Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
Management is applicable everywhere and has become the key to success in the modern
organization. Every organization requires making of decision, coordination of activities,
handling of people and control of operation directed towards its objectives, management
helps organization in that activities.
DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT
It is very difficult to give a precise definition of the term ‘management’. In the management
literature, we find a large number of definitions given by different authors.
However, the different view points may be classified in to the following categories, namely:
MANAGEMENT AS A PROCESS
The process of management involves the determination of objectives and putting them
into action. Henri Fayol viewed management as a process consisting of five functions
which every organisation performs. “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to
command, to coordinate, and to control”. This definition clearly defines the four
functions of management. But the modern trend is to classify managerial functions in
to five categories:
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Controlling
MANAGEMENT AS A DISCIPLINE
Management has been widely recognized as a discipline or filed of study. It is taught
as a specialized branch of knowledge in educational institute. As a field of study, the
subject includes management subjects, principles, techniques and skills. Management
is a multi-disciplinary discipline. It has drawn heavily from Anthropology, Psychology,
sociology etc. after obtaining a diploma or degree in management, a person can try for
a managerial job.
CHARACTERISTICS
Management is a distinct activity having the following salient features or characteristics.
5. INTANGIBLE FORCE: Management has been called an unseen force. Its presence
is evidenced by the result of its efforts-orderliness, informed employees, buoyant
spirit and adequate work output. Thus, feeling of management is result-oriented.
Ability directly influences an employee’s level of performance and satisfaction through the
ability-job fit. Given management’s desire to get a compatible fit, what can be done? First, an
effective selection process will improve the fit. A job analysis will provide information about
jobs currently being done and the abilities that individuals need to perform the jobs
adequately. Applicants can then be tested, interviewed, and evaluated on the degree to
which they possess the necessary abilities. Second, promotion and transfer decisions
affecting individuals already in the organization’s employ should reflect the abilities of
candidates. With new employees, care should be taken to assess critical abilities that
incumbents will need in the job and to match those requirements with the organization’s
human resources. Third, the fit can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match an
incumbent’s abilities. Often modifications can be made in the job that, while not having a
significant impact on the job’s basic activities, better adapts it to the specific talents of a
given employee. Examples would be to change some of the equipment used or to
reorganize tasks within a group of employees. A final alternative is to provide training for
employees. This is applicable to both new workers and present job incumbents. Training can
keep the abilities of incumbents current or provide new skills as times and conditions
change.
The following is a list of characteristics commonly displayed by person who are talented or
gifted in Intellectual Abilities:
• Enjoys hypothesizing
• Intuitively knows before taught
• Uses an extensive vocabulary
• Does in-depth investigations
• Learns rapidly in comparison to peers
• 1 - 2 repetitions for mastery
• Manipulates information
INTRODUCTION
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Personality is the outcome of a continuous personal quality development process. The role
of personality becomes clear in a particular situation. Personality is recognized in a situation.
It is the result of personal quality interaction in a particular condition. The major determinants
of personality of an individual are given below:
• Biological Factors
• Cultural Factors
• Family Factors
• Social Factors
• Situational Factors
Biological Factors
Heredity:
be inherent.
• It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality.
• Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the
molecular structures of the genes, which are located in the chromosomes.
• Recent research studies shows that young children lend strong support to the power of
heredity and finding shows that some personality traits may be built into the same genetic
code that affects factors like height and hair color.
Brain:
Biofeedback:
Physical Features:
• Recent research studies shows that definitely this features influence to individual
personality in an organization. In totally, heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of
experience can be altering
them through creation of suitable environment. Apart from this, personality characteristics
are not completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors also influenced to
determining personality.
Cultural Factors
"Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the
group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and
situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will
reinforce and hence learned". -Paul H Mussen
• Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality.
• It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and regulation
followed by the society.
• It significantly influence to individual behavior compare to biological factors.
• Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition,
cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the human being and discharge
his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to society.
• Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best example of the cultural factors also
determine the personality.
Family Factors
• Family factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality.
