. clbip$ ;trc fin1 mountr.rl on a flprihlp
pol!mtsr tapt. iust~:illylmlyi~nhlr)uontnininc, n.pr:ttrd mpprr intcmmnraion patterns
(Fiz. 10.l(il. T l ~ N r l p p r ii.atis arc drfinrll litl~ognphsoarl i.tching. and t l lend ~ pat-
tent n n ro11t:iin h ~ m ~ l r r of d smnnrctionr. hft~.ralicsing tl?e 1C pads lo metal inlrrmn-
nrction stripes on l l ~ lap(.,
r i~llncl~m(.~~t tnkr*splaw I,? tlirrmomnrprc~ssion(Fig. IO.L~I.
Gnld bsmps are fonnnl on rilhrr sirlr of l l ~ ctlic or t a p anti :are ~ s ntol lmnd the dic
to tltc lends on thr tapc.
A ltrnrfit of T,\I% is that all b o n d arc formed sim~~ltanenusly, \\,l\ich rignificnntly
inxpro\.rs mnnufact~~ring t l ~ r o u g l ~ pIlowerer,
~~t. unlpss all thr leads are coplanar. rrlia-
hility pwhloms c.m rcst~lt.TAB also require? mtdtilayrr solder bumps wit11mmplcr met-
a l l l ~ q yCrnmdly Illerr i~llrnps~ ~ s r g o l dcopperor xs tlieprimn~cnr~stiturnt.\\ill~ tit.ulium
or turrgstm s r n i n s . 2 ~a rliif~~sion hamvr to prrvrnt ;tllo)inq. I n atldition, apanicular tapr
can only be usrtl for a chip nt~dpackage Illat matcl~csits intcrconntvl p t t c m . t l a r r b
rrnrlrring TI\B an rrtrrmoly a~stomizc.(lprocrss for \vhicll thr bonding crptipmrnt is rrl-
atively erpensivr.

Flip-Chip Ronding
I;lil>.d,iP bonrling is :I direct interconnection xppmach in wvldch the IC is mountcd upside-
do%monto a modulr. or printed circuit lmarrl. Elrctrinl mnnections are madr \ia sol-
(1i.r brrn~ps (or soldrrless n~aterialssuch as epories or c n n d ~ ~ a i adl~rsi\,es)
vr lwatrtl m r
t l ~ st~rface
r of the chip. Since humps m n lx located an)~\,l~ere on thc chip. flip-chip lnnd-
(el (0 i:y rnsurcs that the intrrconnect distance behveen the chip and package is m i n i m i ~ d .
Figure 10.14 Thcrmcmn~~n~ssion Imndinr: pnxvrs.' (nl C~,ld\\ice i n s mpillnr? :ljl Ball forma. The 110 tlensity is limited only 13. the inininiunl distancr brhvmn adjacent hond pads.
iw Ik>ntlin~idl \!in. lhrlp and MI<<, Imliins. (rl \\ire Irmh,s at irl*zc.10 i;rornrtryof
~i<,rl. l o flip-chip procrssing. chips are placed face do\m on the module substrate so that
l~,,ll-,v~"l<,.
l">,,~l. I>:lds on t l ~ echip are aligner1 wit11 those on the substntr (Fig. 10.13). h sokler reflow
plocrss is then osed to siw~tltaneouslyfortn all the required connections. thrreby d m -
(;, ..i I \ . ~mpro\ing
. tl~mughputcnmpared \\,tl~ mire bonding. However. tbe bump fal,ric;l-
tirq, procrss itself is fairly complex and capital illtmsi\'e.
~ ~ lflip-chip
~ technolop
l ~ ~involves
l stencil
~ ~printing
~ of an organic polyller onto
,:,>IC. ~ ~ : , , i ~~W,ICI g t pads
~ ~ ~anmatrd. A bi~l~-conducti\ih.orgnnicpol)~ner p:-tp is then
,!i.,lcjlerl tile lmnd pads to inn11 the solderlrss bumps. \vhich are tllcn cured. The
<i,,ilro ~ a n i c pol!q,ler is stcnciled onto tlre lmnd pads of the sul)stmte. A l i ~ l l m ~ is
n tt1l-n
nrLnnlplislle(~,a l n ~ tile final bond is formrd I>yappl!ing pressurr and heat to tilt. hllnl~s.
L .- 1
111 Ihl 1cI

Ourrr 1ba1lx>ml

Id1 (el
I
Figure 10.15 liltr;a\onir ix,nditcq l>nxrs<.'ini F u r l mtirlrs uirr to thc pnrka~c.1R! I'rcr.urc and l'l>l,l1,l.r (:111,1
rlltr.twn~rpnvrm lorn, l*,n~I.tr ;and d ' Xx~lfi..'ds u ~ r t;mrl
l rcprnitions nlmvr thr IC. ic) \\'irr
I>nd..n .d l x ~ ~ l Figure 10.16 Tnpntnlomatnl lnndink'
 10.3 Statistical Process Control 4 23

w c l l c a t e d ulndinq tool
b 10.3 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
IC ~nanufacturingprocesses must IK.stable, repeatable. and ofhigl, qualiy to )qeld praf.
ucts \sit11 ;lcrrptahle pcrforma~ice.This i~nplicrthat all intli\iduals inWlvetlin ,nar,,,fac-
tllrinf :an IC (incllldinl: opentors, engineers. and manage:elncnt)must mntinuouslysrck
to ilnpro\,e nisnufactl~ringprocess otttput and rrduuc v>rriaBility.\iarial,ilit) reduainn is
;~cn~lplistlecl in large p:lrt by strict process control. TILLS seaion focltscs on sfolisriml
proresy ci~ntml(Sl'C) techniques a .n means to acltieve hi~li-qualiyprmlllas.
SPC refers to a p v e r f ~ lcollection
l olprd)lcm-solring tools ilsed to acllieve p m s
stabiliy and reduce wiriahility. Perl~apstlbe primary and most tecl~nicallysopllistimted
of tl~esctwls is t l ~ control
e cllnrt. Tlie control cl~art\mvdevelopedby Dr. \Valter S I t c \ ~ l ~ ~ r t
of Brll Telcpho~~e Liboc~toriesin tllc 1920s."For this reaon. control chart^ are ;dsaoftcn
referrecl to as Slterchnrt corllml cl~ortr.
A control chart is an online SPC tecl~niqeethat is userl to detect tllc m t t r r m c e of
shifts in process performance so that investigation and corrective action may 1)e under-
taken to bring at1 incorrectly heliari~~g~nanuf~ctaringpr~ss hack under control. A h ~ -
ical n ~ n t r o cllart
l is sllorvn in Figurc 10.19. This chart is a g m p l ~ i ddisplay of s quality
cl~ziracteristicthat l ~ heen a meacurrd from a sample \.enus the wmple number or time.
T l ~ chart
r consists of (a) a cenler l i ~ ~\rfliicl~
s. represents the mean value of the charac-
teristic correspondins to an in-control state: (11) im 1r11l)erconlr~l limit (UCLI: and (c) a
t n i l Tile control limits are selededsucl~that iftlie pronss is under
/ 0 1 ~ ~ # - ~ 0 ! l t / i(LCL).
statistical control. nearly all the sample points w i l l plot beh\'een Illem. If the \;lriance

-
oftlie ~lualitycharacteristicis d and the standard de\iation of tliecliaracterictic iso. tl~en
tile control limits are hpically set at +30 from tlie rrnter line. Points that plot outside
o F t l l ~control limits are interpreted as e\idence that the process is out of control.

103.1 Control Charts for Atlributes

Solne quality cltancteristics cannot he ensily represented numerid!\: For erample. we
~!iayI)? conmrned with \vl~etlieror not a \\$re imnd is defective. In this case, the bond
I>>,.
17, ,,,.a,*,
is dassified RS either defecti\.e or nondefmti\.e (or equi\:ilently, confonninc or nonwn-
(4 lom~ing).md tllere is no nunierical \alne associated\vitli tl~eqoalityof the lwnd. Quality
Figurs 10.17 T,\B ppmcecltnrr.' ( a ) Leads lmvered into position ;and aligntrl ehwr lmnding pi cl~ac~cteristicsof this hv are referred to as nttril~trtrs.
ih Tml desmnds and pedorms hnds. (c) Tml and film ;,re nised so a 13 .:v I!;? c:m 'Jc. mow
into position.

Upper mntml limit

.--
--&I
'C

Strlnlntr
Figurn 10.18 Flip-chip hondinq.'
 109 Statinical Process Contml 239

T,,, comtnrnonl? usnl contml cl~lrtsfor attribr~trsare the drfrcf cl~nri(or c d m n )

till. r l 4 y - t d,n.\-it,,clinri (or t,-cl~,,n). \\lien n syw.cifintionis not sntislipd in a ~ ~ 1 .
,,
,,ct, dpl;u.t or nnn(~nfonaity nr.,? result. In sl~chc ; s r S , it is possibtr to rlrwlop mu.
tml vll;trtsrort.itla,r tJw total ~ ~ ~ ~ n i l w r o or f dt l~~fdried
e~ ~ t s~dlenrihTl~rsrdlnrts xqucne
tl1:,t tllr prescn(v of rlrfects i n santplcs ofconstaat size is appmprintel? modrlpd h!. the
p,,,~.~,,, r/,,rtril,t,,i~,r.'.ill \rhich tllr prnl>abilityof a rlrfrct wcllrrillg is $c~\.PI~ hy IKL=ii-3 -
t
\vllere r is ~ I I Pavenge nr~nlherof defrcts owr m gmaps of sample sir*. n.

,<hrre is tile. ,,tl,n[rr of drfeuts md r is a constant grcnter tl~unzero. For the Poisson EXAMPLE 2
,listriblltjor1,r is lntll tltr alean and tarinnut.. TI~~rrfore.
the ccl~nrtwit11 i3o control
limits i e Ejrrn hs S u p p t an IC rn;muC&ddc(l~rcr wnls ln cstahlish a dcfcd denrih chart. Tsvnty clillrrrnt s,.,mplc3
of s i 7 *I~ = .5\clrcm am inspec?r<l.and r total of183 defec(srrr k,lmd. S r i ulp ihc u<lrrrt firr thi%
ucL=c+3&
sit~li~ti~n.
Centerline = c (2)
LCL=C-~&
;~s,,mine that c is LSIO\tn.iA70t,-:if these calculations yield a negatk'e \ d u e for the LCL,
the stnnrlanl pnciicv is lo set the LCL equal to 0). I f c is not known. it I I I S Ibe
~ rstimated
fmm an o h s e n d ivrraze nl~~nlwr
of defects in R satnple (5.). In this c s e , the control
Thir is thc entrr line for the u-clvwt.The rapper md lr~\vvr
control limits a n l r fotlnd from Eq s
clrart 1nwn1c-s r,,llm~5:
UCL=?+~&
Center line = T; (3)
LCL=?-~,~

EXAMPLE 1
s u w the in.qwc%onof25 rilimn traferr !ields 37 defects. Set up a c-ch.:? ior this situatil 10.3.2 Control Cham for Variables
lu many caws. quality cl~aracteristicsare expressd as specific nnlneric n~eas~trraicnts.
SOLUnON \\i.ntimale c ttsin-g r.~tliertl1:111 messing the probability of presencr of defrcts. For rumple. tllr thickness
of a film is an important characteristic to Be measured and mntmlled. Contml cllarts fur
continuous \fariablessucl~s this can pro~idemore infomation reg~nlingrn;u~nlkrtur-
ing process performance than sttri1)utr contml cllarts like tbr c- and rt-cllarts.
This ir the enter line for the c-ehnrt.lhr upper and Icnver mntml limits ran l>rfoltnrl fmm Eq. 3 \\lien attempting to mntml continuous variables, it is important to mntml hot11 the
L5 fi,llm\s: mean and \~arianceof tlie oualiW
, , cl~nracferistic.This is tnte hecarrsr shirts or drifts in
~~~=F+3fi=5.13 either of tl~esrparameters can result in sipificant mirpmssing. Cantrol of the me.m
~~~=~-3fi=-2.17 is acl~iew(lusing an i-chart. and vnriancv can be nlonitod using t l ~ es t m d ~ n clmin-
l

Sin* -2.17 < 0.\ r set

~ the LCL equal to 0 in this care. - tion as in an s-chart. The names of these hta charts orieaate fronl the an~npl?rrlrnn if)
respec(ivelr: are S i r r n Iry
and .samplr vorinr~ce(s'). \\,l~icl~.

Suppose \rr would like to set up a mntml chart for the nvmngr n ~ ~ m hof e rclefects
over a sample size of n prcilocts. I f there \\.ere c total defrcts amon? t l ~ 11r samples. thrn
tile m.efil<r n l ~ m l r of
r (lefrcts per sample is

whew x,. x:, .... x,, are obsen2tions in a sample of size 11.The square mot of tltr sarsplr
Tl,e plramrtrrs of a .lodried densiv chart iu-chart) are then @en by vari:mce is ino\\n as the .sflrnl~/osfn~~r!flr(/(/c.~~iolinn
(8).
 103 StatisticalProeers Comrol 4 ~1

Suppow na vmmles of rim 11 :rn=mllt~Ied.Iff,, f,.....?. - a r r the s:lnlple mcnns, 11,~ TABLE 10.1 c, Panlnmr lor ,Char(
). >r,l~irltis @vrn I,?
h.a Nomator for thv true mean (pl is thr ~ m n d n t r m C p(i Sample Siw ( 1 1 1 Ct

2 0.7979
3 o'iqh?
4 0.~213
sinm. F rstiatates p, it is usrd KS the N.ntrr line of the?-chnrt. It can nlso b shown" 5 0.9.llX)
th:,t if A qlldih d l a ~ ~ c i r l i r tisi ci ~ o m ~ d l ~ < h s t ~ i \\lth
h o t ~auhlo\vn
l nlenn p imcl standad
ck.,i.ltiorla. th.n F ix :3ro a o n n a l l y d i s M I ~ ~uith~ t ~ <n~e:u~
l and stnndnnl dr\iatioa on/;; -
6 0.51515
0.9591
Thta. thr wntpr line and mntrnl lilnits for the Echart srr fi n.wm
9 0.%93
10 n.51i2i
- 11 0.9i.Q
Center line = .T (9) 12 0.9ii6
13 0.9794
14 O.YSIO
15 O.YLi23
Sin* a b ianlinomm. it must also he estimatnl by analyzing pmt data. Calltion must 16 095.3
he ; ~ ~ p l iinn ldoinc so s i r w s itself cannot be used directly ~s the estimate lwcause s is li 0.9'445
not an vnhiad estirnntor o f o . (The tenn tr~tbio.~rd referr to tile s i h l a f i ~ nin a.hich tile 18 0.95.54
e q m v r d \:due of the estimator isequal to the p m t e e t e r Iwingestimatrd.! Insteads a&l- 19 09%2
all\-cstitnatrr r,s. \vherr r, is a statistical paramrter that is dependent on t h r a ~ n ~ psiw
le 20 09569
iuv T ~ h l c10.11. For ,n s2mples ofsize 11, the avemse sample staadsr~ldeviation is 21 0.9476
22 0.miS2
?3 0.9USi
24 0.999?
25 0.94%
It turn? out that the statistic Z l c , is. in fact. an unbiased estimator of o.
In addition. the standard daiation o f r is 06.
Using this information, the con.
tml Iilnitc for the s-chart can be set u p as follous:

Center line = 3

LCL=~-~AG SOLUTION The salur forc, for n = 5 (found in Tahle 10.1)is 0.94. The o p p r and lmvcr control
C.
linnits fix E can be found fmm Eq. 12 ss follo~s:
\\'hen.i/c, is uwd t o &mate a.the limits on the conecpondingf-chart may be defined as 31
U C L = ~J=4.14pr
+
33
c4 "
UCL=T+-
c, &
- 35
LCL=,T--~=3.88 pn~
r =
C m t ~ line
ttppcr lmver mnlrol limits for s can ir found fmm Eq. I I % flolmn:

CL=.?+3-:\L-
I c: =019vm .
C.
EXAMPLE 3
Stqqmw i- and reharts aw to hr -tahli<hd to nmhnl linm\idth for a lith-ph! pmorss. Tivent).-
fnr. ~IiITcrcntsamples of size n = 5 lincviclth an mrzurcd. S l l p p thc p n d awlage for the
125 lrnn is 1 0 1 vnl. If; = 0.09 mm. what are thr mntml limits for thc r-ch:trt'
 c 10.4 STATISTICAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN it is mntriv:~lrlrt l s t t l ~ rliNc~rc~~rr
r obsewcd w l ~ l dIK*d11eto ~ w r i r n ( l ~emor. ~t~l
ator errnr. o r r\.?!l nunachancr.
~,~,,,,,,,,,.~~t~ ;dPnr. it~\rstic;ttr,rs
to determine the ~ f l j c t sof srvrr.~l\rrinblcs on a pivrn ~ ~

T h r proper ;lpprn;~chto d r t e m i n r \vhethrr tlbr rlifirrrnn lwhvwn tlte nvo mancg.

