Chem Notes

SCH 3U Last Updated September 1, 2008
General Comments MacLeod

1. Attendance: This course is sequential in development, like a mathematics course, so
good attendance is necessary, otherwise you will become lost very quickly. Please refer
to your student handbook (page18) for the complete attendance policy.
2. Please bring all materials to every class: pen, pencil, ruler, notebook (with paper) and a
scientific calculator. Please do not bring electronic devices to class. Cell phones must be
off, and preferably in your locker. No headsets during class.
3. If you have any health problems, such an allergy or you are taking medication on a
regular basis, please discuss this with me. If you wear contact lenses please notify me and
have your parent or guardian complete and sign the contact lens letter.
4. Behaviour:- In a chemistry laboratory you must behave in a responsible manner. You
must consider your safety, your lab partner’s safety, and all other classmates safety.
5. It is recommended that you be competent in mathematics, since this course involves
considerable problem solving. If you find yourself having difficulties, see me ASAP. We
can arrange a mutually convenient time to meet. Do not let yourself get behind. If you
want extra help let me know, but don’t come and tell me you do not understand
something if you have not first made some effort on your own.
6. Punctuality: You are expected to arrive on time. Lateness shows disrespect for the
class. Do not give me an excuse, come in, sit down and get to work. I will discuss this
with you if the need arises. Please refer to page 17 of your handbook for the attendance
policy.
7. I expect you to read your textbook and try the practice exercises on your own. I
strongly recommend you prepare yourself for each topic by reading the appropriate
section in your text prior to the lesson and then again after the lesson if you need further
clarification.
Good Luck with this course! This course will demand extra work on your part, if you are
willing to do this then you will be successful.
Contact information: phyllis.macleod@ugdsb.on.ca
1
Precision vs Accuracy
Recording Numbers From Measurement

Recorded data numbers must show the place (value) for precision.
eg. 18.65 g 17.0 mL
place of precision precision
This place value also has some degree of uncertainty or error. All digits
proceeding this place value are assumed to be correct (significant digits or figures). This
place of precision is the last significant figure.
18.65
last significant figure
When reading recorded data the last significant figure (ie. place of precision or
uncertainty) is determined as follows:
* if the number has no decimal than the last significant figures is assumed to be
the last non zero digit. (Unless told otherwise.)
eg. 7130
last significant figure
If the number has a decimal than the last significant figure is the last place (last
digit) after the decimal....
eg. 0.0025 175.00
last significant figure last significant figure
The number of significant figures indicates the degree of precision in the measurement.
18.38 (4 sig figs) 18.4 (3 sig figs)
precision precision
* more sig figs means higher degree of precision
2
The number of sig figs is counted as follows: start at first non-zero digit (1st sig fig) and
all places up to and including last sig fig.
eg. 175.08 5 sig figs 0.0025 2 sig figs
Practice: The following numbers are from measurement and are written in significant
form. Identify: a) the place value (ie. Tens, tenths etc.) for the last significant figure and
the first significant figure, and b) count the number of significant figures.
First sig fig Last sig fig Number of sig figs
1) 593 __________ _________ ________
2) 0.0034 __________ _________ ________
3) 8.05 __________ _________ ________
4) 500 __________ _________ ________
5) 70.00 __________ _________ ________
Scientific Notation
Extremely large or small data numbers are frequently recorded in scientific
notation (exp. notation) eg. 1 860 000 as 1.86 x 106
The scientific notation form is written as a number with a decimal after the first
digit times 10 to some power. It must correctly show the precision (ie. correct # of sig
figs).
1 860 000 = 1.86 x 106
Scientific notation can also be used to show precision when standard notation
does not allow precision to be correctly identified.
eg. A distance is measured to be 1820 cm to the nearest 1 cm (ie. error in units place).
Recording as 1820 would be interpreted as having error in tens place but writing
as 1.820 x 103 shows error in units place.
Practice: Write the following measurement numbers in scientific notation.
1) 789 = 3) 900 100 =
2) 0.0076 = 4) 75.4 =
Addition and Subtraction of Measurement Numbers

Error must also be correctly noted in answers to calculations involving
measurement numbers. Error increases when the numbers from measurement are used in
calculations.
Addition and Subtraction
eg. measuring the perimeter of a table
151.4 cm
76 cm 76 cm
151.4 cm
perimeter : 151.4 cm + 151.4 cm + 76 cm + 76 cm = 454.8 cm
3
But, you must round off at the least precise position:

