A composite material is a microscopic or macroscopic combination of two or

more distinct materials with a recognizable interface between them. For structural
applications, the definition can be restricted to include those materials that consist of a
reinforcing phase such as fibers or particles supported by a binder or matrix phase. Other
features of composites include the following: (1) The distribution of materials in the
composite is controlled by mechanical means; (2) The term composite is usually reserved
for materials in which distinct phases are separated on a scale larger than atomic, and in
which the composite's mechanical properties are significantly altered from those of the
constituent components; (3) The composite can be regarded as a combination of two or
more materials that are used in combination to rectify a weakness in one material by a
strength in another. (4) A recently developed concept of composites is that the composite
should not only be a combination of two materials, but the combination should have its
own distinctive properties. In terms of strength, heat resistance, or some other desired
characteristic, the composite must be better than either component alone.
Composite materials, often shortened to composites, are engineered or naturally
occurring materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at the
macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished structure.
The most visible applications is pavement in roadways in the form of either steel
and aggregate reinforced Portland cement or asphalt concrete. Those composites closest
to our personal hygiene form our shower stalls and bathtubs made of fibreglass. Imitation
granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops are widely used. The most advanced
examples perform routinely on spacecraft in demanding environments.
Most composites have strong, stiff fibres in a matrix which is weaker and less
stiff. The objective is usually to make a component which is strong and stiff, often with a
low density. Commercial material commonly has glass or carbon fibres in matrices based
on thermosetting polymers, such as epoxy or polyester resins. Sometimes, thermoplastic
polymers may be preferred, since they are mouldable after initial production. There are
further classes of composite in which the matrix is a metal or a ceramic. For the most
part, these are still in a developmental stage, with problems of high manufacturing costs
yet to be overcome. Furthermore, in these composites the reasons for adding the fibres
(or, in some cases, particles) are often rather complex; for example, improvements may
be sought in creep, wear, fracture toughness, thermal stability, etc. This software package
covers simple mechanics concepts of stiffness and strength, which, while applicable to all
composites, are often more relevant to fibre-reinforced polymers.
Composites are different from metals and are combinations of materials differing
in composition or form. The constituents retain their identities in the composites, and do
not dissolve or otherwise merge completely into each other, although they act together.
Reinforced concrete is an excellent example of a composite structure in which the
concrete and steel still retain their identities. The steel bars carry the tension loads, and
the concrete carries the compression loads. In aircraft construction, the term composite
structures refers to fabric resin combinations in which the fabric is embedded in the resin,
but still retains its identity.
 3 Main Divisions of Composite Materials

Particle-reinforced composites
These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two categories
depending on the size of the particles:
* large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the
matrix, if well bonded.
* dispersion-strengthened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar
to what was discussed under precipitation hardening. The matrix bears the major portion
of the applied load and the small particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic
deformation.
A particle has no long dimension. Particle composites consist of particles of one
material dispersed in a matrix of a second material. Particles may have any shape or size,
but are generally spherical, ellipsoidal, polyhedral, or irregular in shape. They may be
added to a liquid matrix that later solidifies; grown in place by a reaction such as
agehardening; or they may be pressed together and then inter-diffused via a powder
process. The particles may be treated to be made compatible with the matrix, or they may
be incorporated without such treatment. Particles are most often used to extend the
strength or other properties of inexpensive materials by the addition of other materials.
Fiber-reinforced composites

A fiber has one long dimension. Fiber-reinforced materials are typified by

fiberglass in which there are three components: glass filaments (for mechanical strength),
a polymer matrix (to encapsulate the filaments); and a bonding agent (to bind the glass to
the polymer). Other fibers include metal, ceramics, and polymers. The fibers can be used
as continuous lengths, in staple-fiber form, or as whiskers (short, fine, perfect, or nearly
perfect single crystals). Fiber-reinforcement depends as much on fabrication procedure as
on materials.
The fiber element performs the main load-baring component in fiber reinforced
composites. These types of composites create lightweight yet durable and rigid materials.
Fibers come in three different forms: long, straight continuous fibers that are stacked
parallel to each other; short chopped fibers that are randomly distributed through the
composite; and cloth woven fibers that give durability. Fiber materials include glass,
carbon graphite, polymer, ceramics and metallic fibers. Fiberglass and carbon epoxy fall
into the fiber-reinforced classification.

Structural composite often begins with lay-up of prepreg. The choice of fiber will
influence the basic tensile and compressive strength and stiffness, electrical and thermal
conductivity, and thermal expansion of the final pre-preg material. The cost of the
composite is also strongly influenced by the fiber selected.

2 Subclasses of Structural Composites

Platelets or lamina have two long dimensions. Laminar composites include
plywood, which is a laminated composite of thin layers of wood in which successive
layers have different grain or fiber orientations. The result is a more-or-less isotropic
composite sheet that is weaker in any direction than it would be if the fibers were all
aligned in one direction. The stainless steel in a cooking vessel with a copper-clad bottom
provides corrosion resistance while the copper provides better heat distribution over the
base of the vessel. A composite material that consists of two or more different materials
that are bonded together.