I,n%'.,, ,,, pmluct. .i rlr~i<nc,lc..ty.",rrvtI is a lest o r series Of trSts t11;lt involve p,,r. f i ~ c t ~ i r iprocrssc-s
t~s is simifi<xnt is 7, / ~ y j ~ n t l ~I(,.Y/.
v s i ~A statistic~ill ~ ~ ~ ~ ist a; l stat?.
t ~ s i ~
P M . ~ IL~. l I, , , ~ ) ~1~0.tl~est.
~ \.~Tii!l~l~~s
in cbnlrr to obsrn-r tllr rNwt of the cl~;m~t%s os t ~ , ~ ~ mrnt i~lmt~t t11c\.id~resnit11c piknm~ter\nf ;) l>rol>ahilityrlistril>tttioe.A IqFtllr5is trrt
I,nKv.,s ,,' ,,m,,lt,rt. Smti,vrir.nlt~.~~n'nu.riloIrl~.~i~t~ is an ~ f i c i e n at ~ p n l l c hfor qf elg;ll. is ntl c\nltn:~tionof tile \xlidityof the l~!vtl~esisttcmnllrtg t,, some criterion. I i!ythwr
,,i,llr t ~ , ~ ~ , . ~ ~ ~pnxx.s t n ~ l \i~rii~l>lrs
l ; ~ l ~ land~ i~lti~n;~tclyclc~tt~r~t~inin~ thc.ir ilnpnrt arc rrpr~.ssr(lin the F n l h ~ i n gInannrr:
,,,, pnx,.,x ,,r pnxluat qu:dit!: or Iw,th. This :ipprn:~rl~is 1 a c 4 t I fur r o m p a r i z ~mrtllwls, ~
,bvllrrin~ ~ l r F ~ r l r n r i r;tud
~ . crratiltg in$xlrlsto pndirt rfliu.1~. 11": p = p,,
st.,ti,+ictl pnxr<swntn,l ;aal crlurinlrntal dc,sip~an, closely intrrrrlatnl. Rot11trrll. 11,:p*p<, (I:,,
ctll I*. l~slrl to rcdttrr, \nri:rh~lih.Ilo\r.rvrr. S I T is I p:\ssiw approach in tvllicl,
pnxy.cs k n~onitonrl; u ~ l m,ILrtrul. \vl~rn.irre.xprrin~~t~lnl clesip w q t ~ i n active~ s intrr. \vl~erethe statentcmt !I,,: p = pmis c ~ l l c dthr ttsll hypofli~.vi~.and 11,: p +&,is cnlled t l ~ e
,r,tt~onin pedonnino, tvrts on tla. pRKVS 11ndt.rrliEcsn~ntcondition. Exprinlrnld desim okcn~n/it:rI~!ll~o/hmir. Tn irrfunn ;I l ~ y p t l ~ r stest.
i s wv wlrct a random xtn,plr from a
';ul ;also hr 1r.ncliri.d in i ~ ~ ~ p l r z ~ ~ r ~since ~ t i ~dc~sipa.d
~ q S I Texprimmts
. nlnyl~elpto ill&,. populalio~~. co~npulean appropriatr test slatistic. ;and l l ~ r n~ i t h rarm p 1 or rejrct tlnr. nldl
tiiv 1 1 , ~tnwt infltwntid p m s ntriahlrs. is arll ;atheir optilnam settings. I~!potllrsis. For thr )ield c.xpvriment, h ~ I~!pothrsis
r tmt GIII lw rrprrsentc<l:u
(h.<.mIl. cqwrirn<.ntal rlrsiw is a pnrrriul er~gin<willftool fnr inlpnairg a man,,. H,,: M, = P,
I.tct8mnq prrx~.qs. Applicittioa of ?.qwrilllelltal dc-sip1 trchlliqnes can ie:lrl to impmpd
\it.Ll. r<~lr,<rd vwi:thility n.d~mri~ P Y P ~ I ~ I I I ti~ne. F I I ~ and r r ( l ~ ~ r v cost.
d Ultimatclv, thp I~,:P,*PS (14)
n w l t is rr~h.tn<x~l t t ~ ; ~ r ~ ~ ~ f a r t ~perlbnn:mw.
~ n h i l i h and p n x l t ~ drrli:lhilih The folio,,.. \\,here p, and M,, reprrsent t l ~ mean
r yields for thr. hrv rncthmk.
in^ wtions illmrtnte tltv use n l ~ ~ x ~ r i n ~ de er s~i tp;~i~net l hods in IC fabrication. To evaltlntc this 11)'pt~lrsis.a IY(./ .stflli.~licis reqlliwd. q l r nppropriate test slatis
in this caw is"
10.4.1 Comparing Distributions
Cnnrid~rtla\ield data in T h l e 10.?obtaind fmnl an IC m a n ~ i l a r t u r i n g p n w in
r ~t\.l~ich
hm lr;itr.ltc*sof 10 \r:d<.rs were Grbrirat~lllsingnstandnrd methml (.\lrtltod A) and a nld.
l Ill? qa?stion to he anmvrred f m ~ nthe e q ~ ~ i ~ nis\~Ilat
i f i d mrthnl ( \ l e t l ~ n RI. ~ r n teti.
d r a w cii any\ dnrs t l ~ rd;~t;icvllecird prn\idr tllat hlell~wlB is rcali? Iwtter than
c.,
where and y, are the sample means of the ) i e l k for each method, n, and ?I,, are the
nllmlx.r of trials in e;sh satnple (LO each in this caw), and
>lt.thnl :\'?
To mnwr thk qlrestion. \ve examine the avenge yields for rach p n ~ w sThe . mod.
ifinl tnctllocl !\lrtllml R) save an nvenge !irld th;tt \vas 1.30% hither than the standard
n~etlml.Hn\vr.nrr, tn thr considen~hlp\ariabilihin tllr indi\idu:d t-t reslllts, it might
not he comyt to imn~nlint~ly mnclude that %lethod B is snperior to Xletlwxl A. In r~a. \vltich is rerered to is the /IOO/IV/ ~.~tirn(t/~.O / I ~ I CC O ~ ~ P ~wriottc~
O U of the t1t.o procesws.
The drmoninntor of Eq. 16 is calletl th(. number oirlrgrrrr offwr(Ion1 for the h!pnth-
esis test. The \.alnes of the sample variances are calcalatt'il using Eq. 7: r, = 2.90 :in11
s,, = 3.65. Using Eqs. 16 and 15 then giws \~d.llncso f s = 3.30 m d I.. = 0 . S . resvctiwl!:
TA8LE 102 Yield Data Imm a Hypothetical IC
Manufacturing P r o e m \\i, uun use i\ppr~xbxI; to detenninr the prnl>a&litYof colnpntting a piws statis-
tic vilh a wrixin nrrrnlrr of degrers or frc.rclo~~l. Thi$ prob:bbilih ir rrpresrntd hy the
\\:tit., \t,.thnl A S I ~ t h nBl s l ~ a d r dregion in the l i p r e in tllv : l p ~ n d i sInt~qwlatinp
. front Appm~lisR.\w find tl~at
Ylvlcl ('TI Yirlrl l % l -
thr likelilrwd of mlnputing a I statistic \\it11 91, + PI,, ? = 1 s d q r r r s of frrnlom rq11al
to 0.84 is 0.195. The v:d~le0.195 is t l ~ e . s l o l i . ~ / i r n l s i ~of~t ~l ir fI il !~' ~p ~ b~ ~~ l~trst.
i ~ This
me:llls tllat there is only n 19.J"c chnnrr Illat the o h s m l ~ dc l i f l r r r n ~I)rt\\,ren
~ the Inran
)irlds is due to pure c l ~ m ~ cinr .otl~craanls. tvr can Iw 30.56 a>nfidrott h ~ !drtl~ml t R
is renlIys~~~(.rior to Mrthod A.

10.4.2 Analysis of Variance

The previous e ~ ~ n l psho\vs
lc IIO\V we migl~tuw h~'pthesistrstitlg to m m p n . hro (lis-
tril>utions. Ilmvcver, it is aften importlnt in IC nlanufi~ct~~ring
i~pplic:+tio~~sto hr ahlr to
mlnparr w,.ml distribl,tions. hlorm\rr. NV might illso IF intercsta~din ~ l ~ t r n n i n i ~ ~ ~ a . l
pmcrss con&tilms in pnrtical;lr h a w a siplilicsnt impact on pmct.ss qaalih A!~ol!~vi.\11f
unm,lw(AX()\;\) is :I,I pscrllent teclmi~lt~r lor:tcmmplishing t l ~ e oh~rdi\.es.
s~ ;iSO\':\
 10.4 Statistical Experimental Dasign 4 215

Each slim ofsqblores l~nsan mnci:~trtlnnm1n.r of d r m c ~of %frwdoln

~ n~rl,lirrcl
for
its co~np~ttatioe. Thr <lrlprresof frcrdon~fnr 1 1 1 ~\itl~i~t-tr~atm(.nt.
~ I~~.t~vvc~~.tn~at~~
nnd tot:tl stlnlr of sqllnr~~s.
n ~ s ~ c t i v r lan,
y.
... ~

, v, = N - l ;
m,,s,,l,.r i,, T . , I , ~
1 0~ . ~, ~. l , i ~n~pn~st~ntsl~~lntl~rti~xl
l, drfect dpnsitirs n ~ e x % u ~ ~ ( i
,," ,v.,j,.n f;,l,,.ic+tcyltlrillS firer clinisnvlt sets of p n r r s s n - r i p s (I:IIVIP~ 1 t l l r n l ~ .I),
~l~ v,=k-I (21)
n,m,,cl, tltc ,L<cs ,,(.&NoV;\. \\ill ,l<*tt,nninr~ v l ~ ~ ~ttll~o&
r rs c w [ ~ ~ # ~/ cmi'et sr ~ ~ vtwips
n v,, = A' - l
,.?, tn..,tlllrl,tr) is trill? , p a t r r tllu!~thr \-.triation nf tltr \ia rliat~~rtcrr
a!i/hi~it l ~ in&.
r Rnal quantity needed to cany out anal!sis of tarinn(* is thc pmlrvl rstim:ttc of
,jd,,:,l Cn,ul,s of\i;ts pramwrl uitlt tlrr s?111liPri[w. (' the varinncc quantified bycacl~s u ~ nof vl~lares.Thir quantity. h m \ n SI: tltr m,-o,t .iq,tnrr.
b.1 k Ir tllP n s ~ n l hofr tw;ttnlrnts ( k = 4 i n this case). Note that the srunplc sin! (,I) is the ratio of the sum ofsqualrs to its iusociatc~lnulnlrr ~ ) f d ~ q r eof e r irccdnm. n~r
forrrlt tmatrl)rnt\>lric.s (tr, = J. rt2 = n , = 6. i ~ z d,I, = 8).T11r treatinPnt I ~ P O I I S(in m1-2) uithin-trmtmcnt. tvhs,ren-trrato~unt.and topal nlrnn squnrrs arc tb~rrforr
.w ;rc fr,llmn,~: -
5, = 61. ij, = I%. q, = 6.5. and ij, = 61. The total I I I I ~ I ~nfWsan~ples
~ ( s )is
2-1.and tllp m . u ~ nwr.yr
l <ofitll 24 s;~nrplrsis = f4 em-'.

S u m s of Squarer
T,,Ixfiom.\SO\:4. sr\rr;tl kry plr.enrtm must in' mmplltrd. n l r s ? panm?tm. cnlld
arnrv ,,f rr7rmn~.s. sm.1- to quitntify clr\i;tti<)ns\\%tliinand hehvrell diffilrc~~t
treatme~lts.
I r t y,, w p n r m t the lth obs~rnttionfor the lth twatlnent. Thr sum of squiues~~%thin tllr
ttll tn.;rlnlrnnt is ,*vtv~ h\

r ~ n, is~ the w~ r n p l size

e for the trrat!nent in question and IJ,is the treatment mean.
The ~t~ithin-rm/,,te~~ztatr11 of sqrmres for all trentalents is
ANOVA Tahle
Oow thr panmeterr just d r s c r i k l havr heen computed, it is c s s t o m a ~
to arrange them
in a tal,nlar format mllrllrcl an AA'Ol'A toblr. Thr g e n r l fonn of the ANO\':\ tahllr is
rlrpictnl in T n h l ~10.4. Thr ANO\',\ tahlr that cvrrrspontls to the defrct densit\. d;tt,~in
To qtlmtic the deviations of t l ~ etreatment averages from the p a n d 3vemqc. \vc use the Talrle 10.3is sho\\n in T:ihle 10.5. Note that in lntll the Sum of Squaws and llryx-rs of
I~tnz~e-/r~ntm w /o/.~qrorps.wldoh is given hy
nrta
Frrrdonl colnmns, tile values for iwhverll and \b%lliintreatnrents add up to give tllp cor-
n.sl'onding total d u e . This ad&ti\.e p m p r t y of tllr sutn ofsquarrs nrisrs frunl tllr ake-
h n i c identity
"
Finally the total sum of squares for all the data alnut the p n d sv,-mxr is ii~.-~'
,., 8 I ,
L
=~n,(y,-~)'+~~(y.,-~,~
I., ,.I

or rqtthslently.
S,, = S , + S,

TABLE 10.3 Hypothetical Dded Densities [in em-'I Tllc mnlpletr ANO\',\ tahlr pmvidrs a medinnim~for testins thr h!-ptla~sis that all of
lor Four Different Process Recines thv trrptniont rne;lns ;,re erlsal. Thr JIIIII l ? \ ~ n t h ~ sill
i s illis GLW iS tllll~

TABLE10.1 General Fornutof lhe ANOVA hbls

s,,,,, nf Drmrrr of \lwn Squaw
 10.4 Stalinical Experimental Oesipn 4 147

nuu 18s AIMVI Tabla tor Via Diemeter Dam

(illlll ~~1 I),.FY.- of \Iran sqtn.~n~ F Ilrti,,
nV
. ~ ~ , of r m~tius

*mw,, tre.,l,3><'!lt>
\\:,h,c, lrr.*t,~~l,t.
&IU.Q"'Y
.
s, ?2*
5,- 111
Fn.adors
,,,= 3
,; .20
s;
9;
- ifi.0
= 5.fi
$4= 13.6
-
%>,.,I s,, . $10 I,,, = z3 s
;
,. 1.1.8

nllll b,F>lhesis \vt*re tnle. the ntin .r+; uwuld follmv t l ~ F r distribution \citl, ",
,.e <lW& of f m l ~ ~Int~qwI:$ting
t ~ . fn~rnApp?n(~sL. 111e.siz!~$rfl~~c~ Imt-I (LC,,,
,I,. finr s,,t,scnpt of the F \idt~t-sin thv 1:1blrs) for 1 1 1 011scn.ed
~ F ratio of 13.6 tvitl, 3
:UIdpSnys ,,irrn~lo!t~is O.NWMl(i.This nirans tllat there is eel!. it O.(KU(i% c 1 1 ~ ~ ~ ~
tll.tt tllc ntr.ms :ur in f.r<N~II:L!. iutd IIir n111lI ~ > ~ ~ ) t lis~ discwlited.
esis 111 other aa&,
,,.,.r.l, k 9 9 . ~ sure 3 ~that real ilini.mcrs exist aolonp t l ~ erot~rdifferent processa
in our ewmplr.

TABLE 10.6 Two-Lavel Factorial Exnarimam

10.49 Factorial Designs
EFrimentd clesim is an n ~ i i mr ln r t l d ofcnnductingeywrimenh to extract the m . s -
imtlm mount oiinforn~;ttionirnm a lirnit~ln~~mhrofe.qxriments. Ex~rini~nfaldes
tecllniqrnrs ;*re?mplo!rcl in mmufac<uring lo s)strnlatically and efficirntl!. e.xplore
rlf<esa f a srr ofinput \ari;~hles,orjndnn (such as pmcessioS tempen~tore).on respon
(njcl~;w !iekl). Tltr unif!inq feature in statistimlly desipetl e.ywrinirnts is that all Iac-
ton a v \~rimIsintt~ltmmus!\: a opposed to the more tratlitiond "one-\:~risl>Ir-at-a-tin ne"
trcllnique. A pmprly d r s i q ~ el x ~ r i m e n mt n minimize the n u ~ n l x ofr experimerllal
runs tlast \auld otl~rntkwl r required if this approncl~o r m d o m s m ~ p l i n us r r e usc!(I.
F:eorial r ~ r i m r n t adpsips
l ;ire of great p m c t i d impoltnncr for IC irLm~~factnr
ing
applic~tions.To p r f o r n ~a factorial e.yrilnent. an investisator selects a Inred numl wr
of l<r.cIr for each of numher of \nriahles (facton) and nrns e q x r i n ~ c l ~ c i all possi:hlc
rnmhinationr of l l r iewls. Tuv of tlw most iniportant issues in factorid rxpprime~l llal
~lrsi.m< are cllomine the set of facton lo he trricd in 1l1eexyriment an11 cpecifvirlg t l ~ e
\\%at can we detennine fmm this factorial desip? Furtl~ermore.a,l~atrloes llle data
n n w s o\vr a.l~irlt\:%riation \rill take placp. TIPchoicv of t11rn~lrnlxrof fiavton directly
mllrcted tell us ahout thc effect of pressure on deposition ratr?The e h t of an) single
;~ffcctsthe nomhrr of erperin~entalnlns (an0 tl~ereforethe mst of the esperinleot).
mriahlc: on the response is called s lnoin #~d.The m c t h d used to m r n p ~ ~such t e a main
Two-Lmel Factorials effrct is to find tllr difference behveen ilrr averase deposition rate \,,hen the pressllre is
Iligll (i.e.. nrns 2. 4, 6. 8) and the awrage dcposilios n ~ t w c l ~ mthr prrssrlre is IOW
TIPmges of tllr pm variables invcrti,ptnl in kctorial experiments c m he discreti7~d
into minimum. nl;r-6mum. and "c~nter"ievels. In a frrn-/m/ fndorinl (lc.vlgfl, llle mini- (ntas 1.3.5. ;ind i). hIatl~eniatieall!: this is rx-ressed
mum snd n~aumoml r r r k ofrach hctor (nonnalizrd to take on \nlocs -I ;tnd +I. respec- - -
p = dn, d,- = ~ w [ ( d+,d, + d , + rl,) (d, + d., + (1, + 101 = 40.S6 (24'
tivrly) are ustvl tosrthrr in clry possihlr mmhination. Tl~us,a full hvo-le\.rl factorial
,\.llere p is tile main evrct for pressure. (1,. is the a\rrage deposition rntewhpn the pres-
e p e r i l m s t with 11 Lwtorr requires 2" rxprrimentnl nzns. The \mioes factor level mm- sl,m is lligll, md d i.; ,Ile ;,wvape deposition mle \~-I~PII tlie presum is lour. \\'e inter-
binatinns of ;I tl~rre-factoreqxrinient cln be represented pictorially a5 the vertices of a pret tllis rrslllt s sLo;\ins that the werage evert of incrr:nins pressup frnm its lo3wst
c u l r , is shorn in F i p r r 10.20. to its lligllest leWI is lo increil(e tile drpositio~imte by40.56 Jbnlin. Tllrotller eflPds
Tirhlr 10.6 s h a ~ ar 2' fia?nrial eqxrilnent for a CVD p r m s s . The three facton arr for tclllperalure nllcl flo,. ~ ~aret me m p t ~ t n in
l a siniilar nlsnner. In grnerd. 111aill
tpmprellorr (TI.prfAssllrr(Pi. and ~aflow n t r ( F ) .The response k i n g mras~tredis t l ~ e for cacll variable in htv.lm.el L s t o r i ~e~ql x r i m m t is 111~
dirfermee kh\.ffn the
drpositinn rate i D ) in snestroms per minute. Tlie l ~ i ~ l i rand s t loucst lrvrls of r a c l ~lac-
tor :In. rrprrwnted b-! f l ~ +r and - siyms. rrsprc+i\.t.ly T11r 11ispl;y of lewls c l r p i c t ~in l
1I1ca fin1t l ~ r e cr n l t ~ n ~ of
n s this tahle is mllml :i,/c.$ip~ ~nof"~.
145 10 IC ManufacNnnQ
01.g~ 10.4 Statinical Experimental Design 4 2.49