• Family consists of husband and wife and their children's.
• Family role is very important for nurturing and personality development of their children.
• Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family members, cooperation, 52
Organizational Behaviour coordination and cooperation in work and also explained the role
and responsibilities towards the family, society and real life.
• Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for development of individual
personality.
Social Factors
• Social factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality.
• It involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization or society.
Situational Factors
SHELDON’S THEORY
According to Sheldon there is a link between physiological traits and characteristics of an
individual with his behaviour. There are basically three types.
• soft body
• underdeveloped muscles
• round shaped
• over-developed digestive system
• love of food
• tolerant
• evenness of emotions
• love of comfort
• sociable
• good humored
• relaxed
• need for affection
2. Mesophorphy- focused on musculature and the circulatory system (mesoderm), has the
tendency towards muscularity, corresponds to the Somatotonia temperament courageous,
energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker
Mesophorph Body Type:
• adventurous
• desire for power and dominance
• courageous
• indifference to what others think or want
• assertive, bold
• zest for physical activity
• competitive
• love of risk and chance
3.Ectomorphy focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) - the tendency
• thin
• flat chest
• delicate build
• young appearance
• tall
• lightly muscled
• stoop-shouldered
• large brain
• self-conscious
• preference for privacy
• introverted
• inhibited
• socially anxious
• artistic
• mentally intense
• emotionally restrained
Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals select, organize and interpret
their sensory impressions, so as to give meaning to their environment. Perception is a
complex cognitive process and differs from person to person. People's behaviour is
influenced by their perception of reality, rather than the actual reality.
Though people are continuously exposed to numerous stimuli, they tend to select only a few
of them. The principle of perceptual selectivity seeks to explain how and why people select
only a few stimuli out of the many stimuli they keep encountering at any given time.
Perceptual selectivity is affected by various internal set factors and external attention factors.
Some of the internal set factors are learning, motivation and personality. External attention
factors include environmental influences like intensity, size, contrast, repetition, motion,
novelty and familiarity.
Sometimes, different individuals may perceive the same thing differently. Differences may
arise due to factors associated with the perceiver (attitudes, motives, expectations, etc.) or
the situation (time, place, etc.) or the target (novelty, background, sounds, size, etc.).
Perceptual organization focuses on the subsequent activities in the perceptual process after
the information from the situation is received.
According to principle of perceptual constancy, there are some things which are perceived
alike by all people, irrespective of the factors influencing perception. It provides a person a
sense of stability in this changing world. Perceptual context provides meaning and value to
stimuli with respect to a particular context. According to the principle of perceptual defence,
people tend to resist information that is emotionally disturbing or clashes with their personal
convictions or cultural values.
Social perception is concerned with how individuals perceive one another. The primary
factors that lead to social perception are the psychological processes that lead to attribution,
stereotyping and halo effect. Attribution refers to the way in which people explain the cause
Stereotyping and the halo effect are common problems in social perception. When an
individual is judged based on the perception about the group to which he belongs, it is
termed as stereotyping. When people draw a general impression about an individual based
on a single characteristic, it is known as the halo effect. The process by which people try to
manage or control the perceptions other people form of them is called impression
management. It is used by employees in organizations to favourably impress their boss and
move up the hierarchy.
Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the quality of one's relationship
with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree of
fulfillment in their work, etc.. Numerous research results show that there are many factors
affecting the job satisfaction. There are particular demographic traits (age, education level,
tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours worked per week) of employees
that significantly affect their job satisfaction.
Satisfying factors motivate workers while dissatisfying ones prevent. Motivating factors are
achievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factors
related to the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the working
environment result in the job satisfaction of the person while protective ones dissatisfy
him/her.
Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with the
maintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking,
resting, etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love (good
relations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be loved), need to self-
esteem (self-confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of
self-actualization (maximization of the latent[potential] power and capacity, development of
abilities, etc.) .
Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of communications,
lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction negatively. It has been asserted that
participating in the management, having the decision making power, independence on the
job and the unit where the individual works, have positive impact upon the job satisfaction.