A sandwich structured composite is a special class of composite materials that is

fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core
material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich
composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density.
Open and closed cell structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane,
polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams and honeycombs are
commonly used core materials.
Laminates of glass or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastics or mainly thermoset
polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used as skin materials. Sheet
metal is also used as skin materials in some cases.

Fiber, also spelled fibre, is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in
discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.
They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues
together.
Human uses for fibers are diverse. They can be spun into filaments, string or rope, used
as a component of composite materials, or matted into sheets to make products such as
paper or felt. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest
engineering materials are generally made as fibers, for example carbon fiber and Ultra-
high-molecular-weight polyethylene.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to
natural fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort,
over their man-made counterparts.

Natural fibers
Natural fibers include those produced by plants, animals, and geological processes. They
are biodegradable over time. They can be classified according to their origin:

* Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin:
examples include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, ramie, and sisal. Plant fibers are employed in
the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth), and dietary fiber is an important component
of human nutrition.
* Wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include
groundwood, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite
pulps. Kraft and sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping process used to
remove the lignin bonding the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for use in
paper and engineered wood products such as fiberboard.
* Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are spider silk, sinew,
catgut, wool and hair such as cashmere, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit,
mink, fox, beaver, etc.
 * Mineral fibers comprise asbestos. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long
mineral fiber. Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite, attapulgite and halloysite.

Man-made fibers
Synthetic or man-made fibers generally come from synthetic materials such as
petrochemicals. But some types of synthetic fibers are manufactured from natural
cellulose, including rayon, modal, and the more recently developed Lyocell. Cellulose-
based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cupro-
ammonium process and modified cellulose such as the cellulose acetates.[1]

Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (i) short fibers, also
known as discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of fiber
length to diameter) between 20 to 60, and (ii) long fibers, also known as continuous
fibers, the general aspect ratio is between 200 to 500.

Cellulose fibers

* Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose.
The cellulose comes from various sources. Modal is made from beech trees, bamboo
fiber is a cellulose fiber made from bamboo, seacell is made from seaweed, etc.
Mineral fibers

Mineral fibers can be particular strong because they are formed with a low number of
surface defects

* Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified natural
quartz, are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw materials, silica fiber, made
from sodium silicate (water glass) and basalt fiber made from melted basalt.
* Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and
extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, aluminum or iron.
* Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and carbonised polymers, but the end
product is almost pure carbon.

Polymer fibers
* Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic
chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from natural materials
by a purely physical process. These fibers are made from:
o polyamide nylon,
o PET or PBT polyester
o phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
o polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVA)
o polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC)
o polyolefins (PP and PE)
o acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibers are used to make carbon fiber by
roasting them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional acrylic fiber is used more often
as a synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resin-
based fibers that are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted.
o Aromatic polyamids (aramids) such as Twaron, Kevlar and Nomex thermally
degrade at high temperatures and do not melt. These fibers have strong bonding between
polymer chains
o polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains / HMPE (e.g. Dyneema
or Spectra).
o Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane fibers are starting to
replace spandex technology.
o polyurethane fiber

* Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers forming the fiber, usually as a core-
sheath or side-by-side. Coated fibers exist such as nickel-coated to provide static
elimination, silver-coated to provide anti-bacterial properties and aluminum-coated to
provide RF deflection for radar chaff. Radar chaff is actually a spool of continuous glass
tow that has been aluminum coated. An aircraft-mounted high speed cutter chops it up as
it spews from a moving aircraft to confuse radar signals.

Microfibers
Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber (such as polyester drawn to 0.5 dn).
Denier and Detex are two measurements of fiber yield based on weight and length. If the
fiber density is known you also have a fiber diameter, otherwise it is simpler to measure
diameters in micrometers. Microfibers in technical fibers refer to ultra fine fibers (glass
or meltblown thermoplastics) often used in filtration. Newer fiber designs include
extruding fiber that splits into multiple finer fibers. Most synthetic fibers are round in
cross-section, but special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped or trilobal. The latter
design provides more optically reflective properties. Synthetic textile fibers are often
crimped to provide bulk in a woven, non woven or knitted structure. Fiber surfaces can
also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more light while bright tends to transmit light
and make the fiber more transparent.

Very short and/or irregular fibers have been called fibrils. Natural cellulose, such as
cotton or bleached kraft, show smaller fibrils jutting out and away from the main fiber
structure.

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two constituent
parts, one being a metal. The other material may be a different metal or another material,
such as a ceramic or organic compound. When at least three materials are present, it is
called a hybrid composite.
Matrix
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded,
and is completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the matrix to any
point in the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In structural applications,
the matrix is usually a lighter metal such as aluminium, magnesium, or titanium, and
provides a compliant support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications,
cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.