\\; .,Isn iltt,~n-st~%li n qnt;tntiT\i~r$Ilmv htn or nlore facton inlrmcl. For cmm. rntrirs. IT,~enr.raI,tllr fist di,hor ,,ill lr T, and
(3) rntrics hy tllr Divisor rnl~s~nn
,,!'., tl,.,t rl,.. pn.ss12rt,, . k t is tnocl~p a l e r i?t iligll 1~111pr.lllln~s
than it is at wm:tilliog~li\iron\\ill he 2'~'.The first rlr,mvnrt in tlir ldmtific:t;ion (ID)coll,,rln i5 ,llc
: ,% ~ , . , , , l x . ~ , t ~:~Im
~tat..Lstln,
. ~ . of this int~rilclio~i ~ l 11s.clilli.renrn iwh,%-rn
is p m \ ~ l c I,? grand nvvmgc ofall of t l al~sm.ati~tns.
~ ~ ;md tlrhn,~nainintgirlcntificntion\;Ire dC.rivc<l hy
I I ~ , . .n,.r.,cv lpns~,,n.rltlrt \,itl, tc.rnpmit~~n. l~iglland tllr il\r.ragc prc'ssllre clli.ct wjtl, InL';llillg Ill? pills s i p s in tla*d?sifl.n inntrix.
I , . , , , ~ ~ ! , ,Ihne v 1% rnnv~~ntion.
~ l ' t l ~ i r is ~ d kt ~l t e ~ ~ n ? - ~ ~ n ~ - h ~ ~ f ~ r ~ ~ x ~ r n t , , ~ hlll~o~~elz
I ~ ~ ~ ~ o rliffen.ncr tl~ri:~tesalgorill~~n pro\idt.s at rrlati\r.ly atrni~lltfon\~anl
mr~tl~wlolow for
,,,!..,,,~~r.7r~, tlr mrtholir.dl\: tllr P x T intrrilution. This intmrtion niny ailm Iw tlronsllt m m p ~ l t i ni.sp~rimrntal
~ cffects. it sl~ol~ldI,? pointrd out tltat modrm and!sis of statis.
.<< oi,,..l~;klitllrc~&.lrn& in tlnr avrrilge t~~~nlx~nttttre cfli~cls ;It lllc h!Tl levels of pk.s. tical rxprin~vtltsis ;~cco~nplisl~rtl :dmnrt urrln1si\.,4yhy mtnsterci;llly a\aild,lr s~tisti.
WR. \l,~tl~~~tr~:ctic:dl~~. thi< is cal soft\v:~rep;skagcs. A k.\v of hir morv conllrrorl packacc,s incllr<lcRSII. SAS. ;,"d
p x T =1 ,- d m = / d + + d + d - d d + 1 + 1 = 6.89 (26) \linitid>. T i l e s psckages mlnp!rtely ;lllrrist? the ntwssity ofprrfonning my terliona band
c;llc~d:~tions.
n,?P ~ ; ~TxFintpfi~~tions , d are ohtined in a sin~ilwf.asl~ion.Find?: \%%- nright a h o h
il,trw*ttd it) lire inrer.ntiot8 o f d tllm. hcton. ~Ienotrdis t ~ l e ~ ~ n : c ~ l t r - b ~ - f - f t ? l : l ~ ~ ~ r n l t ~ ~ ~ ~ Fractional Factoriat Desigms
p,*l- d,.or II,.-P X T X F i,,trmciion. nlk intcndion defines tl~ea\vr.l~~differrnrc hrh,.een A disarlvantagr of tlrr two-lr\.el factorisl desipi is that tla~.number of erpcrirnrntnl runs
.ul\.hrx,.(,le(or i n l e d i o n :it lltr l t i ~ hand imv Imrb of tlie tl~inlLactor. It is @cn incrrmm eqmncntiallly wit11 t l ~ enumber of fitcton. To alleviate thi5 mnwrn,jro~ionnl
PxTxF=(ImF, - d m = S . B S (27) Jnrforiol designs are mnstn~ctedI)? systrrnatirnlly eliminating sorne oi the NIBS i s n hill
fistorinl drsipl. For exa~nple.;i 11:Jf frnction;tl design n<tlt r, fndolr requires only 2.-'
It is in~porktntto note 111;tttlre !nail1 effect ofany kctor can be individudly interpreted ntlis. Full or fractional hr,o-level f:~;ldori;ddesignscan be used to rstitnate thr main ellrrts
onlv if t1,t.w is no mi<lencvtlnt t l k~t o r inCr.\cts \\itb other facton. nfintli\illlial facton a5% \ el' ns tllr interaction ?ff&s iwh~w?nfactors. Hmvever. t h q can-
not Iw used tomtiniatr quadratic or l~igliernnlerrffms. Tlris is not aserior~rshortmming.
'Ihc i'ptes Algorithm since l~iglier-ordereffects and interactions tend to lr smaller d ~ a nlo\vnr~lercffrcts(ie..
It c:u~ lr- trcli<nurto calculate the e&ts and interactions for h\~-levelfactorial eqxri. nlain efiects tend to he larger tl~anhro-factor interactions. alridi tend to he laxer tlzan
ments usin: tltr methixi just described. particularly if tlrere are more than tllree 1x1'on three-factor inteiactions, etc.). Ignoring Iriki-onlrr rffccts is mnceptudly similar to ignor-
ia\nh.rrl. Fortun;ttrh: tlw Ynfc.q nlgnritha~prndllrs n quicker m r t l i ~ofm~npr~tatio~l l t hat ing l~igl~er-onler tcrms in ;I Taylor series expansion.
h ; d o wl;iti\plyc-:~<ilypmfr..unn~e<lsia mnlputer Tn implement this algoritl~n~. the e qr r - To illnstiate the nse of fractionnl factorial desi,gns, let n = 5 and considpr a 2' facto-
inin~tdilcsign rnatm k tint arran~edin !vll;rt is c a ~ ~ ~ ~ r f f l r l d n r:\d2* o rfitctorid
r drsi"a,- rial desip. n i e ftd1 fadorid iimplcmentation of this <I?sip\vo~~I<l require 32 eqxrimental
is in sran~L,rdonlrr ahen the first column of the drsign mntrix consists of alternnting rims. Horve\.er. a zi' fractional C?clorial design only requips 16 runs. This 2" d r s i p is
minnrc 2nd plus siyms. thr srmntl mlrlfnn mnsists of st~cwrsivepain ofrninus and rlltls gmeclted h!.first \witingtllr design nlatrix for ;I 2' roll factorial design in stantlad order.
sicns. the tl~inlmlumn consists of four minus sims follotrd h\. follr phis sims. andl so Tlwn pltts and ininus s i p s in t l ~ four r columns of the 0' desitp matrix are racli "multi-
,'\ied" together to fom) a fifth mluinn.
~ . For esa~nplr.let? take ;ulotlrer look at our CVD erpcrimcnt. Suppose ur only hare
mnt;<ns thc deposition rates for ratcl~nrn. These are c o n s i d e d in s ~ ~ n e s - ipain, w Tlte tlic time or resottrces .a\.:"lablr to perfomi four deposition eqxrin~ents.rather t11.m the
lint f o ~ cntrirs ~r in column (1) are obtained h\.addinc tlrr pain tocetl~er.anrl tlie ned eiql1t required for a 2' htll fiictorial d r s i p . This cnlls for a I*' fractional factorial alter-
t'ottr .trr al,t.~inrrl13 -t~l,rr.,ciittetlw top n t ~ ~ n l wfrom r t l ~ olxlrtnnt nulnhcr of t.:,ch pair. n;rtive.This new design could be genentedby\\nting the 111112'desiq lor tlrr pressure
(:ol!~nin Z l 8s <,l,t;unnl from wlttrnn 11 in tlir <anIe W.IV. and col~nnv> !31 -ns ol~ta~r lrd t c r ~ ~ p r n t uvariables,
w and thrn moltipl!ing those mlumns to obtain a tl~inlmlu~nn
fmm rnlumn (21 To ohla~nthe eyxrimrntd effrcts. one need on], ~ I I \ T I ~tlie P mlu mn for flout rate. Tllis is illestrated in T a l h 10.8. The only dr.l%vl>ack in 11SinStllis
I,mclure is tllat s i l l c e , ~ bnve r~sedthe FT relation to rlefine m l ~ ~ nF. l n\tr: om no lonscr
r ~ ~ s t i , l ~hl i ~s ~hl $tile. effpets
~ ~ ~ofthc ~ P X T interactiot~;ind t l ~ Fr inain rffmt. \\l~ell tlbis
TABLE 10.7 Illustration of ma Valet Alaorithm ~ ~~
- ~~

,murs. tile two effects are s:iirl to be conJo1~11~11~11.

P T F y (It 121 (31 Di\isor Eflwt ID
- - - 91'1 20i.X 675.i0 1543.0 H 192.97 Aw
TABLE 10.0 Illustration of ??'Fractional
Factorial Dssian for CVO Example
 2.w . chip, 10. IC Manufacturing

F 10.5 YIELD
,.,,n,,l,,lih- in IC t,lnlltf;lr(uring proccssrs can irad to de~fonllntiollsor llonn)nfnrnlities wherc 1' is tllr fillrc1ion;~l!irhl. critical arm is tllr aria in a dcfrn mc,,rring
fi,,l.i!,,.d pnx~,,r(s.sllrh p m s (listerhancrr ofim rr~lllti l ~ f n l ~ o~ rl suninrmtional ~ )I%%a high pmlclhilily of nrultinl: in ;r klrtlt. For cx:tn~plu.ifpartielr 3 ill Figllrr 10.21 is

c, ,l,,zc.rl ll,p IX.rfOrnlill~~~rmelunsmrr o f r l ~ l m n i pc d u c t s . T111' pwsenrc ~ f ~ , , ~ ~ large rnaug11 and conrlnctiv~!.it llns fallrn inlo an area in wlticb it catlsrs a sltort Ileh\.ccn
,.,,,ll, q,,.antif;NlI,! tllr tn.u~t~r:tc(uri~~<!i~.I~L 1'icl(l is cldfifilml ;at l ~ prmntngr
r of~~r,,im 1 1 1 ~hvo nlrtnl lines it l~ridgcs.The rrlationsltip bchwcn tllr. virld.
, . rlrfol.t
~ dpn.i;h.
~ . .,.I . ~
or r,rnlils tl,;,t ,,,-,t nominal p r i u r ~ n l l l wsprcifi~ltioll. critical anra is mmplrx. It ilrpencls on lhr circuit gromrt~?;.111~.<lcr,silvof photoli~llo.
yipl~l r.,n 1". c$,tqc,li.,~l iu ~ ~ i ~ l ~ r r j r r ~ orj,flmrra.lrir.
c f i o r ~ ~ t l F~~nctinnnl yield is deter. ~ m p l ~patterns.
ic III? number of pbotolitl~oprapl~y stppr usrd in tlle tnm~tl:actt~rin~ pro.
I,,. tllr pmpoltlou oilidly litt~ctior~al (lmlucts. Oitrrl rcf<.rrrd to:^ 11;1nl!ielrl. tllp cess. ;nn<lotllcr f;~cton.A ic*rraft l ~ crnow crmrnos n~wlrlrthat ;tttcmpt to qa;mtifv tlti5
f,,,,lt,o,,~,ield "i ICZ is usually cl~:~r.~rtrrirrd In. opct~c i r r ~ ~ iot sr short circuits nued r<~lationsl~ipare dcscrihcd next.
h\. pl,pica clt.&.& rci p:~rticles). I n sotlle cxws. ho\te\rr. 1 ft1Ily ftllldional prwl.
,,A srill E,ik to 1nn.t pdorn~:utrr slx~ilicationsfur o n r o r mow paranlrtcn (sucl~ Poisson Model
noiqr. lrtP1, pmwr mnsttmptio~~l. Tla.s~,situations cbscrihed I)!. p:munetric !irlel Tllr Poisson )irld m d c l a5sumes tliat defects arc uniformly distribatrd acmT a snlwtnlc.
tor soit !irldl. and tliat ear11defect results in a fzult. P i n d a d e Cywz pm~i<lrs an emllcnt drniation
of this model.' Let C he the numlwr of circuits on a snhstratr (i.e.. tlrr nt8mlx.r o l ICr).
and let .\I be the n~rmheroflmssihlc drlrct ilprs. Untlrr tllrse wnditions. tllerc arc C"
10.E.1 Functional Yield n n i q ~ \cryr
~ e in \vl,icl~the XI drfrcts can he dist~ibt~tecl on the C circuits. Far r.umplr,
ncdnrlnpmmt ofn~mlelstoestimate the hmction:ll!ield of ICs is h~ndamrntalto mm. if tllcre ;trr three circuits (Cl. C2. . u ~ dC3) and time dcfwt bps (such a5 511 = mrtal
>ieldn n lirlp ere.
Itf,,dunne.:\ nlcvlel ~II;II pm\irlcs atctzcite estimates orm:u~r~C~cturing opm. b12 = metal sl~ott.ant1 h13 = ~rletalI to 111?tal2short, forenmplcl. tlitw Illerr arr
did p ~ l t j r m ( t . cl~lrnl~inroptimnnl cquipmellt l~ti~w!tioli. or he used a ;I nlehicaping C" = 3' = 2: (29)
,vl,iclt actad memtlrllrtrl m:+~~ufistt~lisg>irl~k can IF? e\nl~~ated. Yield rnc~lc~ls are also c,jt.
i d to sllpprt d ~ c i ~ i oinwl\ing
i~1 sew trclinolo$es and tlie idrntificittion ofpmbl em. possible wa!s in \vl~icl~tllese tl~reedefects can he distrihnterl o\.rr tllrre chips. nlpsp
;,tic p d t t c l s or pm-sses. conrbinations are illtatrated in Table 10.9.
:\s prr\iously mrntioned. functional yield is sipificnntly aWected by the prese'rice Ifone circuit is removed (i.e.. is round to contain no defeffs!. the n u n ~ l x ofn<ijs
r
o f d c f ~ ? sDefrcts
. n n wsult f m n ~many random sourws. including mnt:rmination f rom to distribute the M defects among the remaining circuits is
quipmrnt. p m s s r s or l~andling.Inark imperfrctionc, and airlmrnc particlrs. Pl~!sicatl~
tllcx. drf&s inrlrtde shorts, opens. misalipn~ent.pl~oloresistsplatters and flakes, pill.
holrs. seratcber. and c~?stnllo,ppl~ic fla\\s. This is illustrated h.! F i w r e 10.21. Tlius. the prohahilit). that a circuit will contain zero defects of an? t
p
l'icld mnrlrls are t ~ s ~ ~ apresented
lly as a hlnction of t l ~ eavrragc. n u r n l ~ of
r defects
p r unit arm ID,,)and ~ I I Prrilirfll orrn (Ac)of thr electmnic q s t r ~ n111 . o t l ~ e words,
r

TABLE 10.9 TMh Table for Unique raulr orn no ma ti om

Coml,inibtion Cl ce C? Combination CL C? C3

mnk

Kpvn 102l \:brious In which dust partirlr~can interfere with intcrmnnce mxsk pane
%5? C h w e r 10 IC Manufacturing

Slllmttttinr!Jf = C:\,D,.. tl~c!irkl is the nanllwr of circllits \titll 7rm clef<~ts,

or h l ~ ~ r pinitiall!.invvstigabd
l~y n usilorn, drnsity function, z sl~mvnin Fipnrr 10.W
lltr rval~~stion of t l ~ c)iclrl intcgrnl for tl~ritnifnrm dmsity hmctior, @vrs

F,,~J' rirclli~s a) ltarr i r r n defects, tl~islwmnles

y = e.v(-A,Da,)' = e.qd-A7ArD,,) (3'3) h111rphylntrr hrliwrtl tlint a G;i~rssi:~ndi.;trihu~tion\rouId k a lwttrr rrflrction of tl~r.
tnw dercct ~lrnsitydistrihntio~~ tl~tmtlie delta htnction. Ilmve~cr.sincr i,r \\:is isnablc
nepoi.wn ,n~odxlclS simple iutd relatiwly e;rry to derive. It pmbides a re;rronahly to integrnt? the )ictrl ietrgntl with I C.;IIISS~AII
htndirrn std~stitutedfor/cDJ.hc sppm.ri-
of!ield \r,)~pntlw critiod awn is srn;ill. Ifo\vrver. if I],, is callcalated b;Swl mated it using thr triang~~lar function sl~mvnin Fierrc! 10.2Z-. This h ~ t ~ c t rcs~tltr
i o ~ ~ in
~ ~ ~ x l l . ~rircrrits.
r r ; t ~rninstllr mmr D,, fnr l a r g e - a n !ielll computations r e s ~ ~ lint sa the !$rI(l rxTrcssion
,irbl e5tifnate tl~atis overly 1x-ssin~isticmmpnrrcl \\it11 a c t ~ ~ineirr~~red
nl data.