The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and recognition at work result in
satisfaction while the management policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result
in dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using talents, creativity,
responsibility, recognition have influence on the job satisfaction.
Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five different
countries prove that the elder workers are more satisfied . Kose has also found a meaningful
relation between the age and job satisfaction.
There is a strong connection between feeling secure and saying one is satisfied with a job.
People who state their job is secure have a much larger probability of reporting themselves
happy with their work.
Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job satisfaction.
Besides, Wahba has found out that male librarians give more importance to personal
development and free decision making in their jobs than the female librarians, and the
female librarians are more dissatisfied than the male librarians.
Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have
great impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting performance
are economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical ones.
However, most efforts to improve performance seem to center on improving the conditions
surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually result only in short-term
improvements in attitudes and productivity, and the situation often returns quickly to normal.
There is no strong acceptance among researchers, consultants, etc., that increased job
satisfaction produces improve job performance -- in fact, improved job satisfaction can
sometimes decrease job performance. For example, you could let workers sometime sit
around all day and do nothing. That may make them more satisfied with their "work" in the
short run, but their performance certainly doesn't improve. The individual's willingness to get
a result, his/her Endeavour and expectation of maintaining the result will push him/her to
show the highest performance.
Job satisfaction varies a lot. (Researches suggests, the higher the prestige of the job, the
greater the job satisfaction). But, many workers are satisfied in even the least prestigious
jobs. They simply like what they do. Most workers like their work if they have little
supervision. The least satisfied workers are those in service occupations and managers that
work for others. Ethnic and religious orientation is associated to work attitudes, and job
satisfaction is related to education.
The difference between the results that the individual desire and those s/he maintained will
affect his/her satisfaction. There is a consistent relationship between the professional status
and the job satisfaction. High levels of job satisfaction are observed in those professions
which are deemed of good standing in the society.
The workers usually compare their working conditions with the conditions of the society,
under the variable of social conditions. If the social conditions are worse than the individual's
working conditions, then this will result in satisfaction of the individual, as the workers deem
themselves relatively in good position.
No meaningful relationship between the job satisfaction and age, professional experience,
education level, level of wage, sex and professional group was found. On the contrary,
professional experience has been claimed to increase job satisfaction.
Maslow is a humanistic psychologist. Humanists do not believe that human beings are
pushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements (behaviorism)
or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). Humanists focus upon potentials.
They believe that humans strive for an upper level of capabilities. Humans seek the frontiers
of creativity, the highest reaches of consciousness and wisdom. This has been labeled "fully
functioning person", "healthy personality", or as Maslow calls this level, "self-actualizing
person."
Maslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are instinctoid,
equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak disposition that is then
fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow straight and
beautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment is not "right" (and
mostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful.
Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higher
levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation and
purely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the person does not feel the
second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the second
has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:
Physiological Needs
These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a
relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a
person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the
person's search for satisfaction.
Safety Needs
When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and
behaviors, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness of
their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the
social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs of
insecurity and the need to be safe.
The hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid, with the larger, lower levels
representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for self-
actualization. Maslow believes that the only reason that people would not move well in
direction of self-actualization is because of hindrances placed in their way by society. He
states that education is one of these hindrances. He recommends ways education can
switch from its usual person-stunting tactics to person-growing approaches. Maslow states
that educators should respond to the potential an individual has for growing into a self-
actualizing person of his/her own kind. Ten points that educators should address are listed:
1. We should teach people to be authentic, to be aware of their inner selves and to hear
their inner-feeling voices.
2. We should teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become world
citizens.
3. We should help people discover their vocation in life, their calling, fate or destiny.
This is especially focused on finding the right career and the right mate.
4. We should teach people that life is precious, that there is joy to be experienced in life,
and if people are open to seeing the good and joyous in all kinds of situations, it
makes life worth living.
5. We must accept the person as he or she is and help the person learn their inner
nature. From real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what to build
upon, what potentials are really there.