~urphy'sNeld Integral
R. r \f,,rpllY lint pmlmscd t h ~ the r thc defect densih ( D )should not be mn.
t \ n l l ~ of
stmt.' ~nstr:ad.Ilr re:sanrd that D ,nust Lr s ~ t m n ~ over
e d dl circuits and substmtes using The triang~larhlnrphy )ield model is ~ ~ i ~ luse11
r l y t d ~ iny indnrstly to rletermine the
a n o r n ~ d i ~prnl~xhilih
rl dcnsih h~~~ction.j?D). TIke !iel~lciln then be calc~tlatrclusing effi.ct of manufacturing prowss defect clensit\,.
the i n t c y d
-
Y = Je-""f(D)dD (34)
.. . ,. ..
big11rnorlpl~to nu%faults) a a l a slnnll propoltion olhi$~defrrt dpnsities ii.e.. II~<IIenolqi~
0
to cause f.aults). Me thereforr propred t l ~ ~r q n n e n t i a drnsiy
l function given by
Various forms of/iDl lorm the basis for the dilferencrs behveen snarly analytic4 )if
malels. TI,? Poisson modd ;asumes that/iD) is a deltn fu~lction,that is.

and shown in Fipl~re10.221. This function implies that the probability ofobsening a lo\\,
\I+IPTPD,$is the a\vmge defect density a7 before (see Fig. 10.22). Using this density rune.
defect densih is significantly higher than that of o h s e n i ~ ~ag higll defrct clensity
tion. the !ieLl is drtrnnined f m n ~Eq. 34 to Lr Sobstituting this eqnnentinl finetion in t l ~ cMurphy integral and i ~ l t r p t i n )si r l ~ L ~

.%lthouJ~ the Seeds mwlel is sia~ple,its yield predictions for 1;~rgc-areasabstrntrs arc
tno optirnistic. Therefore. this isodcl has not h e m niclely used.
Okabe, h'a,qtn. and Shin~adaremg\ized the p h g i n l nature of delect distriln~tions
and prnposetl the gamma prohahilit). drnsity fnnction.'" Stapprr Itas likm~isederrk~prd
and ap1)lied !ield n11xlels esizlg the gamnls dezlsih function." TIlr ganllna distribution
is @\.en hy
f ( o ) = [r(=)p.]-' D ~ - ~ , - " ' ~ (41)

\\,here a and p a r e h\a p a n m r t e n of the distrilnttios. and r i a ) is tllr garnm:) function.

~ r i a ) is SIIO\\TI for several \slues o f a in F i p r c 10.23. In this tlistrib~~tio~l.
The s 1 1 ; 1 of
t l r ave&e drfect densih is D,, = ap.
~l~~)iel~l,,~odclderived hY sn~hstitatitlgEq. 41 into h111rpllyPintcv.ll is
AD, "
yw,,,,.,

n l i s ,nodel is mmmollly r r f e m d to i s tile t~egntirxbino~ninlmulrl. The p?nnleter a

nlllst tlt drtemlinecl. 11 is gcnenlly calle~lthe cluster pnm~~leter hc~cnscit
increases ,,itll llecwsing rarianw in the distriht~tionof defects. If a is ili.e11. tll~llthe
(c) (d) ,.arial,iliy of defects is loat (little dt~stering).Ilnrler thew msditions. the $111iora rl~nsit!
Awn 1 0 Z Pn,habilihdrnsih functions for lo) the Poisson rnnlel. (1,) the uniform hluvhy
nlsxlel. ir.1 thr t r i a n ~ l a hfwph?
r model. 2nd (dl the crponentid Srdv modrl.'
.~~~~~~
p[,isso~~
, .
r,,,,cti,,n annrl,:lcllrs a l ~ ~ hlnction.
~ t n i ~ n the
naxlrl. hlothcn~alicallythis nlrarls
~ l ~ ~ r g l t i v1)inonli.d
o m d r l n d r l r ~ sto tllp
 the tl~resholdvoltnge of t l ~ etnmsistor. In tltis equation. C,, is a fimnion of tllr tl,ickn,.<r
of tlw oxide (11). and If.,is f t ~ n r t i nof~tl~p
~ oriclr tllicknrss ;D w.II .~r tla. doping in thc
channrl. nr I , , =.flC,, IfT).Rotl~of tlnesr di~nr~,<ions itrr sul,jra to rna~\ufn<zt~ritig pro-
wss \.;tri:ttions. l111*?n n tl111shc r l ~ a r a c t e + ~:r~
~ dvnqinq ncror<lilingto nonnal distnhtl-
tions \\itll melms p,~and #,and shtlrlanl rir~iationsa,:xnd a, rt~slx-cti\~rlv (srtc Fie. 10.21).

~.
rcSerhy uon~putingthe \.:~IIIP nf rIL, for r v r n ~mssil)I~: wtnbiniltion OF (;,;and 1.; n,e
result of t l ~ r s rmnrpl~tationsis :I final perforrnanw ~Iistributionlike the one rltm\m in
Fignrr lo.%/,. This probalrility density function can tl~rrthC use11 to mmptttr tltr pm-
pn~lionof h n s i s t n a having ;I fi\,rs n n g r of drive arrrc,ntr. For rmmplp, if we \,qintnl
to rne~plltrtlw p e r c ~ n t n pof hlOSFElS msn~~fac*lnr~.d that \\aald I~avra n l u e of I,,,,
hch\vrn h o limits n and 1,. !ltr\\.oll!d ~ \ ~ l w athe t e intrpnl

w i t ho < I , ,
~(XIOSFETS < h) = J ~ ( ~ ) d ~ (.ifi)
] f aisiOII: the o t I ~ e r I ~ :the
~ ~tilriabilih
d. (nl,rll
ofdrfrrts a c m s the wafer is si~~iificant
rltlstmrin). ;mil tltr ptmnia inmlel wrluc~.sto t l ~ eSeeds espnential ~ n m k lor ,
Tina, once the o v e ~ ~~lislril~ation
ll of a even o~nlputmetric is loimm, it is possible

the znanufnct~ringprocess to facilitate and ?ncouragr design lor tivan~~fncta~~hilih

1ftIlr critid area and defect d m i h are known (or can he .lCCnf'atel!. n l e a < ~ ~ r the
~l).
nq;,ti,,. hinoa,ial ~nodrlis :in excellrnt gened-purpose )ielcl predictor that m s he used
for ;t nrieh.of IC rnanafactllrill< proceSS?S.

10.52 Parametric Yield

Ewn in a dcfrrt-freemm~ifncturingenrimnment.randonl procrssie:variations can lead
to \*?in< levels of ?stem perfr,rmance. These v;lriations result from the fluct~tationof
nunlrmtjs pl~!sinl and endmnmcntal parameters (linetvidtlis. film thichesses. ambi-
ent humirlih, rtr.), ,vl~icl~in turn manifest t~lemselveras variations in filial ?stern per.
fonr~.ulcy(such as speed or noise level). Tl~eseperfomancevariations lr;al to "soft" fat~lts
m d i r e cllarnctrrirtl by the ~ ~ n r n m ~ iyidd
r i c of tile manufacturing pr<x.ess. Parametric
\ield is a mesure of tlrc qoalih of fitnctioning ?stems. \rzllereas lilnctiond yield mea-
surrs the proportion of functioning tlnits pmduced by the lna~ilrfactllri:~$ process.
A comnloo methml USHI to evaluate paranietric)ield is Bf~>rtlr Cnrlo sin~slalion.In
111rMonte Carlo approach. a large nulnber of psetl~lo-nndonisets of \JIUCS for circnit
or systcnl pmannetcrs arc $enrratwI acmrding to an assumed pmbahiliv clistribution (usu-
al!\ ~ I I Pnormal distribution) b;rsetlon sample nieans and stsndnrd d~\i:~tions earacted
fmm incasar~ldata For rach set o f p l c ~ m e t ~asimrllation
n. is p r f o n n r d toohtsn inror.
n~ationiho~ltthe predictrtl l ~ b a d oof r a circuit or ?.stem. Tllc ovrmll perfonnanw <!is-
tribatios is then rxtnctecl fron~t l ~ ar t of sim~~lation results.
To ill~~stratr
tllr Monte Carlo t c c l ~ n i q ~conskler
~r, as a performance mrtric the d r i v
currrnt ofan nrllannrl .\IOSFET in satr~ration(I,). It can he shown that"

(b)
\vl~la,rrj! is the \si~ltliof tlie dedcr. I, is its length. p,, is t11e elearon mobility in tile clian- figure 10.~4 ( n ) Normal prol~~hilit~
dvnrity ft~nctir,nsfnr C,,md \', (Irl O\mll pndx311ility
nrl. C,, is tl~ro e ~ l tcapacitance
. prr unit area. 1 : is the applied gate \,olt;~ge.and V, is dvnsity ftnnction finI,,,.
2 s . Chapter 10. IC Manufacturing References 4 257

w 10.6 COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING T l ~ lo\<,rr

r le\-r! of Illis hvo-lwcl arcl~ilr~ctarc includrr ~ l n h r ~ l dmntmlldn
~d tl,nt
. n f q u a s t i k ~ t cviduation
i~ of lC 111ilnef~lrills
p w b w s is a r m ~ n ~ l i i ~ ~ ~
t i d e real-time mntml ant1 snnl!sis of fabrication rqunipnacrlt. nlrsc
mntroll,.r, oftr.,, mn.
:,* nLlk,rii,
,lit.< . sist ofprnonal compulrn and llle nrsoci:itr<lmntnd software drtlicttcrl to <,arl~ indi,idtld
,i,mmp,,f,.rJ r,,tl,er tl,;,,, h\- hitnil mlntlatio~u.Xot only is Illis !son.eficient. hut in tm~lvi pic% o f r q ~ ~ i p n l ~Tnl t~. srmnd
c lcvrl of tllis IC-CI\l arcl~itectlnrcir cnlnpsrd or;, di<-
Nn,,,,,,,y it ~ ,.rsr-ntittl. F.tbric;~tionof intc*gmtr(lcircuits can bv q ~ ~ ie,qwnlsive,
te in tri1111tedincd area nrhsork of mlllputcr \rorkst:~ti~~ss and filr sma.rs link<.<l11). a eom-
hd,tilr i.<?t dKildr XVI! rlrctrunin n~nn~ifistaring iw.mlnr so c*lpihlli n l r n s i ~tllat
~
Inon distril>atedclatabaw. E q l ~ i p ~ ncnm~nunication
~nt ~ i t l~ost
h mmplntvn is f ; ~ ~ l i t ; ~ t ~
s m . ~mn,pw,ies
~ ofi,.,l find i t t o cnpensi\r to slipport lllrir Cl%wln l l o l ~ l f i s t ~ ~ r i ~ ~ ~
,*,,,,iC~ aatrof.tltr-stt i ~ i ~ I ~ - \ r r lm
u on~nrl ~ h ~ i u rfi~cilit).
i ~ ~ g t ~ l : l ymsts w t r c d
11') an electronics mallof:actllring slandarll c!allrtl thc. Crnerir ~*c/!,lpn,n,lmoclrl ((;I.:XI).
T l ~C r E \ l slanllanl is l a d in Iwth xnlicnnd!~rtoralanllf:~~h!rin~~ln(~prist~~Icir~~il lxrLrrl
,i ,nlmit,,l~t.
,-. .....-.. nlore than it mmp:mlblr f.~cilit\. 20 ?:In go. This Ilm led to tllc rise a s c a ~ b l yTllis strndnml is l~nscrlon thr .sen~ico~tdrrdor r</~llripa~rrzt
cornrntrairnli<>ns scnzl-
laqr Lntr.,dmanuf.a.h~rir~g
it~d~rstn. </or(/ (SECS) protocol.
.A,... :,
...r,-sldt
..
~~~~ ~~..,
of rising msts. tltr rl~sllrngrberow n ~ a n u f a d u r e ntmliiy is to offset s,,eh This h pof IC-CIA! srcl~itectureII;L$ great flcribilit): ;dlo\\ing ert~nsionand adap-
I;w r.lpit.zl in\rstn~rnt\\it11 a grratrr ;anoullt or 1wl111olo$cd ilmo\atio11 in the bb". tation to meet cunstantly cllanging reqeirrment. Over tlar p u t s ~ v c n)ran, l po\vcrhtl.
in ~ t I , ~ \rnrrls.
.r 1I1eolqrctive ow is to make us? of llle latest dr,'PIOp
fle\ible. and mst-effectix information 9 r t r m s b;wrl on mwlels sttell as t l ~ hI,n\.c hrmnle
mp,,rs ill m,no,nter 1tanla;lrr auld sulh\are t ~ c ~ l o o l nto
p 'enhlnce lll~l~lufi~c~lurin~
sletllorlq e rnanuf;tctaringmlerprie.
an i n t e p l palt o f t l ~ IC
,,,,,,,,rfnmr"nc ofilt&ptnl circr~ils(IC-Clhl)is ;UIIIN~at optimi7ing Illr r n ~ t - e T T c c t i , ~ ~ ~
orrl,emnin n l a n u b c t t ~ r i n ~tlw
i a s m ~ mmner
r ~ l ~ ~ r - o l ~ l db
in ~ v l ~ i c l ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~(CADI , s i SUMMARY
d ~10.7 ~t~
I,= dr.ln~~ttic~illly
a f i ~ t r dt l ~ emnomics
r of circuit d ~ s i @ l .
n ~ i cl~apterprn\idnl
s an a c n i m v o f t l ~ relrnvmt
e irsr~erm K , manulmunng. I sa I ~ C I \ B U M I
cndrr11,ro \ ~ w llttqnding
l ~ ~ , :sekrral suhtaqks !lave bn
of mlucieg n l a ~ u f i ~ c l u r imst.
a description of elrctricnl testing anrl I~asicpacka$ng p m ~ s s e sa,$\ r l l as a prrscnta-
iclpstilinl. ntnc incladr incrcming fabrintion !irld, n:(lucisg prwlllcl q r l c t i a ~ rmain. ,
tinn ofstatistical p r m s s mntrnl, statistid experimental design, and yield n~mlcling.Tlw
t;u,un~mnsirtent I t ~ r h of prwluct quality and prrionnence. and imprn\ing the rrliabil.
chapter concl~ldwl\\it11 a brief intrmluction to IC-CIM ?sterns. In IC manuf.cturing.
ih- of p m s i n e g t ~ i p n l r n t Since
. fabricntion processrs often consist of 111jndrelLof
prm-ss and equipment reliability d i m l y infl~lencetl~rougl~pul. )ield, and ultimatelymst.
.&pcntiid stqis. !ield Ion may ptmtidl! o r m r at e w n step. Consrq~lrntl!: maintainin:
O w r the nest s f 2 w n lyean. significant enhancerncnt of rnanufadt~ringoprnltions \rill
prrxlud q u d i h in an clectmrlin man~tbct~tring filcilih reqllires the strict mntrnl of liter.
l~ required to reaclt projected tzugcts for future genrrntions of tnicroelectrnnic dr\iws,
dl? h n n r l r ~ l sor men tltotuanch of pmccss \~lriables.The interdcpr~ldmtiuoes ofllidl packagrs. and syxtrms.
. qnalih:
\it.ld. lliell . . and lmv o ~ I tinlr e c i n Iw addressed In. the clrvelopt~~ent of smeml ~~ r i t~
. . .
icd ctpthilitirs in a sta~e-of-the-artIC-CI.\l ??itern: jrork-in-procczs (\ZlP) monitoring.
gtlipmnlt mntmunicition. data acquisition and stonge. p m s d r q u i p r n c n t modeling, anll b REFERENCES
w.d-time p m mntml. to w n e a f w . Tile e~llpllacicofeach of these acti:itin is to ni-.' ! PinmL? &. C ~ V md
L D.Pmlhnn. Inl~~mtcd Cimdl 3fant,fnr(umd~ilny.1F.EE Pn*?. Pi(~~lam=y,SJ,
t l ~ r n u ~ l;md
l p ~rerl~~re!icld
~~ lws bypre\rntingpntcntial o~isprornsin~.!iuteach presents
2. A Lurlzk,rg, 3fimGdmnirr r\lnn~,f&,n'n~Din~~mlicr Iln,ullx*rl. \bn Smtrmd Rlinllold. S m
sipifir;mf rn$neerin$ challenges in its effective impleme~~tation anrl d r p l o ~ n ~ e n t . Ycnk, lm3.
:\ I,lock ~ l i a v t mo f &hpickd r n d e r n IC-CIkI system is sho\\n in F i ~ u r e10.25. n1is
3. H.xlmmul..
~ d .F. N ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ rn~k.cin~ I ~I , ~ 2~ ~ 1~ . I
~ ~ YI~ C ~W - III ~SRI.YO.~~J(. ~ ~
d a m m outlines manyoftllr key features requiml forefident r n m ~ f a b u r i n ~ o p e n t i o ~ . "
.I. \\'. B m n . Ed.. ,\dmnod Flrdmnk Pncknpinn IEEE P m . Sw Yo&. 1W.
5. R,jnqvr, lnlmrltmion m .llimI~~trnnic
Fol,:ol,ncnrrm.2nd Ed.. Ptestiw-llall.llplvr Sadtilt. Rixcr. SJ.
2m2.
6.D. > f o s t ~ v n >Irn~l.~ l ~ ~ dlo
l oStnlislicnl
n ptnlil!; Conrnrl. \ l i l ~S~.rr.
, Yo&. I(LF5.
7 .J. Rnnlr dc C y r r nml V.b l l l m . Inlr~mlrdCim~il. ! l o n t ~ f ~ ~ ~ d1I:EE
~ i l iPms.
~ ~ . X o v Yak. 1W
8 . R. !.fuq~h?,-Con-Slm Optima oiSlonol~ll~ir
Intrgr.>tnlCirnbilr.' rnx. IEEE. 52.l12). 153-1515
OSIl.
9. R. S<drdr. T r l d and Co.1 Annlyh olRilaliir Ul.- IEEE In1 Elmmn Dnim Ilrd. \V.~%langton.
IX:.
Mo1x.r 1x7.
10. T.Okidx. \I. Sagala.md S. Sbimacl.. -Ansd>sirolYicld ol l n t ~ l nCimrirr
l and 3 St-v Eqmsion
.
lor thr Yi<.lcl.' in C. Shhplxr. Ed Ikfm nnd Fnulr Xrlrrnrtrr i,r I'LSI Sydrzr~<.\id 1.Pleeum I'm<-, Sc-x,
Ywk, pp. 4 7 s ) . IWI.
I I. c. slaplrr.-F.CI t m c ~vir(ion i,, nrld ~ ~ ~ ~ , . ~ i ~ ~ . -LIO.I?~-151. ~ f i ~ 11sw1.
~ l r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
12. 5. SIA~. Srrnimmrl~morDT.ICCS: rlbyr(n nnd r ~ ~ l , ~ , ?nd
o l ~Ed..
~ , \\',I.,:
. St-\-Ywk. IIWY
13. D. llulger, L Row.. itnd C. Slnnm.-Conlpaler l~~tcnltml h ~ n n o l ~ i ~ ~ ~ r Pmmdille~
~~of\ISl~
tLc. 1111, IEt:FJCII\4T Intmn;ntbnll Elteruniw Y r ~ a ~ l t l r ~ t t n n e xS~mpl,Va~n.
~ I ~ n ~ ~ IS<~pcaih.r
~~ lcJW.
pp. 1 3 .
r PROBLEMS
,L.ruvr ,l,findk j,nll,ltvm
tr?..n\l\

S E W O X 10.3: STATlSnCAL PROCESS C O h ' O L

I. c:<,ntml rllarts fiw f :as(l s are to Iw nuint:~intrlfor tlnr thrrrhnld \nltngr of sholt-chnnnrl
\I()';VET,
~,,!,,,~,~l
ra,,,plr ri71y ~ f =n111. It is kncmm 1I1;tt thr pmhrr iv ~~onnallydie-
,,,tl, p = 0.75 v ,,,,,I 0 = 11.10\! l:in<l tlw w n t c ~
li~lcand a~ntroltimils fix each
Future Trends and
nitht-~.(.(>r>tm>Irlnarl.
2. R~~~ pml,lrln I 8,~s,,mi,rC that p and a;mw t~~>brnrn and tlniat nr. hn\r n>llcctnlM
Challenges
,,ln,.;ltjom ofw,,,p]t. 10.Thrsr rampler !icldml a p n d awrasc of 11.73.1 \'and an
:,\,.clg@,*, of 11.125 \:

S E C ~ O S 1 0 . ~ s: T ~ n S T I C M EXPYPERI\IEhT.AL
. DESIGN
3. n , folbminq
~ 2' Ixrtoriid rqwriment \\w latrl to annl!m a ph~,ttolitla~ntphv
pmcs. I
Sinr? the Iwginning of the int~gratedcircuit era in 1959, thr rninim~~m d e d w dimen-
.Att,l\-,r lhc tywrinlrnval rcs~rltsusing tltc Xttcs itlsoritbrn. sion. also called tlla s~ini~nav~/co~tcrrle~~@h,
l~nsl m n m l e c r d at an annttnl rateofahr,t
I n 30% on). 3 years). According to tlte prrdieion by tlle
13% (i.e.. $1 r ~ d ~ l c t i oof
Infcn~nlior~ol Tccl~~tnlogy Srrnicondttctors.' thc minimum feature. len@h\%ill
Rnnrl!~urp~?>r
sllrink from 130 nm (0.13 Urn) in the year 2002 to 35 ntn (0.035 vm) ;lroantl 2014. ;S
sl~o\vnin Table 11.1. Also s l ~ o \ nin Tahle 11.1 is D M M size. Tile DRAhl hsr increared
its lrlemory cell capacity rottr limes every 3 years, and 64-Gbit DRA\I is e r p c t e d to Iw
av:ilnhle in 2fl11 ming .%-nm drsipl mles. The table d w sl)o\rmthat u-&rsi;.r krill i n c m
to450 inn1 (18 in. dinmrter) in 2014. In addition to the feature s i x retloaion. clrallen~es
rornr frnm the &\ice lewl. material lewl, and system lcvrl, as disn~sscdin the follo~v-
I
in: sections.

'4. Consider thr thmtrqhptts fie.. wafers pmcersrd per hour) ollivr diITercn?nnnn~tfacttuin~
pm<w< (Iahrllnl A to E in thr follm%i!~g tahlr). For ~:;tchImrm!r. c!.tta u;r: mlleetnl on
thrrc rli%.n.st <l;ttrs.Perform an an;d!sis of wrianw to drtennine a.hc:h~rthe prurrwr
md p m s i n q datcr arc ripifinntlydiffcrcnt.
t 11.1 CHALLENGES FOR INTEGRATION
I
F i p n . 11.1 slrows tlre trends ofporver supply mltage ((Bn,,), threshold toltage (1:). and
p::lc oxide thicLi~ess(d)V ~ I I channel
S
. . From this fit-
lenfitll for CMOS l@c lecl~nolopv.'
urc,, o n r c;ul see that the gate oxide tllich~esswill soon apl,road~the tunnelingcumnt
liniit of 2 nra. V,),,scaling nil1 slo\r. do\\~rh m a s e or the nonsnlable V, (is.. to a mini-
nlnm IfTof about 0.3 \' ~ I I to P s~tbtl~resl~old Iraklfe and circuit noise immanity). Some
clrallenges of the 180-nm t r c h n o l o ~and be!nnd are shoan in Fi,pre 11.2.' The most
stringent requirenrmts are detailed in the follmving sahseaions.

S E C l l O S 10.5: n E L D
5. Ara~rninp:a Pnicmn model. cnlorlate thc maximlsrn defwt density nllcn\,;thleon 100.000 TABLE 11.1 TheTechnology Generation horn 1997to 2M4
SSlOS transistors in order to nchiwv a hmctional !icLl of 952. : k a m e the gate of each
Y w r ofthc Orst I !Wi 1YB 2200?2llOj 2Mri 2011 2014
<lr\iwi' I0 pm \>ide;md I pm lonq.
pmdttct shipment
6. Use Murphy's )irLl int-l to de"\r Eqr. 3i. 38.nnd 40.
Fralttrc rim (nw) 2% IS0 130 100 70 50 35
7. Supporr tile pmhability drnsity h~ncticmorthe defect density fi,r a flvcs intrKvnncd I)R:\\I rim (bit) 256IRhl 1 C: - 8C - Tr(C -
m;m~!hr+urinq pnrrrr b gi\.rn hy
\\!tfcr (mnd 230 300 300 .XO XKI 330 4511
Cat? orhlr (nm) .U 1.9-2.5 1.3-1.7 0.Y-1.1 <I0 - -
lfthr oitinl iirca h ~this
r intrnnnneet is 100 ern?.mlodatc the functional )ichl \rcan
l the
c x p ~ k>r p m ' w over thr nmqr of drfwt <lmritiesfrom O.05 to 0.1 nn-'.
 11.1.1 Ultrashallow Junction Formation
So.called short.cha~lnc~ effects happen ;r?the cltwnel lcnfll, is reducrd. This prohlc~,,
hrconres critical ;ri t11edr\icr rlimension is sc:drrl ~lotmto trn nm. To ishieve an altra-
sltallou. jlmclion \ritlt lo\\. shwl resistance. lo\v-cnrrg). Kc.. less than 1 ke\'1 implanta-
t h dosage nlost IE cmplo~wl.TaI>l,le11.1shou-s the required jenciicm
tion t w h n ~ d ~ a ilug11
clvptl~versus the tl~chrlnlogy).enenention. Tile rcquiremrnts irl l l ~ ejunction for 1M n
arr drpths aronnd 20 to 13 nm n \ i l L n doping conm!ntntion of 1 x tol'/rm'.

11.12 Ultrathin Oxide

As the gatc length shrink belrnv 130 nm, the oxide eqoi\alent tliickness oftlre gatedielc.-
tric mast IE redacrd around 2 nm to maintain perlonnance. Ilo\rrver, ifonly SiO?(with
a dielectric mnstiult of3.9) is used, the leakage tl~rougl~
tlic gate I m m e s w r y h i ~ lxxaur
h
or direct tunneling. For this reams. thickrr 11igh.k dielrctric materials tli;tt l,aw lmver
Ieltage n>rrentar? needed. CandirL~tesfor thesl~orttenn are silicon nitride (\\itl~a~lilielce-
tric runstant of 7). T Q , (27). md T O , (&l(lOl.

111.3 Silicide Formation

Silicide-related technolow
<"
Irm hecome an inteeral .
~. Dart of submicron devices for reduc-
inc the pamitic resistance to improve dexiw and circuit perfonnancr. Tlrr conventional

IIOSFETrhmnc.1 lrngtll (pmt
Figurn 11.1 Twnrh olprnver ruppl? \nlvr$c V,,,. threshold r.olta~t.jr,.nnd rate o\ide thickness
(1 vc~nurchsnnrl Im*h lor CXIOS l@e lrrLnnlnc6cs. Points arc mlltr.ttd horn <lafapul,lished
",Y m n t >*an.-
-
in 1M-nm ChlOS applicntions and beyond. COSI,or Nisi processes will replaceTSii for
t e r l t o o l a ~l q o n d LIH) am.
11.1.4 New Materials for Interconnection
'To acltiwe high-sped opention, the nC time d e l y of the intermnnPction must IE mlacprl.
F i ~ l r e8.14 showrtl the delay a fundion of lenture size.' It is oh\ious that gate rlelay
decre;scs as the d ~ a n n e llength decreases. Meamvhile. the delay r~sttltingfrom inter-
[annect increases significantly N the size decretses. This causes the total dcl:iy time to
incretse as the dimension of tllr de\iw si72 scales down to 2% nm. C ~ n s e ~ ~ ~ ehoth ntly.
h i g h - m n r l t ~ c i metals,
i sncl) as Cu. and lot\~..-di~lectric-conskrnt
(lo\v-lil inst~ixton,such
zs organic (polyinrirle) or inorganic (F-doped odd?) materials. offcr major perfonnallw
p i n s . Cu exllihits superior perfonnnnw t ~ c a u s ofits
e high cnnducti\iy (1.7 pR-on mm-
pxred wit11 2.7 pR-cm for All lnd is 10 to 100 times more refistant to d r d m m i p t i o n .
T l ~ delay
r using C o and the lotv-k material sho\vs a significant drcrease compared ,vith
that orcon\.entiot~alAl and oxide. Ilmce. C s nith the low-k material is essmti:rl in mul-
tilevel intermnnection for future deep-submicron trchnolop.

11.1.5 Power Limitations

to tlte a t ~ m h r of
-
Tile p \ w r reqeired merely to charge and d i s d ~ a circuit

TIle power can lw e ~ ~ r e s s .e 1dP~ l/.ZC~~~lf.

tempcnttlre rise c:lased I,? this lmnvr dissipatio~~

~ e nodes in an IC is pmprtion;~l
r gates tlntl the frequency at \vl~icl~ d ~ e yare s \ \ i t c h ~ (clock
l freqursc?'~.
\vlllpre C is the mpacifatlw prr dc\irr. I' b
tlte applied voltn$e, 18 is the numlrr of de\icrs per chip. ;mdf is the clnck fmlu<.nccTll?
in an IC pncbgc, is limitnl hy tlw tlar-
I ~ I con<lllcti\ity
~I of tlw packaKe matcri.ll, unlrss alrxilhp liq11id or ps mmlling ia I I S P ~TIIC .
Figurn 11.2 (:hdlcnp<- hrr IVLnnl rind mmxllvr YOSFETs.' mrnia~amallo~~ablr~ ternprr.lt~rnwrise is limited I,? tltr l>sndpp nf tlir svnrimnd~tc(or
 . chapter11.Fmre Trends and Challenpes 11.2 Synarn.on-a.Chip 4 21
NYS
ASIC: ---<".rdr.d
:m1dWn~ix4 slpnl
rppla.lllon.~pcllir IC
CI'U
l7t.l> .p"~r.~!n?#,:tt~l~.
pnn.<ci,,x ,,,,I,
ic>c,c< I < ~ w

11.1.6 Sol Integration

srtio9.22 n ,r,pntiollnl 11,- iwlation of SO1\\%ifen.Rmnll!: SO1 teclln'Jlq3 1 1 recpiv ~
ll,.2d ofanrntion. Thr aclc~ntngesof SO1 intcgr.ltiotl h r n r n e s i ~ ~ i l i c a anst the
frattlrr lcn,$, appm;tchcs 100 nm. Fmnl s p r m s s point of !icrv. SO1 does
,,wd tllr mnll,lrr arll stnlchnre and isolation p m s s e s . In addition. sl~allowjunc.
tions
dirt.& obtainnl thmugl~tlw SO1 film thickness. There is no risk of nonani.
fonll inlm~i~fil;on ofsilimn nnrl ,\I i n t h contact
~ mgio~~ hcaltse
s ofosidr. isolation at
lattoln of tllr junction. Hrncr, the rnntitd harrier is not nPwssaF 17mm a rlctice
Of,ie\r: tllp mmlem bulk silimn &\ice needs l ~ i g dopitg l~ i t t l ~ dcun
r and %,b.
strate to rlinlin;ltt. sl~ortcl,;~nnrl cfi~ctsm d panclitl~m~rgl~. This Iligh r l o p i r ~results
~ in using tlillerent desig: lools. it is clifTiicl~It
to intcpate tlle mrnponents into one chip. Anotller