6. We must see that the person's basic needs are satisfied. This includes safety,
belongingness, and esteem needs.
8. We should teach people that controls are good, and complete abandon is bad. It
takes control to improve the quality of life in all areas.
9. We should teach people to transcend the trifling problems and grapple with the
serious problems in life. These include the problems of injustice, of pain, suffering,
and death.
10. We must teach people to be good choosers. They must be given practice in making
good choices.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of the trait EI
model, a self-perceived ability, to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one's self, of
others, and of groups. Different models have been proposed for the definition of EI and
disagreement exists as to how the term should be used. Despite these disagreements,
which are often highly technical, the ability EI and trait EI models (but not the mixed models)
enjoy support in the literature and have successful applications in different domains.
1) Self-awareness: examining how your emotions affect your performance; using your values
to guide decision-making; self-assessment - looking at your strengths and weaknesses and
learning from your experiences; and being self-confident and certain about your capabilities,
values and goals.
2) Self-regulation: controlling your temper; controlling your stress by being more positive and
action-centred; retaining composure and the ability to think clearly under pressure; handling
impulses well; and nurturing trustworthiness and self-restraint.
4) Empathy: the ability to see other people's points of view; behaving openly and honestly;
avoiding the tendency to stereotype others; and being culturally aware.
5) Social skills: the use of influencing skills such as persuasion; good communication with
others, including employees; listening skills; negotiation; co-operation; dispute resolution;
ability to inspire and lead others; capacity to initiate and manage change; and ability to deal
with others' emotions - particularly group emotions.
Goleman claims that people who demonstrate these characteristics are more likely to be
successful in senior management, citing research from various sources that suggests senior
managers with a higher emotional intelligence rating perform better than those without. He
gives several anecdotal case studies to illustrate ways in which emotional intelligence can
make a real impact in the workplace.
Q.2. Discuss the five stage model of group development proposed by Tuckman.
The goal of most research on group development is to learn why and how small groups
change over time. To do this, researchers examine patterns of change and continuity in
groups over time. Aspects of a group that might be studied include the quality of the output
produced by a group, the type and frequency of its activities, its cohesiveness, the existence
of conflict, etc.
Bruce Tuckman reviewed about fifty studies of group development (including Bales' model)
in the mid-sixties and synthesized their commonalities in one of the most frequently cited
models of group development (Tuckman, 1965). The model describes four linear stages
(forming, storming, norming, and performing) that a group will go through in its unitary
sequence of decision making. A fifth stage (adjourning) was added in 1977 when a new set
of studies were reviewed (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977).
Forming: Group members learn about each other and the task at hand. Indicators of this
As group members continue to work, they will engage each other in arguments
about the structure of the group which often are significantly emotional and
Storming: illustrate a struggle for status in the group. These activities mark the storming
phase: Lack of cohesion, Subjectivity, Hidden agendas, Conflicts,
Confrontation, Volatility, Resentment, anger, Inconsistency, Failure.
Group members establish implicit or explicit rules about how they will achieve
their goal. They address the types of communication that will or will not help
Norming: with the task. Indicators include: Questioning performance, Reviewing/clarify
objective, Changing/confirming roles, Opening risky issues, Assertiveness,
Listening, Testing new ground, Identifying strengths and weaknesses.
Groups reach a conclusion and implement the solution to their issue. Indicators
Performing: include: Creativity, Initiative, Flexibility, Open relationships, Pride, Concern for
people, Learning, Confidence, High morale, Success, etc.
As the group project ends, the group disbands in the adjournment phase. This
Adjourning: phase was added when Tuckman and Jensen's updated their original review of
the literature in 1977.
Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise when we ignore
others' needs, our own needs or the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse needs with
desires (things we would like, but are not essential).
Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the severity,
causes and consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing perceptions may come
from: self-perceptions, others' perceptions, differing perceptions of situations and
perceptions of threat.
Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number and
types of conflicts that occur. This also influences how conflict is managed. Conflicts can
arise when people try to make others change their actions or to gain an unfair advantage.
Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important. Serious conflicts
arise when people hold incompatible values or when values are not clear. Conflicts also
arise when one party refuses to accept the fact that the other party holds something as a
value rather than a preference.
Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major
influence over how they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people ignore
their own or others' feelings and emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions
differ over a particular issue.
Managing Conflict
Post-negotiation
Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage. You
may want to actually interview some of the groups involved. Additional information regarding
analyzing conflicts can be found in the Guide to Information and Resources.
Step 3: Pre-negotiation.
To set the stage for effective negotiation, the groundwork must be laid. The following should
occur prior to negotiation.
Initiation - One partner raises the possibility of negotiation and begins the process. If no one
is willing to approach the others to encourage them to reach an agreement, a trusted
outsider could be brought in as a facilitator.
Assessment - Conditions must be right for negotiation to be successful. Key players must
be identified and invited. Each side must be willing to collaborate with the others.
Reasonable deadlines and sufficient resources to support the effort must exist.
Spokespersons for each group must be identified and involved. Parties need to determine
which issues are negotiable and which are not.
Ground rules and agenda - The groups must agree on ground rules for communication,
negotiation and decision making. They should agree on the objectives of the negotiation
process. An agenda of issues to be covered needs to be developed.
Organization - Meeting logistics must be established, including agreed upon times and
places. People must be contacted and encouraged to attend. Minutes must be taken so that
information can be distributed before and after meetings.
Joint fact-finding - The groups must agree on what information is relevant to the conflict.
This should include what is known and not known about social and technical issues.
Step 4: Negotiation.
Interests - When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated
positions. Interests include the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying
positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the common goal.
Evaluation - Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be
discussed. Determine together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.
Commitment - Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of
the agreement. Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor
their commitments
Step 5: Post-negotiation.
Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some
key steps include:
Ratification - The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that have
a role to play in the agreement. These organizations should be partners and should have
been involved in the previous steps. Each organization will need to follow its own procedures
to review and adopt the agreement.
Implementation - You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached
agreement. Communication and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried
out. The partnership will need to have a plan to monitor progress, document success,
resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.
Q.4 The environmental stressors have a great impact on work performance and
Noise
Research has demonstrated that high levels of background noise can severely impair one’s
ability to concentrate. It has been shown that excessive, intermittent or unpredictable noise
can cause tension and headaches as well as raise people's blood pressure. It can impact
concentration and reduce the ability to perform complex tasks. It can also undermine
teamwork, as people in a noisy environment tend to become more irritable and less willing to
help one another.
Solutions to noise at work can involve:
• Arranging to work from a home office.
• Installing partitions or physical barriers to reduce or deaden sound.
• Scheduling work tasks so that those requiring the most focus can be completed when
the environment is more peaceful.
• Using meeting rooms separate from the main source of noise.
• If all else fails, using earplugs!
Lighting
Poor lighting, such as insufficient light, light that is too bright or light that shines directly into
one’s eyes can cause eye strain and increase fatigue. In addition to lighting conditions, the
quality of light is also important. Most people are happiest in bright daylight. Daylight which
measures 10,000 lux (equivalent to a bright sunny day) is known to trigger a release of
chemicals in the body that brings about a sense of psychological well-being. Unfortunately,
most types of artificial light do not seem to have the same effect on mood. You will probably
find that improving the quality of light will also improve the quality of your working
environment. Solutions to poor light conditions at work may include:
• Arranging work spaces to be near a window.
• Whenever possible, allowing natural light to shine through open doors and windows.
• Trimming bushes that are in front of windows, painting walls with lighter colours,
checking into the possibility of installing skylights.
• Installing brighter light bulbs in work areas or using full-spectrum bulbs in desk
lamps.
Other sources of poor air quality include smoking, heating and air conditioning systems,
ionization by electrical equipment, overcrowding (too many people in a small space),
pollution, solvents or other chemicals from carpets, furniture or paint, and excess humidity or
dryness.
Solutions to poor air quality at work may involve:
• Opening windows.
• Banning smoking indoors.