1,iSl, r;,pcitmw,,.lree the j ~ n d i o nis rrwrsc. bix.erl. On tl~eotlirrhand. in SO]. the may. dilliculty Ii?s in fabrication. In general, tlbc f;ibrication pr~msscsof a DR,\hl are signif-
inlltln otpcitancc b h v r r n t l ~ jt~ndion r and subdmte is the capcitancc of t l ~ eburid icantly differat from those of logic ICs (c.g.. CPUs). Speed is the first p r i o r i ~for the
insnlrtor.,rhosr dirlrciric mnskmt is tltrre tines solsller than that ofsilimn (3.9 \ynns logic. nllerea leakage of the storetl charge is the priority for menlot?: Tl~rrefore.mul-
11.9, nsed on rinSoscillntorprrf~)nnan~, 130-11111SO1 ChlOS Iec~lsoloQ'c~n achieve tilrvel inlrrmnnrction scliemes using live to six levels of metal ire rssentinl for logic ICs
h ~ t e spWls
r or rrqt~ire54%less power rntnpared a i t l ~a similar h~rlktecllnolog):' to ilnpm\.r the spretl. Ho\rrver. DMXl circuits need only hvn to tl~rrelr\~els.In addi-
SR,\hf. I)RA\!. CPU. and rfChIOS ha\? d l l w s snmssh~llyf:~bric~~trrl using SO1 terll. tion. to incrcilce the speed, a silicide p w s s must be used to reducr the series rrsistanw.
noloq. n l e r f o r r . SO1 b :t keyr.lntLl;tte for the fi~tsres>str~n-on-n-chip terlinolep, mn. and ultmthin gate oxide is needrd to increase the driw current in l@c circ~tits.These
sidcr14 i n t l ~ folloaillg
c~ sedion. rrquirernrnts arr not critical for memory
To acl~irvethe SOC goal. an emlxdded DRAM trchnoloq llac been intmluml to
EXAMPLE 1 mrrgr. logic ;md DRAhl into a single chip wit11 compatible processes. Figure 11.4 s h m ~ s
:t <r.l~ematirc m srction ofan rmlmltlrd DRAhl. including the DUX1 cells and the logic
For ;m rqui\-dcn~ ~ d d thielnexv
e of 1.5 nm. &at \\ill be the ph!sicnl thickness wlren the hixh.k
m:~trri;als~nitriclr(c,ic.= 7 ) .T@, 12.51. or Ti0: (60)are tlwl? ChlOS clrviws,'So~nrpmcessing steps arc rndified ;ua mmpmmise. The trrnch-hpe

SOLUTION For nittidr.

Using thr same wlcalation. \\robtain 9.62 nm for Tq.0, md l 0 . F nm for TiO? 4

11.2 SYSTEM-ON-A-CHIP
Increasd component densih and impmcd fahrintion trcllnolng?. hnvr ltelped the real-
ii..ltion ofthe syqfrm-on-o-cltip (SOC). that is. an IC chip that cant:iins corr~pleteelec- :,
tmnuc s?strrn. Drsi,pen mn build all the circuitry n m l n l fora rr,mplctr r l ~ t r o n i cs\stem.
surl~m nn~nlel;~. nalio, t~lnirioe.or p ~ n acomputer
l (PC), on asinde chip. Figrlre 11.3 Dtrp twnch p.stth.tnrr
S~<IRY an SOC application for 1 PCh motl~rrhonnl.Components ( I I chips in this case)
I)II(V btmd on lwqnl\ I z m n s \irtu.tl cwlponvnts CHI 1111. c l i p ;at 1111. rieltl.' Figure 11.4 Schemntie cms section ofthe cml*rlrL.d DRAkI inclarling DR.\\!rdls md l ~ i r .
Thvrr m*h~n4dlsldclrsIn 1111. rr.d~?.~t!onof tllv SO(: Tllr lint ir 1 1 IIIICV
~ cl~~ndr.:
of the rlpsiml. Sil~n.Ila. component lw;~r(lis prrscntly dcsiymnl 11y diffrrrnt compan ies
ih - hlt)SPPTs. Tltrrr is no hciSht dillewn(~,in thc trrneh npcitor wII l r c r ~ ~ofr rthr UIIAXI wll
sln~cturc.311 I n .\f5an, rnrtid inlrnnnn<~tionr.
and \'I 10 I:\ ;~rc\i:l h0lr.r..
 r Chapter I t . FutureTrendr and Chellengss

11.3 SUMMARY
b
RCC;ISP 01111r nq,id wduclion i n k ; l t t l r r Itxrl$ll. 1C l t ~ r l l n o ~ ~ l p ' su inl l l rr:lclt its pnc.
List of Symbols
tir.;il lilslt :rs t l l r r h x n o r l Ir.n$ln is n ~ I u r r rtlo alm1113) 11111. \!'II:I~ I C s \\illIIC hr\on(l
(:\IOS is n kc, quwtioa I r i t t ;rsl;~I ~ I Ir~ ~ w a m lsrirntists.
l Jl:~iurc:..mdidnt~sincl!tdr i ~ l ~ ~ .
\:ativr <lc\iry.< l,.~w11 oo q11111111111 l l l r ~ ! l : t ~ ic~f dk l s . ~ ~ ~ 1 ~.IIPII
1 1 9t h~r IRIPKII (Iinlpn.
n ~ i r \\illr s l t i l l i t ilonrlnssical hcllnrior
r i o n ie r n l t ~ r r tl lo l,t.lorv IOU n n i . r l ~ ~ t r ~stntcl~!rPs
<l,.I~r~dirl< o n tltl* rn:~tc"itls and tltc t c a ~ l w r . ~ l o~f~ol p r rfi~lionT . l~o r p ~ : ~ t i o of
n sllcl, S!lnld Dvwription
Unit
dr.,,cr.s \\illIN. on tltt. sc;~lvo f s i n ~ l r - c l r c l r n ntr.los]mrt. This oppro.,clt 1):sbrm drrnon.
I L l t i r r . mnslant A.
stntrtl t l ~ sil~qIt.-rlt.ctro~~
r rnclrlo? rrll.T l t r n.:tlii)~tio~~ o l s ~ t rs!strms
l~ nit11 trillionr .
c S p e d of li&t in \3murn on's
ofmrttlx,nrnt\ \rill lw :I nt:tjor c l ~ a l l r n g hr r y s c l ChIOS.'
C C~psritanrr F
D 1)iflhrion m l f i d r n t on%
b REFERENCES E Kncrp e\'
i Elraric licld \'/ern
I. Intmu;fnrurJT . ~ l ~ , ~ dRxuJrly,lnr
~y,, . C n n ; m n d z ~ ~ ~%.ir>imn<lu'inr
~fi. Sw Jim. 1%.
1ndrnln.A~u~ctia~~.
2. s T.lllrrllll
E J . Y r n c ~ l -C\fOS
. Ilidn \\illI s c r ( ~ . r ~ t lCO?
Dc+iur,<Ix~ltnr.0.lMI: Il~n\, i ~ %dl.
~ ~ r .IEEE
f Frcqurnc). Ilrfcppr)
0:I,>, u,..,nm n.,c,.< Jf",,. 19. 215 :1917'.
h Plrnck mnstant J.s
1 0,rr""l A
7 L p,.tm, -IS 11,~-OI$ pn, scxlc ~ ~;r noxkl,lr
~ r t ,~tmiciion?Scvi;,-,x~l I r a , . 22 -11;r I U m
I Current dmvity .Ucm:
4 21 T hl,r -Intrmnntrt s ~ d i ~ ~ - TRed
l , ~U,nifvr l o l l i d l Pcdormancr 0151.' IEEE Twh. 0:6 1 . k Bollmlann nrnstant JIR
\led. p. 2-11llviil
fJfimntD . ~ i m
1. L*,nflb crn or prn
c.! d..'Srdnl>ilitv ofSOI X.rlmulyv twroO 10 vnl I ? V i:\10S G.n!,ntlon.' IEEE In,.
5 F Il~ldr,n.lrlrle.
ltl,, El~~rlm rest
n mas kg
E!,*rn~ Dm#<,<\fa.d, p .tlX3 [lsEtYl. -
Ilcfriidi\r index
fi R. Zlrrt,rt. 'l<lmrnnir l>ssiq~,\atu!srtion: lEEE Sprs-rr. 3fi. 61 ilm Dmrity of frcc elertronr "".;
. .d.. -l'mhdd<rl D U \ l T,~l~nob~ti~-.-
7 11. I d ~ c h r<l JEEE Tmh Di? In1 Fi..m!rf fi*,ir(.s .lJrrf.. p. 31 '1, Intrinsic carrier mnmntmtion
"".'
11W78.
I' Dmsiv of lrce hnlcr m-'
\ S \ ~ Fr,fvrm
L v ~ 4 .J. Xu. md .\ Z L ~ I ; *&I$., ~, TnvtrJ>;PI > I i ~ r n ~ l ~\Vilcy.
~ c ~ Xm: ~ ~ ~Ism.
n ~ Sork, ~ ~ , P Prrsrurc P3

'1 llaglitude oiclramnic rhrrge C

Q,, Intcrfarr imppnl charge charecskrn'
b PROBLEMS I
I llcristrnrr R
1. i a l Calo~latc.~ hRC r tirnr m,ns~;u~to i m aln>mitn~mntnner 0.5 urn thick fnrnlrd on a t Tim<. I
thermallY crmtn SiO: 0.5 pnr tllick. T ~ len@ll P 2nd aidth of t l ~ runnrr
r an. 1 nn rncl T ;\ha,latc trrnprnhlrc R
I urn. n~rprr.ti\cIy. T h r rr.ri~ti\i?of lhc. nlnnrr i<10 ' R-crn (1,l \\11:tI \rill IK.
lit<% RC c Crnirr \,clwit\. cm'c
tinir cnnxt.,nt for a p,lpiliwn nlnnrr ( R ,= :I0 Wl,I of idmlicul <li~nvnric,n? \' \'"Itage
Flcm
2. \!Ido
> \rc? hr a ?stvrn-on-e-chip?
nw.cl multiple o ~ i c l r~hirlnr.;~cs Cm 1'~~rnlilti~ity
is ~;mluln
Flcsl
3. Sormdly we nerd r InlNcrcrl Ia:t-r pl;mmd iwhvrrn n h i ~ h - k X1O, and lbc silicon sub.
c, Scntir~~ndtetar p-nnitti\ity
F.. 1sntl.alor ~ r r m i t l i \ i t y Flmi
stntv C:tlc>~lxtr11w cG-ctivc ~ x i d ctl~irkncss!li_OTj wlivn IIBC s~itrh~.ds~te dirlrclric is
EJG, Or E,.&, Dirlrdrir <vnrtanl
'I'a:O; ik = 5 a i t h a thidnc<* o f 75 .i <rn n btlG.n.d nitridr ls!rr lk = 7 and n tl~icl;cn pn, or nm
1. \Vatrlcngh
nf 10 i ; \ l w nlcnnlntc E 0 T lor a bnfft-rd ourlv l;ycr ik = 3'1 and n tbirl;l~c..i of5 :\I.
Ilr
v Yrcqla.ncy of light
I ' v n ~ ~ ~ . a lin
i l i\;mlanl
l~ ll:csl
P"
P. Elmimu mohilih c~:?:..
llolc mobility cm::Y s
/I,,
P Ilrristi~il). R-nv
n Ohm
n
International System
of Units (SI units)

Quantity Unit Sbmbol Dimensions

Lmslb' Meler m
Slars Kilogram kg
Time Snnnd
Tenlperaturr Kelvin K
Ulnt.nt Ampen A
Light intmsity Cimdel; Cd
An~le Radian ncl
Frvqueny Ilem. liz
Fom N\'mior S
Prrssure Pawal Pa
Eocrp.' Joule J
i'mvcr \\'at1 \\'
Electric dlrrge Coulomn C
Palmlid \'dl \'
Concluclmce Siemens S
Rerirtnnw Ohm R
Cnpacit;tnee Fmd F
>l;tgnelic flux \Vclw \!%
hlagnrtic indudion Tesla T
lndrtctanm Ilenw I1
Unit Prefixes*

exa
peta
ten
$%a
mega
kilo
lrecto
deh
drri
rrnli
rnilli
micro
nano
pirn
fc..n,to
10.;. alto a

- .qrlopfrdI? lntrrnrtionrl Cotnrnlttcr on \\'rights and Y<an~m.

P g.. "at pp bill p.)
iCornpound pmtxm sl~mldnal k ilwl.
Greek Alphabet

Ln~nvnxv. Uppn-rw
Alpha CI
Rcrr
(hmnlr
Ik.ll;n
Elmilon
71.1.1
Physical Constants
P r o p e r t i e s of Si
a n d GaAs a t 300 K

Z\IO~~~IC~' .i.o2 x 10' 4.42 x IIP

~\tc>mic ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ l ~ l W.C?) '44.67
I % n ~ ~ h lli ~ r l cnl i\'/cm)
~n -3 x 10' .I x Ill'
C~?rl.clrtn~cturr Diamond !inebh:nrlc
Ucnrih (~Icrn'l 2.3% i.31:
Dic~lcdticar,rlnnl 11.9 ~2.4
ET(ec1ivedcmsit? of "$6 x 10'" 4.7 x 10':
\li*tcs in condtnaion
l,it,l, S<lc,,,-')
EfTw<ive drnsity of 2.66 x 10'" 7.0 x 10"
<talesin tdmm
s,
l>rn<I, (cnn-?
ENwliw n ; t s s (mnrludi\ilyl
Elrc+.(mnrltn.,/tn,,) 02
:6 ').Mi3
II"l,T (rttv/,8,"l OW 0 5;
Elrrtrrm :tOinit> x(\'l 4.05 4.n;
E n r y gap (cVl 1.12 1.a
1ndr.r of n,fnr(ion 3.42 3.3
Illlrinsir cwrirr 9.66 x lV8 2.5 x I @
msn~#~lr.rlionlen~-')
Intrinsic mrisliuit). (R.cml 3.3 x 10' 2.9 x 10'
Lallicv c*nst:all (A1 5.43102 %iii325
Linrar nx-ffirirsl of 5.59 x 104 5.75 x in*
11,rnnal r\~:knsins.
ArlLxT (*(:-'I
>lrlting poirll (OC) 1412 1140
>+intwiIy<amivr I i ~ e t i m ($1~ 3 x 10.' -10-"
Slol,ilil? (crn2A'.s)
fl. (c~~rctrons) ISY) 9200
/+, (hnlrsl 5115 320
S ~ c i R clrral (J& -'C) 0.7 0.X5
Thvnnal mndtcli\ih(\\'lrrn.l;) 1.31 0.45
\':tpor prrsnm, (Pal Ia1 ITSO'C 1 M a1 1050"(.
LO' nl W'C I;,I%Yl'C
Some Properties of
t h e Error F u n c t i o n
 $3 . ~ ~ p ~ Gn Some

,.,q?,.:,'<.</
d b Properties of !he Error Function Appendix G. Some Propenies of the Error Function 4 279

crf r r : 11' edirr.1

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IS n.9:~ e - 5 2.01 n . s j IXY,
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6 0.951 510 2.14 0997525
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I :I n.<JYI4117 2.15 n.w:951
72 09\5 01J7 2.19 f I . B S M 6
1.73 i1.9\5 573 2.20 0.YJY 137
B a s i c Kinetic
T h e o r y o f Gases

T l ~ cideal g s law states that

PV = RT = h',kT
athere P is the prmrllre. V is the \alsme of I mole of gils. E I I, & t # r,K ~cutn,ritnt~ t 1.95
adfmol-K. or a?. ntm-cm.'/mol-K). Tis thr absolute tenlprrature in K. .?',is the Avgadm
mnstant (fi.02x LO'" mdectdedmolr). nedk is the Bolbn~nnnmnstant(1.3-Sx 10-', JK.
or 1.37 x 10-"atmcm2K). Sinw rrd g s e s hrl~avemore and more like the icled gaq as
the presstnrr is lnwer~d.Eq. 1 is d i d Tor most wcuanl processes. \Vc can use Eq. 1 to
calct~latrtltr molec~tlarmnwntration 11 (tllc nlrmlxr o l ~ n o l ~ - c ~per
~ l etanit
s vdumrl:

\vl~creP is in Pa. The dcnsih pd of a gas is given 1,). the pm111ct of its molecular \vcigI~t
and its <vnwntl;ltion:

p,, = >lolernlar\veiglitx($]

TI>?gaq molenrles are in mnstant motion and their vt.locitics are tenipcnture r l c p -
dent. TIP distril,ution of vclocitics is described by the Xla\~\~ll-Bolt~mann distribution
li~\v.\r,ltirh statrs tl~:itfor a given spced ti.

where ni is t l ~ m
r a s of a molecule. This equation states that if there are n rnoleculcs ill
tlir \nlomr. thrrr \\ill In! (/,I mmolecl~leshaving n hqwcd hehwen 1, and ti + dti. The ax7,r-
ace sprrd is ohtiiinal>lpf m n ~Eq. 4:
282. c H. Bsric Kinetic Theory of Gases
,lni,,,pO*;,nt paT.LII1et~.r for V R C ~ I U I I It~d~nologvis
,,
ll,.,t is, I,,,,\. ll,olrr,,~r illlpill~r
tile i~lol~~~tlari)~l/linEc:c))lrnf
rnfc.
on R init area per unit time. To obhlill (Ilis par:lm-
\Appendix I
rtrr, tint rnrahlrr dist~~,,,tintr
(,,nctios/;. for tllr vrlocitics ofmolectllrs ill tllrr direc-
tion. f,,,,ction ca, IX. ,c.rl,~~si~d I,? an erllmtian similar to E l . 4:

tz dv, 2kT
SUPREM Commands

Svtbstitutinrdn. frnm Eq. G ;mrl intrsntins gives

Tlw Stsnfonl Uni\.rrsity P r w s s Engineering hlod~ling(SUPREhI) program is n simu.
!atinn pnckagc thnt illlo\rs a user to m d e l \sriaos procrss steps USHI in tllr fabrication
of intrgmtrd circuits. SUPREM can prctlid the rcsalts ofo~rlation.delx,sition.etchin~.
nlrrclatio,,sl,ip~hrrcntile impinpcmo~~
rote 311,ndthe ps pprna~reis ol)tainrd by using rlilfnsion. epituinl growth. and ion implantation processrs. SUPRE51 Ill mrwlels the
Eq. S: clinngcs to tile se~nicontl~~ctor stmchlrr tl~atresult from tllesr procesw in one dimen-
sirm. Thc priman results are the tl~ic!-mrssesof\arious layers and the rlirtrihution of imp,!.
@ =P(z~~IPT)-" (9)
rities within tllose layers. Tlte progc~mcan also determine certain material prnpertin.
suclt a5 t l ~ eshret resistance of rlilfased regions in silicon layers.
To run SUPHEXI. an input clrck must lw pro\irlrd. This filrcontains aseries ofstatc-
ments and comm~nts.Tllr rleck begins wit11 a T I T L E statrineat. wI\.~lich is merely a mm-
ment repeated on each pigr of the p r p ~ outpol. n T l ~ next
e command. INITIALIZE. is
a mntrol statement that scts t l ~ ealhstnttr >ye.orientation. and (loping. n ~ i command
s
ran :also bv oscd to specify thp tl~icknesso f t l ~ eregion to 11rsimnlatc<land establish a@.
hfirr tllc sr~l~str;ste;isd nlaterids arr estnhlisl~ed.a series of statemants is ised to r p c i f j
thr srclurnw of process steps 2s 111~y ocvur Finnlly. the outpnt oftlte simulation ~ ? k n
printmi or plattrd llsina PRINT or PLOT rtalementr, reswti\~cly.Simulation ends \\it\\ a

1.1. T11i.qfob/<,i s by an rnenno con~plrfr!.To d)tain t l ~ complete

c SUPRE51 rofh\:~re pack-
ape i~ndits assnciatctl docl~mentntion,mntact
Silv;~mData Systems. Inc.
4701 P.ltncli Ilrn~?.Drivc
R~rildirlg2
S:knta Clilc~.Ch 9.5051
Plto~lr:409-Cirl-.1372
F m :400-727-3297
t~w?v.sil\~aco.mn~
SlIPREhl is a tclde~narkof thr Board of Trustees of Stanford U n i r ~ n i k
 . ~ ~ ~I. SUPREM
~ ~ Commands

TABLE 1.1 Connon SUPREM Cornand.

d i i Appendix I. SUPAEM Commands 285

S.<aw. Ik.cmplnln I$;r5ic S>nt;a I)pical F l a p :and

l';nn>m~~tt.m . .I'ammtlrm
Nanr PLOT Syvilics that impurity PLOT <parameters
- Olxtll~ntschsnkcl~rst ti!^^ tc
r r v r u.r CCmENT < t C x b
mnn~ntmliansor rcrtllL. #,r C M X . ~ ~
Actlve
lllvl m input srclavsn
Aluminum
M~ITI~. it^ ryrili,~l ,n.tctiilI DEPOSTIO
IN 4rerinR
clrpth into thc rubrtntr an.
acrm
<,,,
top o[c.,m.nt stnlaurc Thickness-<* Tenmrature-<- Nlfride
Oxldc to l r plultol
Chemical
Net
PolysilicDn
Phorpho~r
Slllcon
Cnln ienn.'l
C.Phorphor (en,.')
&ax Ic!n-'I
C.Arsenic (ctn-') PRINT Olltputs information about PRINT <paranetern
Arsenic
c . ~ o r o n(cm-') lhr rtnlnurc. tlring simcdatcd Boron
m i c k n e r r (pm) and ~ ~ n f i c i t mored
ts
Chnlcal
Temperature ('C)
Concentrat~on
Arrenlc
OIFFUSIW Slalrls hi~h-lrmpr;tlurc DIFFUSIc*l The-<* LIYCIS
d;fi,.ion i,, irddi/jr~gand ~ n p e r a r u r e - < r n <mPanh Boron Net
nano\idinac srnhirnts &bicnD OryO2 Phosphoru~
Nltrogen SAVEFILE Si)\'c~ the L.LImcnt StnlLItlrC SAVEFILE < F e a t u r e F l l c n a a e - < T e r ~ structYIC
Phosphorus Irin2 pmr~,sscxl,thc
YetO2 meficirnlr l,c3inp,awd.
Solidrol or h>th
HCIX (%) STOP Terminates sirnn~lalion S ~ <P~ e x o Sonc
T.Rate ('Urnin) rnLE lnptnts n character string to TITLE < ~ e r b None
Temperature ('Cj lnlrl thc follmbinq input
Time (rninulcs)
ETCH Etchn qxrifi<d materid ETCH & a t e r i a l > T h i c k n c r r - e m A11
fmm thv top of e a m n t Aluminum
~InlClllw Nitride
Oxide
Polysili~~n
Sllicon
T h i c k n e r r (pml
IMPUVr Simulates ion implanlltion I H P M <mpann Dose-<n, Arsenic
of i!npr!rilirs Energy-<* Boron
Phosphorus
Dose ( r m ~ ?
Energy (ke\')
INITIALIZE Sets up initid nrmcients INITIALIZE d r r u c t u r o c S v b r t r a t n <lee,
and slnrdl~wto k tncd in <Dopanb C o n c c n t r a t l o n - < m <11b
the ~imulittion 411,
INITIALIZE S t r u c t u r e - < f i l e n a m e Silicon
Arscnlc
Boron
Phosphor~s
C o n c e n t r a t i o n (cm-

(ronlinarrl.
Running PROLITH

~~~~.
~-~

optic21 litl!ogr;q)ll) proccss from acrid image fr,nnatioa t l ~ r n n rwist

~ ~ I ~cpponlrc and dmpl.
O~IIIII'II~.
T l ~n11lp111
r o f t l ~ pWl~n
e is annnn~c~trpmlirtion ofthe final nsirt pmfile.\\hic\,
is prrsrntctl in ;I \ridr \arirh.orinl:tees. plots. gmpl~s.and mlnilntiom.

r 8 .,
hftcr tile sofhvare II~LCIWPII iostallcd, a usvr can nln PROLITH by simply clickins on
thr PROLITH i h n from t l ~ \\Tn(lo\~+
e linnsr sc:~rcll.~ I I P
Start mcntl. After a s~tcccssf~~l
lrnaenc .. (FCC Fie. 4.20). Refore nlnniae a sie\d:ttion.
. ..Tool para~nctrrswindo\\, :tpwars
the llsrr must choase the simulation options and mter a wt of input pmnnPtrn. This is
accornnlisl!ed I)!, selectine
.- Ootions
, from thp File menu to onen tltr Ootions di$o~.Tltc 7

srttines in this dinloe lms are ucpd to e5tnblisl1hasic simulation options. snrll CL~~IIIC. Imace

.
boxes or option bt~ttons,enterineial~~es in t r x t boses. s c l ~ * i n ~ f i lor
r sothrr val~a.sfrom
lists. arid so forth. hlany parameter windo\\s, sucl~as t l ~ eResist paranleten \\inclmv, for
c.xnnlnlr.
L ..nro\ide instant vm.lollic:ll
,
\imr.s of tile infonnstion cntrred.
After input paranlcSte~.;Ila\r l e n cnteml. PROLITI I <li.spl;?\scinlol;ition results rmrn
t11c Cclpl~smenu. PROLITH m n p.l.lpl~ssimnl:~tingforn~;~tion nf a m;ak fc:~-
lure by ;in optical projection .ystem. eqwsure of pllotorrsist alsillg Illis inlnge. or clrvrl-
optnent of tllr evsc.d photoresist. The follor\in~options from thr Gr.~pl~s mrnu ior

.
mrrrspnclinp tmll~arbtnttons) ar? :l\ailal,lo to displ;~!. s11r11simtllatinns:
Amin/ Ismgn: The relative intcnsihof tltr i r n a s ~IU P It~nctionof psition
Inlnge in R ~ i s irile
: i m n ~ prnjrctd
e into thr pllotonsisl at tllr start of expSltn
Exi>o.~r,/I ~ f r n fItnngr: The Intent image 1)rfon post-c\posuw hskr (PER)
r PEB I n t n ~ lIn~ngc:The 1:alent imasc ;Art pust.rxp%urr bake
Dccc/ol>Tinrc Co,lc,rrrs: Contours of mnsklnt clmrlop time ;LT a ~ I I I I ~ ~ of OII
positioll in the resist
Herkt PmJilr,:T\\a-dilt~e~~sio~~aI photon~sistprofile :tftrr dc\.elop~nrnt
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ni< ~ l ~ ~ ~ is I>?so nlelns rr,~nplrt<~.

m p n , r \ , . a r p ~ ~ntpaI,iIitier TOobtain tltc run,.
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FISLE Twhnol@n. InC.

PO. Box 162714
,tttstin. lX 79716
P l ~ o n5143?73751
~: P e r c e n t a g e Points of
Fax: 514327-1510
t h e t Distribution
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~ ~K ~ ~ , ~~ e n ~~oents , r Distribution
a8 g eolths ~

P e r c e n t a g e Points of
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- '
.^-
-
-,..-I
,\I!trni!wr~~.14.1
rtcl,ing. 83
CCI). arr C l ~ a r ~ ~ ~ - c n od pvl\ni lc c . ' i ~ ~ ~ > ~
C-cl~;irt.see. I)~r,.a eltan iC-d,:,rt)
- -
,>?:-
rCc,cln ~ n - a n ~ e acael-rxel -*I--- ~n~.tallimtion.
A m n i n ~ ~ fluori,lc
169-173
i ~ ~ n ~ (Xl1,F). S i
CD. riw Critical tlitncnsion (CI))
'2 Crll prujc.rtion. ii
~ 5 3 9 3,?@$?4 5%?1 %88%? A r n o ~ l ~ osilicyt.
t ~ s 43
- ,
I
, -- - - - la3z?
=..-- 33es3 r-F-can ?8?a~llyCI C8CIFINPI EI^ICI--
As;d!si< of vnrianw (hNO\J,\)
C e a t ~ lprwvssinq
l
CF. s ~ CnrTMli~z~
o
onit (CPU). 8.203
FdCtor iCF)
lid>l~. 2JT+%I6 Chanstop. sre p+ channel stop
tc.chniqt~r.%.>%@ C11:qe-cnaplcd drdcv (CCI)). 5
Annraling Cl~r~nird-:cmplilicd rrsiqt iChR). 70
Imrnn ;tnd pl~ocpl~ams. 134 Cl~en>icd br;t!n rpitiry (CUE). 15.2
ctpid t l ~ e r ~ t ~135136
:~l, Cl~enniralrtc.l,ant$. %5
ANO\':\. n.An;,l!~is of \.nriancr (,\NO\'A) Cl~ernicnletcltinq. 92
.Anisotropic ctcln prnllles. 92 Cl~crninlinar11:kicll polidling ((:\IP). 3.
APC\'I), i\trnosplleric pwsswe C\'D 100. 17.2-175
(,\Pc\'r))
??!%=
x-cL.G -----
==%g$ %3$%$RI-NW %W8S($ FgZZ?
C-CC- FC--C C ~ ~ E I C ~ elclol^lcl
C I hrca drfcct .%
Aspect ratic~lepmdcntrtclling, 99
Chrrnic;d \.npnr rlrpsition (CVD).14. 50.
RS. 14.5, I63
31-r-t-FI
for g:<llium nrsmide. I.
$Z$S5 Fg$;? ??%&'$ -2-ocar8.r
3Te-e ATE. sn. r\otornsterl test rquip~nent(t\TE) mrkllargailnic. 147-144
- -- - --'-- c----.
-
,
7
.
,..--,-
- -
=I-il-,7 -C?^F -*?-c At~nospl~eric prt.ssl!rr C\'I> (APCVD). I45 for silicwn, 14.5-147
:\tt"bt~trs, L3i silinn oxides ;tnd diosidc, 156
hutomnted test equipmrllt (r\TE). 2%S XN. 169
:\t~totrrohilr iedrlst? 1 tungstm. I69
Chip sc:~lepackage (CSP). %?2
B:111 grid Array (BG,\), B l Clear1 rnnm. ilnportancr for lithngrap'
R;firi,lnt strnntillrll titnnntc (BST). 164 w i 2
IK:,\. .vrr B:ill grid army (B(:,\) Closr proximity printing. 62
I3iCSIOS t<.cltnolo& 210-21 I Cl~~stcrctl plwna p m r s r i n ~07

1 -,.., -?,.=,> L-L?---

ji.5z
I-5r4-
%$YE.?
- ---- i-ici;g
l,?ii~l ??---- P 3 E I q?IIVi
l*--_-?? O--Tl-4 I Hilx,l;~rtcu.l,aolop, ISS-195
Bipjl.~rtr:t!idstor. 5. IS9
CLIOS. scr Coniplcmrntan 3lOSFET
(CJIOS)
4-
111:tnkct rtclles. 85 C3IE src Cl~nnicalnirrh;mid lmlid~ing
, =~,3:3~,,,.,, ~ -s,,,,zqeso
- ,2 2 -----7 s:%zz
~ 3 ~ F ~ C Fax58
W
----- !?oron. ewn\.entional anniealing of. 134-135 iC3IP)
?,,_
,

.-,. F-lCrs ??-C-r

h,m: :3? Col,alt siliridr. 176

- ,:~sg Zsyen 3 6 7?,?