• Using dehumidifiers when humidity is a problem or humidifiers if it is too dry.
• Introducing plants – not only do plants raise the amount of oxygen in the air and
reduce stuffiness, they also help to absorb pollutants in the air; evaporation of water
from plant pots or the plants themselves will help to raise humidity when the air is too
dry.
• Keeping yourself hydrated by drinking water.
• Organizing your workday to include tasks, breaks and exercises that allow you to
vary your posture, rest your muscles and prevent muscle tension or soreness.
• Consulting with a professional who can give you expert advice, as often the ideal
solution may not be immediately obvious.
For the most part, people view stress as a negative factor. Stress however is only negative
when it is excessive, unmanaged and results in adverse symptoms and experiences. Some
of the negative consequences include:
It is clear that with these symptoms the individual's performance at work, home and in social
settings will be adversely affected. Negative stress also seems to have a self-building facet
where once stressed, additional factors just keep contributing to the stress and increase the
stress levels while decreasing performance and functioning.
Q.5 Given below are certain instances observed by a summer trainee – Ritu, while
doing an observational study at Phoenix consultants. An organization dealing with
recycling of plastic products waste etc. She makes the following observations about
two key people in the organization.
1. Mr. Shah – He is a very friendly person and encourages his team members by
giving those recommendations and appreciation. This helps HR to decide about
giving a bonus or promotion to employees.
2. Mr. Parhi- He is an aggressive person. He frequently loses his temper. Ritu
observes that he frequently punishes the non-performers and also gives them
warnings regarding suspension etc.
Now explain what base of power Mr. Shah and Mr. Parhi belong to. Explain the type of
power they use often.
1. Position. Some measure of power is conferred on the basis of one’s formal position in an
organization. For example, a marketing manager can influence the decisions that affect the
marketing department. However, the marketing manager has little power to influence the
decisions that affect the finance department.
3. Character or ethics. The more trustworthy individuals are, the more power they have in
negotiations. The big issue here is whether they do what they say they are going to do—
even when they no longer feel like doing it.
4. Rewards. People who are able to bestow rewards or perceived rewards hold power.
Supervisors, with their ability to give raises, hold power over employees. Money can have
power. But money, like anything else, holds very little power if it is not distributed.
5. Punishment. Those who have the ability to create a negative outcome for a counterpart
have the power of punishment. Managers who have the authority to reprimand and fire
employees hold this type of power. State troopers and highway patrol officers who have the
ability to give out speeding tickets also have this power.
6. Gender. Dealing with someone of the opposite sex can confer power. We have
videotaped many negotiation case studies in which the turning point came when a woman
casually touched a man’s hand or arm to make her point.
8. Charisma or personal power. When we ask participants in our seminars for examples of
leaders who have had charisma or personal power, invariably the names of Mother Teresa,
John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan come up. When we ask, “What do all three of these
leaders have in common?” participants usually respond, “Passion and confidence in what
they believe in.”
9. Lack of interest or desire. In negotiations, as in many other areas of life, the side with
the least interest in what is being negotiated holds the most power. If you are buying a
house and you really do not care if you purchase the house you are currently negotiating for
or the one down the street, you will most likely hold more power in the negotiation—unless,
of course, the sellers could care less if they sell the house today or live in it for another ten
years!
10. Craziness. This may sound funny, but bizarre or irrational behavior can confer a
tremendous amount of power. Every organization has someone who blows up or behaves
irrationally when confronted with problems. Those who have been exposed to this type of
behavior tend to avoid such individuals. As a result, these individuals are not given many
tasks to accomplish because others are afraid to ask them.
Leadership style influence level of motivation. However, throughout a lifetime, man’s
motivation is influenced by changing ambitions and/or leadership style he works
under or socializes with. Command-and-control leadership drains off ambition while
worker responsibility increases ambition.
Reaction to Change
Worker responsibility is just the opposite, it motivates people to thrive on change by seeking
challenges, finding ways to achieve goals. Level one is the leader of changing technology,
finding ways to create efficiency. (Click on image)
Reaction to Efficiency
With today’s changing technology, an individual must be willing to abandoned old skills and
learn new ones. The ability to adapt is achieved through self-development programs.
Because level one thrives on change, they adapt to whatever methods gets things done with
the least amount of effort. This brings us to work habits.
In level one, management and front line workers, together, are searching for ways to solve
and prevent problems. Decisions are made on the front line where alternative methods are
analyzed. Being able to prevent problems is a motivating force. In level three management
makes all decision, as a result, management must find ways to solve all problems and find
alternative methods. Front line employees may be aware conflicts, but they don’t have the
authority to take action and have learned not to be concerned. Supervisors are only
concerned with elements that management thinks are important.
maintaining the status quo. Under worker responsibility, ambitions will be associated with
opportunity. They will continually expand their skills as the need or as opportunity arises.
Reaction to Goals
Self-motivated people are goal motivated. Once they conquer one goal, they establish
another. Every goal is a learning process that requires all the elements in level one.
Companies that attract and keep this type of person stay on the leading edge of technology.
The CEO is a visionary in customer service and employee leadership. The employees' goals
are the same as the CEO’s.
If the CEO desires control, then he will lead in such a way that trains subordinates to lead by
control. As a result, the employees' goals are quitting time and payday.
Reaction to Recognition
Recognition is important; it builds positive self-esteem. By itself, its benefits are short lived.
Long-term benefits are achieved when the employee feels the job could not have been done
without them. This means they were faced with a challenge, which means, they had the
responsibility and authority to take action. This environment is found in level one.
Self-motivated projects' is the ability to start and finish what one has started. Most people,
working alone, do not finish what they start.
The ability to finish challenging projects is the secret to being a winner. First requirement is
interest, then asking questions which inspires' the learning process. With information, a
challenge is presented and a goal set. When action is taken, the barriers of persistence, risk,
fear and failure become a challenge by itself.
Self-motivated projects are difficult because no one cares if they succeed, which is another
barrier. This is why most people quit before they get a good start. People, who find ways to
overcome barriers and hang in there, are the winners. They develop skills and confidence,
which are required steps to larger projects.
others do care and team members are needed for achieving the goal. For this reason, team
motivation is extremely powerful. The exchange of ideas, information and testing the results,
adds to the motivating force. As a result, each member seeks to be a leader of quality input.
Q.6 “Window to Truth’ is a famous and old magazine. The top management decides to
start the e- edition of the magazine.
They also decide the redefine the policies and culture of “Window to Truth”
To start implementing this change, they frequently call meetings of employees. They
have also formed groups at different levels to clarify doubts and explain the
perspective of change.
Analyze the situation in the context of organizational change and elaborate why the
top management is following the discussed practices and what approach is most
evident in the context.
At this level, organizations start out with few assumptions about the business itself, what it is
"good" at, and what the future will be like.
Management generates alternate "scenarios" of the future, defines opportunities based on
these possible futures, assesses its strengths and weaknesses in these scenarios changes
its mission, measurement system etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving
from the Future to your Strategy."
Many attempts at strategic planning start at this level, either assuming that 1) the future will
be like the past or at least predictable; 2) the future is embodied in the CEO's "vision for the
future"; or 3) management doesn't know where else to start; 4) management is too afraid to
start at level 1 because of the changes needed to really meet future requirements; or 5) the
only mandate they have is to refine what mission already exists.
After a mission has been defined and a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats) analysis is completed, an organization can then define its measures, goals,
strategies, etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your
Strategy."
Level 3 - Reengineering (Structurally Changing) Your Processes
Level 4 organizational changes are focusing in making many small changes to existing work
processes. Oftentimes organizations put in considerable effort into getting every employee
focused on making these small changes, often with considerable effect. Unfortunately,
making improvements on how a buggy whip for horse-drawn carriages is made will rarely
come up with the idea that buggy whips are no longer necessary because cars have been
invented. To read more about level 4 organizational changes and how it compares to level 3,
please see "A Tale of Three Villages."