-=,- c c
r-r,-
-1 5 -,- -
~ 5eF!iaq ?fi+Zl
--.?--
Zz=ks
-
g???:
-----
-*---:
- ; -
I5rirlern;tn tccltniq~a.6.30-31
BST s m B:trioal strootiem titanate (RST)
Con~b-~ncatidrr-n,mb stnlartrc. 228
C ~ ~ ~ n p l r r n r n\IOSFF.T
t;~n iC>IOSl.
1 5 13ofk,rt-d IIF soltrtion (RHF). S* 1%
=?*s scqzg t?:!g;r% q*3-gs gz???! zzo:; ;;;;5-;'-?::
----- ----- 1311fft~e1l oxid? etch (BOE). srs R I I N C ~ P ~ techtiolnq, 20:3-205
rz:.z __
?,srr.; er,rlc,.
7,- - ,:r?,r,^r? -r--?,1 IIFsolution (BII17)
Bulk ~nirroalacl~ini~~g. 215
\<,allof. ?I16
Coznl>utrr-aideddesign (CADI. K5, 5 6
-*-
,E-Z
;;zz
,-ex"-
?,,dpg szggq
,.,'"" %?=;? C.*"C,'
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S5"CC
C:\D, srr Computer.:lided +sign (CADI integr;itrcl circt~its(IC-CIhO.
- 2jw257
-I ,$%ss s:?sws a2o5r
:>ss;; c--c.2
e$swx ngqs:
----- -
zrrlr).
.LC*,-= T C I-,.,.
~:;gzz
,.,-,-,-I-
~ 5 ~ 7.:2 2
r - 1 - , - C.-
C:lpacitan~~,. I@?. 186, 201
C ~ ~ ~ t ~ c i k t ~ ~ c t(vltniqc~e,
c ~ - ~ x ~ l t114
:~g~~ Conc~ntr.~tion-d~-~)rn(I~nt cliNt~sititv.
, -- CAR, src Cl~emic~l-;unplifiecl resist (CAR) IISII;. 114
----- -----
%?(S,-*J ^-el??- ,?.*,-1Ca
ZZEI3.7 ,G,-r-
2,,0,,1;i '>"
z-ts 2 - z
%
- Clrlmn conwntntion. 36 Coofonnnl step m v e c ~ ~159-lffl r,
i'm ,o1n,,,,.,,,.y, >ql,", ,anp..uj p, ea.uP1.7" L-
 :9F c ldar
Elrctmn ilr:lnn litlqrapltK 73-76 Elcl! late i ~ ~ ~ i f o r m
85i t ~ .
c.,,,,,t.,,,t S,IFI& mt~wntn~tinn. 1~111, Elvctron c?clotron n.s~r,~,lcc (I:CR)
ll+ll!i Etch-reri-tan1 plymen. 6
mnstant. 51 ~I~L$,,u, etcI,ins, 95 Et~trciirtempt:ratun.. l i 0
C6bn<t.+ntt<!t.d <~01h7111.111-112 equ:ttion. 107-IWJ Elcctro~~ics in~I\~slry,I
(..-,,,t.,rtpnv~tinc.+?a EUV lilhwnqlll): rrc Extreme ultraviol~t
e~trinsic.114-1 L i Elrctron resist. 75 (euv)
,,,,,,
c,.s,, ,,,s.,,y,,l, , . L T ~p>w r , 5
intmltldory llole. 1 6 1 0 6 Ellipron~ctry54 Experimentnl drsiqn. stati<ticnl.242
~ - ~ , , ~ clt:arts,
t n d 237 ion itnplantation and. I4 Emiltrr. 192. 194
I;,r :,tt"I,utci. 237-39 Exp,suw tools. FZ-6;
la1cr;d. 1 IS-I20 Encl-pint control. 9 3 Extrc~nei~ltra\iolr~tiEU\') litlrqr.tphy.
~ , ~ ~ , S'W24I~l~l~~s.
Epikuinl g m v i l ~techniqurs. 144-152
c o p c,y P ~ , I Y . ~ I ~ C ~~ ~II ~~I ~ ~ I I : I C ~ ~ ~ I Im ~s s~. 106-1
p ~ - 14 7%78
pmfilrs. 109-112. 114. 117 Epitmid la!ra. 1.44. 145 Extrinsic p* bzse rruonr. 194
ctll!I.;arnI.~t~(COP) tt-hlw, L9O&L91
in silimn. 117 Extrinsic ~IiK~tsion,114-117
C0pp.r , C e ' . IlSJ. 161 stnlcttlr?s and dofccts in. 1.52-1.54
sin~tali~tion. 120-121 Edrinric st:ackise litult. .%I5
il,t,~r<nl,lllYi.s Epilminl process. i. 144-145
theory fi
~twt:illk,.~tion.1 3 E p i t q 7. 144
f i ~ r r r c t (.~ctor
i ~ ~ ~(CFl, 113 I)illitsi\it): see DilTosion, copflicient Fnhric~tionsteps. i~ltcplatedcircuit.
DIP.srv IIII:II in-line . packace
. (DIP1 Equililrriurn segregation mefliricnt. 19f~19S
~ p t ;.$,.,., Crntnl p m ~ i n txnil g (CPL'!
Dislomtion. SLT Line defect 19-21.30 Factorial rqwrimrnlal drsims. 246
Critic11 divnmsionl ICD'. 63
Dis1oc;ition bps. I,% Erfe dirttihution. 118 Fenni Ievd. I I6
(:ritic.al I . y r tl~irknrs.1.72
I>OF. src Depth of foctzs (DOF) Etdl F i c k rlill~lrionequation. 10i
C n ~ t ;drfwts.
~l 5-15
Donor \:IGIIIC): I15 mecllaaism. 91-92 Field osidr. 41. 197
Cnst.J p ' \ i h
Tit;~u:d pv\mailb and. 14-1 Dopant rxtcs, Filrn ~lcpasition
~lirtributionof. 19-21 sinlulation. 101-102 dielcdric, IZ5-165
twhniquw. 30-31
impurities rrdistrihation, 50-51 Etcltnnts epiti~xialgro\\zl>twhniqurs. 14&152
C p ~ t p~~ller.
d 1%
profile of the dillrzsed lnyer. 113-1 14 cl>emical.85 ~nrt.dliutiun.167-lii
cSP $0.(:hip scde p c b e (CSPI ~
C\-I>. rcc Cltcrnicnl \ a p r (leposition se,qreption copflicient. 3 0 3 1 cummonly used. 8 i pol!siliron. 165-167
(CVl>l DOIIIIIPd~arpcda m p t o r \FIcRnC\C 115 Etcltrs. Illaaket. kj simal;~tioa.177
Czoclm~lsktechnique. 1 4 . 3 W 1 Doal~lecoml~ stn~ctt!rr.22s Etching stn,ctar?s. 152-1.54
Doabl~-p$siliconstnlcttlre. self-aliped. alnminum. 89 Filna. 144
D;~rn:~wne t f f h n a l q 99-100. 173 19.3-195 ;aspect r a t i d r p d e n t . 98 Rats. 31
Dwp-lrencli isolation. 207 Dmin. 197, 200.206 cltcmical. 92 Flip-chip bonding. 23.5
Drfrcl rl~artiC-ch;trtl. 239 Dmin-induml barrier lo\rering (DIBLI. ~lirlectric.99 Floatins-gate nonvolatile menlon 201-202
Defrct dpnsih cl~art(IT-chalt).23.9 2ns dry i l . 89-90 Float-.zone p-ss. 94-33
Dc4r.ct.fwr zone. .we Denuded zone DRAJI. see Dynamic randoor acxvss vquipnlent. 93-94 Four-point pmlw lecllnique. 35-36, 113
Drmm of frrrdom. 243 memory (DHA.\ll gallitln~;~nenidc.8S-89 Fractional factorial drsim~s.24-19
Denuded zone. 3 7 4 9 Drive-in dillusion, 112 intrrconncct metal. 9 S 1 0 1 Frenkel d r l t e . :X
Dr~x>cition D n etching. 71. 89-90 orientcttion-rlrpndmt. 8fi. 87 Ftmctional testin$. 238
D n oddation. 12 pl~c~tolitl~ogc~pl~y tmd. 13-14 Function;~l!ielrl. ?jB-El
C,tIS, If35
sintsl;ttion. 177 D I ~in-linr
I package (DIP). 270-231 pllysical. 92
Depth of f m n (DOF). &5 D>namic random amcss inevnun. plum;^. 91-92 Gallium anenidr (GaAs). 2. IWJ
D ~ s i g c.yriment.
~d 242 (DRAJII. 8. 11. 164. 199-200. I~olycidegate, 9%99 chemical \ a p r rlrposition iL17))for.
2&'2rA pnlysilimn. 88. 95-99 I47
Drsi?? matrix. 24fi
DIRL, scc Drain-induced harrier low'ering silicon, XT-37 cpstal p w t h tccl~niqaes.2 f d l
IDIRL) E-beam lithopplly. .st!<, Electron heam silimn dioxide. 8 7 4 9 e t c l ~ i nS3-$9
~.
silicon nitride. 58 ST. silicon. 32. 212
Dicldomcil;me (Si Il&12). 145 litlinqraplty
ECR. sce Electron c?clotron rrsonilnce silicon treacll. 97-95 zinc dillitsion in. I l i
D i r l ~ i r i c(lepsition. 15%165
Di~lrctricrtrhine. 99 single-cnstal si~imn.W GII~C
(ECR) ,. ,
D i e l ~ t r i cisolation. 192-193 Edge dislocation. 23. 151 \\.rt. 88 oxide. 64
x r t cltrmical. 8-9 oxide I L I ) ~41.
Diclvctric I : t y . 41. 144, IfiSl63 ECS. spc Polycnstalline silicon (EGS)
Etching, pol!rilicon. srfj Pol!silimn, Gate c ~ ~ @ n ~ e rt ~i nc qh n o l o ~?0>210
\;
Ilir qrpnration. 230 Elrctrical testinp of integrated circ~lits.
Gatassian distrihntio~~. 114
Difhction. fig -- ""--"2rj etcl~i~~g
Gennanittrn ICP).3
Dilll~vrllayers. oaluatioe of. 113-114 Electroluminescence phenomenon. 2 Etchin< sin~le-cqstnlsilicon. sec Single-
Gelterin$. 37
l),!'l'!,.C~l ,v"II, 206 EIectromigr;ltioa. 172-173
 nplcitnr. IS5-187
intlltctnr. ISi-ISS
~nonulitl~ic. i
p;tttmt lr.tnsfer, iO-il
~.sist<,r.1st-IS5
HI)P us. tli~h<irndhpl:snlaIHDP) lotrnnnnrciions. 1.1 Litltngr;q,ltic ml~rllocls
l l ~ t ~ ~ m ~ 1.14. p i t 132
.~~~. Intercvnnrct ~nrtillclchisp. 99-101 <",l,,p:,ri5o,l ol. SO-'il
~ , . t , . r n p t ~ ~hipo1.u
~ ~ ~ ~tmlsistor.
m 2 Intrrfim. drfrcts, 15-1 nest-gl.m.ntion. 7.3-80
l l , . t c ~ ~ ~ . t nl.~scr,
~ ~ t4~ ~ r t ~ Interlayer ~lirlrctrir(Ill>). 173 Iltltngrnpl~yprwcss. 5. 6 hlrlal.~,vi~l~~-s~~nimn~I~te~r fieldcNrct
l l ~ . ~ . ~ n ~ ~ ~ t l ~ (IIhlDS!
~ l . ~ l i ~70
il:~~r~e Inrrntntiorml fir./tno/og!l Ron~/~t~o)~/or LiftolTtvrhniqttr. 70-71 tnnsislnr (SIOSFET),4, IS2
IIF ,,.,. H\clrnfluwir. acid (HF' S~~,,rin,nrlttcf~~n.
(.'A. 1999. SO. 259 ILBC:~~oxid:ttior~of silicvn (LOCOS), 191. I P C I I B O I O01.
~ 196
flrrll~lc.r~$ih l,l.rrmn (IlDP' ctchem. 'a. llltrnlitial dilTtaion. 107. 108 I97 hlrhl-o~idr..remi~~~r~rI~~ctor (SIOS)
Y>97. !i?l Intrinsic Ixwr rcS@<ion. 194 LOCOS. Local oxirlntinn of silirns capacitors. I'ii-186
Ilid~-dtt~l.anr-n~~~sI;~nl nntrrids. Intrinsic c:trrier mnrrntration. 114-1 I5 (LOCOS) clr\irrs. 53.9s
IMlfii lnlrit~sicdifi~si\ity.1IS Long-tllro\v spultr.ring. 163 hlrlal-srmicond~~ctor firldcNce tnnsistor
H ~ S ~ C I I md I . ~lki$hcumnt
~ Intrissic stacking fault. M 5 Lov-angle gmin hn~ts~laries. 1.W (hlESFETL 5.3i. IS2
inbpl.tntatio~n.13!&140 loll Lo\\.-di<.lrcllic-ci~nstnnt (10\\.4) insul;tlon. hlrtal silicirlcs. 175176
H-line. 65 clmnneling. 13&131 26 l hlicrn~~cdromer~lit~~ical \)*lrms (hlEhlS).
II\!L>S. .wcH e a m r t l l \ i - d i ~ i l ; ~ ~ n e ~listrihotior~. 125126 Lr~%v-~lit~lertric-(11r1sti1ntmnlerinls. IR>LM 21'2-014
!HSlI>SI stopping. 127-130 ln\t.rr cx,ntml litnil (LCL.!. '277 tecl~noloq213-214
Ilomorpi1:y 144. 152 Ion Iwam Lou. pwss~trerhrn~imlu p o r ~lrlmsilion \licromacl,ining. ssrlace and hulk. 215
Hprlrntlaorir acid IHF). Sfi l i t h o q p h y i9-90 (LI'CVl>), 101. l4,5, l,55, 102 hlinimum d ~ \ i c dim~nsion.
r 250
tl\pnthrsir lrst. ?A? sputteri~lg.167 LPC\'D. scr Lo\\, pressure chrtnical vapor hlinirntt!~~ feature lrngtl~..see hlinimum
Ion implantfitinn. 'iO ~lrpositinn(LI'C\'D) cle\irr clitnrnrion
IC-CIS!. . s q r Computer-intrpted dalnagr and anncalitlg. 1:31-136 LSI. spc L;irg(..-scr!lr integration (LSI) SlhllCs. x r Slnnolill~icmicro\bave
n ~ ; ~ n ~ ~ f n cofhintrqmtrd
~rin~ arid difi~sion.14 intcpmtrd circuits IhlXIICs)
circuits (IC-CISII nrlge of, 125-131 hlapeticllls ~ n l ~ a n c rrr.adive
(l ion etching hli\'OS. st.c Slrtal-nitride-o.;irIr-
IC msnttf:tch~ringtrchnolq. 80-31 related processes. 136-140 (hIEHIE).00 semicondt~cior!SINOS)
ICP snalrrr. s w lndnrtivel~mupled sin~~~lation. 140-131 S l a p ~ t r n nspottrrinx. IF$ 14ohik ionic d ~ a r ~ r54 s.
pl.lrm;i i.lCP1 s n ~ t r c ~ Isolation trcllnolo*; advanwd. 207-209 Matin rffrct, 247 SIOC\W. rn Sletdorpanic chemical \ a p r
ILD. u r lntrrl;+!er cliclrctric (ILD) \l;~qk-lx,;sr, ~\stcrn.80 clrposition OIOCVD)
I-line. 65 Jonciion deptl~.113. I l i Sla.;k <lnrnacr.C? SlOC\'D rcactor. 14%
Irnacr n.itrm. simple. Mi Jt~nctionspikins. Ifi9-I72 hl;rslting SIODFET. srt, M~lulation-dopdfield-
ISII'.\?T diode. 5. 15.7 ~ ! d t i inl~lttntation
~ l ~ itnd. IOC+IRS p a c t tnnsistor (SIODFET)
In~plimtdan~ape.131-134 Kinetics of gro\!.th. 42-19 o ~ i d ci. ~ l m l u l a t i o n - d o ~field-efirct
d transiqlor
In~ptrrin.~listribution.113 prnlwrtirc of silicon dioxicle. 51-52 (SIODFET). 5
Ilnpllrihdnpinq. IU5 Lqe-w.de intrptiolt (LS!!. 1.54 \l;~sks.&i&i. 79 Slolrcular I r a n rpit;r\? (SIREI. 8. 145.
Impurih rrclistrihstion during oridation. h e r dirxles. 4 \IHI., wc Slolec~~l:~r hr;trn rpita\y (hlRE) 14S1.52
,-xi41 L w r interfrrometn: 93 hlp;oalc.r .;tn~r.t!~rt..2.27-??R hlOhlHE. see hlelnlorqanir molrcular
Ind~rctivel?couplrd plzmn iICP) sosrce. L?tcl,"p. 20.5 SII.;,~~ ire,. p;ltll. 1.50 brmn epitm? (XIOSII3E)
I)i Lltrral (IiNusion. 11,%120 \!<.art square. 24.15 \lonolithir IC, i
In sit18 doping. 167 Lateral oxidp isolation. 191 \lc:m tin,. to F;iilarc (SITF). 17.7 ~~ooolitllic e~icm\r;~vcintepr~trdcircnits
I n t q n t e d circuit (IC)manufacturin~ Lateral s t n , q l r (a,). 125 S l e t I i n e ~ - m ~ion
r p in~plantor.1% (SlSilCs~,,5, ISi, 212
mmpot~r-intrp.aC.d.2-%277 Lqtticc disorcler. 131 Slrdiilnn swlr intrgration (XISI). 1% hlonte Carlo sin~elalion.2%
elcr.tricll testinq. E i - 2 2 s Lzttiw-matcl,t.d epit?, 152-153 >lelnor\. dr\.irzs. 1%)9-20:1 ~ I O S F E Tsrr . hI~ta~-odc~r-~~mim111
ptckqing. 229-Bfi LCL. scr Lower ~ , n t m limitl (LC[.) SIEhIS, WF \licr<>t.lrdn,tllrcl~;lnical field-effrct tnnsistor (1IOSFETl
s t a t i ~ t ~ crxprritnentation
d drsip. Ira11 zircimium titanat" (PLT). I 6 4 s)strlns (h1ESIS) h1Sl. .SPO \lc~li~lm smle intr~.ltillnISIS11
242-249 k w l 1 packqing. 232 hlEHI E. rcc \laqnrtically enllancrd SITE as,, \lean lilnr to ~ . ~ i ~ li\!TF)
lre
statidicd p r w s s cwntml. 237-241 Liftoff trclrnique. 7fJ-il rr;sliw ion clrltins (hlEl<lK) \lldtiplr innplanlation alld lll:~kill
\ i d . 2-+275 LIGA. .XP Litl~ognphic.galv:nofomit~ng. hlESFET. .st,,. >lrt;~l-s~~znicnm~~I~~ct~~r fivlll- 13C+I:33
Intr~.r.ltPcl circuits (ICr). I. 7, 192 ahforrn~rr~q (LIGA) ~ITrrttransi*tor (\ll?SFlYr) y ' s inte<r;iI, 5 2 - 5 4
\ f ~ ~ r p l ~!ic,lcl
 l,-channrI >IDSFIT (P\IOSl. 1%. 197. P<l!>r.nstallincilimn (EGS). 18, 41, 1.l~
20,%2(15, 20s Rracti\,r rr.lrtor trrlisnloS\, 93
.wc olrr, I'ol!rilin,~~ Reactor. !):I
ch;ant~rlstop. 191-192 Polygl!ridyl ~ n c t l ~ : t c ~ l n t r - c n - ~ t I ~ ~ l .
['C\ls, n,,.I'nnvss mlltml lnollitors Rl.<'tir!i~~g 1n~1;~1.r~~~ni~nncI11ctorh;,mcn,
;*c,,I;,t? (<:ol)), 75 11.1
il'C>l~> P n l ~ ~ ~6%. ~ 7.5
~~rs,
PECVII. ar. Pl;ulnit-mhnncid chrmic;tl Rrrlistrih~~tion diffurion, ace i>riv,:.in
I'nly-mctl~ylmctl~ncrylatr( P \ l \ l ~ ) is. . 79 diffwion
wpor clqnsition (1'EC:VI)) PnI!silimn. 14.I
pG,\, av An grid ;~rnt!.(I'CA) Rr.lil!rd tw!tcl!. 205
c:hp2ritor, 2111 Rr$stration. 62
P.pl:rss flow pnxrs*. 1W. 196 chpsition. lli5-16i Hcsislanrr-11c;ltrd oridation hmmxc+,
Pll;~s<.,2r-27 ~.l<~clr,,ll,.,
201 Hrri~titity,113. 114
Pltitsr di:lpm. 27 rtclrin~.!)%99 R~!si~lors. 1%
Il~;a~~.shiSting ~niak(PSXI), 72 silimn nitride mtl. 84 Rc.u,lution
Plnnspl~ants Posilivr, photorrsisl. 6i49. 75 dvfinrd. 62
mnwntionsl annrali~~gof. 131-135 I'm\ser limit:~tionr.261-262 cnhnrrmrnt twhniq~rrs,72
<liffttsionprofil~s.117. 1IS Po\vrr s11pl)l! vnltngt~,25'3-260 Reson:tnt tnnnr.lin~diode ( W D ) . 5
Pltotolitho~r.~pl~~ I)+ pnl>silicon. l!I.l Rrtrngrnclr urll. .we Twin u.rll
clrBnrd. 60 gatr. 209 RIE. srt. Rmctive ion etching (RIEI
rtclting ;tnrl. 13-14 Pr~cil>itid~s. 1.54 R,. see Projected m g e i R p )
OES. rw Optinll pmi'rion SpN'tfnSmp? simul;ltion. 81-72 I'rrllcposition difftns~!I w r , 112 RTA. .SPP R:tpirl thermal ;~nnraling(RTA)
!OES. Pltotom;uk. 60.69.73 Prrssur~-b~-trrn~~ri~t~~r~-~~~-flo~v rate. 248 RTD. src Hr~osantt,~nnr!inqdiale[RTDI
Oltmir mnt:ld. 14. 144 Phutoresist. 13. GO. fii-70. 192. rrc nl.qo Prrss~xrc-hy-trn~~rntt~r~ intrractiun. Z18
Or(: r w Opticd pnxitnih mrrectio~~ Etcll-wsisfnnt pol!nren Prirn;~ryflat. 31 Salicicle. 176
(OKI neptiw. 6 ' 9 . 7.5 Prwrs cnntrol monifnn (PCM). 22i Smnning focused-heam ystcni, 80
Optical r~nissionsprctmunpy IOES). 93 positive, 6 7 4 s . 75 Prw.r.ss sio~olntion.21X-222 Sdlottl\v banier diode. 114
*tictl litltomtphic pttprn tnnsfcr PI~!si~itletching. 92 I'rnlilometty 5-4 Scmv dislnc;~tion.a3
pnrrs*. 7IL7I Pl~>sic;dvapor deposition (PVll). 14. Pmjrctrd nngc ( R r ) 125 Second:ary flat. 31
0ptir.d lithomaphy 60-73.79 167- 167 Projected str~gqlc(aF). 1% Secnnclary mass rpcdrosmpic (SI\IS)
C\'ticrl prndmin mrrprtion I'OPC). 72 Pin g i d :trcty IPCA). 231 PROLITkI. SI trcl,niq~re.36. 11.1
Onrntat~on-rlrlx.ndrllrctcltinq. Sfi. 37 Plan;~rprocess, i. 11-14 Prnxilsip effect. 75-76 Segrcs:;ltioncwlficicnt
Orrill.~tion.93 Plasma PS\I, set, I'l>;ar-sltifting mask (PSM) rffwtive. 22-23
O\i<l.ttinn tliapostin. 93 p tqh. 204-205 equilihriam. 30. 50
i!nlNlrih n.distribation during. 50-51 f~tnrlamcntalsof. 90-91 l~-t!p- intporily, I06 Self-ixlig~rdstnictuw. 19S195
in planar p m s r . 11-12 Planla-:s<istrd etching, m. DI?.! 'rl~ing ,'-h~r silimn sllhstnttr. 211 SESIC. .v<r Sinsle-~lcctronmcmol). e l l
sin~uI:ttic>n. .3,56-57 I'lxsms-enl>anmd clle~l~ical vap,r 1, \vt41, s~ 1, tub iSE\lCl
wfiic;al. 50 (lepnsifion (PECVD). 42. 1.55. 156 PZT.srr Lead zinnnium titannte (FZT) SEhll. srr Semimndactor E q ~ ~ i p ~ nimd rnt
Od<h. Pl;lm~aetchin: hlaterinls Institutc (SE\lI)
~ \ t l itltin).
s 4%50 a process. 91-92 Scmimnd~~dor
ILtyr. 7 rractoa. 9 S 9 4 cIe,iws, 2-5
rn:~43n<,7 P>I>IA. sre Pol!-mrtllyl mrtlt;!~n l ; ~ t r ind~~rtries. 1
cIvdih. .XL%l iP\IhlA) niatm:ils. 2
thich~rwcl1anctrri7~1tion. 5-4 PhlOS. srr 1,-cl~annelMOSFET (PhlOS) p w s s trc11noIc)gin.,
t n p p r l c l r ~ q c r54
. p-n j~mction.7. 14 Semimtaluctor Equiplnrnt :xnd \l:rtrrinLq
Point defect. .% Rapid tl~vnn;ilanncilling (RTA). 134. lnstita!tr (SEhII). 3'2
P;shein<. i n t e p l d circuit Poisson clistrihotion. ?RS IS%I :I6 Sepantiar~I)! in~pInntrdo\?yrn(SIhIOS).
I<,\l.L\ or. ECBO Poisson !irl<l moclrl. 251-352 Rastrar s n n c)atcm. 74-75 140.193
hpx or. Zill-2.32 PnIy 1. rrr p+ p o l d i m n H~nrtivrion hram rtcllil~g.90 Sl~ado\vprinting. 6243. i s
~&lx,!ic rati. mnstalt. 46. J i Pol! 2. srr a + pol>silimn Hr;tcti\r ion <.lcl~ing(I<II:), 90. 94-95. I i 3 Sl~allo\r.twncll isolation. 207
Pacrmrtnc i r l d . ?-ill. 254-355 Pol?-hutmr-l sttlfonr (PRS). 75 Hr:stivr pl:tsma rtcl~ing Sllcrt rcsistancr. 11:3-114
P.tttrn! tr.loslc,r. 1 n t r ~ ~ t t t cirn~it.
.d i0-71 Polycid~gale rtclting. 9'LW al,plic;~tions,9i-101 SI~pwhartcontrol d~;trts..XT Control rllnrts
PUS. r w P o ~ - l ~ t ~ l esn~lfone
n ~ ~ - liPBSI Pol!rillc p r t x r s . 175 terl~niqnes.93-94 sl111looplot. s w Xsn-din~rssiot~nl plot