Practice: Calculate the following:
1) 29.58 + 7.8 = 4) 0.040 + 0.002 =
2) 22 +14 = 5) 765.0 + 0.08 =
3) 210 + 21 = 6) 12.0 – 8.46 =
Multiplication and Division

Count number of significant figures in each number in calculation and round off
answer to least number of significant figures used.
eg. 0.816 x 12.229 = 5.2 ÷3.78 =
Practice: Calculate the following:
1) 9.23 x 2.1 = 4) 0.00080 x 7.1864 =
2) 96.38 ÷ 0.3 = 5) 4.82 ÷ 3.3 =
3) (7.0 x10) ÷ 2.5 = 6) 0.070 x 29.8 =
Multiple Calculations: (5.2 −3.24) x 2.19 =

(2.43 + 7.8) ÷ 4.165 =
% difference = accepted value-experimental value x 100

accepted value
Accepted value – may be class average, theoretical value developed from calculations or
from a reference book
Eg. Accepted Value Yours Difference % difference
105 g 103g 2g
15g 13g 2g
Significant Figures Rules Summarized (reference: University of Guelph Lab Manual Chem-104)
a) All non-zero figures (i.e. numbers 1-9) are significant.
25.8 3 significant figures
b) All zeros located between non-zero figures are significant.

205.8 and 2.003 4 significant figures
c) When there is a decimal point, all zeros to the right of the non-zero figures are
significant, regardless of the location of the decimal point.
d) Zeros to the left of the first non-zero figure are not significant, regardless of the
location of the decimal point.
Example of rules (a) and (d):
e) For ambiguous numbers such as 58, 000 scientific notion is needed to show the
number of significant figures.
4
The Factor-Label Method

Units, like numbers, can be multiplied or divided (canceled). This method will help us
perform the proper arithmetic. The method consists of using conversion factors to change
the units given to us in the data to the units required.
Units behave just as numbers in mathematical operations. A conversion factor is a

fraction obtained from a valid relationship between the units.
eg. 1.00 in = 2.45 cm
A conversion factor is always a fraction, a ratio that relates the unit you are given to the
unit you want. Sometimes you may need to use more than one conversion factor to
complete the problem since the unit given and the units wanted do not have a conversion
factor that relates them directly.
Convert 3.00 in to millimeters:
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Dalton proposed the concept of atoms in the early 1800’s; however, it was not
until the 1890’s that scientists investigated the structure of an atom. Various models were
developed as more information was gathered. Each model attempted to explain the “new”
observations.
In 1897, Thomson discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube. He then
proposed a model for the atom’s structure (plum pudding model).
The discovery that certain elements were radioactive (gave off alpha, gamma, and beta
radiation) allowed Rutherford to develop a new model for the atom.
Rutherford found that an atom is mostly empty space with a central core called
the nucleus. The nucleus is positive, minute, but contains most of the atom’s mass.
Electrons orbit around the nucleus (solar system model). (Air Canada Place = H atom a
flea would = the nucleus)
Rutherford proposed the existence of particles within the nucleus:- proton and
neutron. The proton would be positive and equal to the nucleus of the lightest atom (ie.
hydrogen atom’s nucleus). The neutron would be neutral. Eventually Chadwick
discovered the neutron.
The periodic table was also used to develop atomic structure. Elements are
arranged in rows of increasing nuclear charge (atomic number), this order also
corresponds to an increase in the number of protons in the nucleus. The atomic number
for an element indicates the number of __________________ in the nucleus.
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Element Atomic Number Number of Protons
H 1 1
He 2 2
Li 3 3
etc.
It was further suggested that an atom would have the same number of electrons as
protons so that it would be neutral.
eg. Te atomic number = 52
52 protons, 52 electrons
The particles in an atom have the following masses and charge:

proton (p) = 1 amu (1.0072661 amu) +1
neutron (n) = 1 amu (1.00866520 amu) 0
electron (e-) = approx 1/1800 amu) -1
The mass spectrophotometer showed that some elements contain two or more atoms with
different masses (isotopes).
Li Li
3p, 3e-, 3n 3p, 3e-, 4n
Number of neutrons = isotope mass - number of protons (atomic number)

*isotope masses are different due to the different number of neutrons
C - 12 C - 14
* most isotopes are stable and are commonly found in nature but some are
unstable ie. break apart because forces are not strong enough to hold it together
Isotopes - a form of an element which has a different number of neutrons in the nucleus
(protons DO NOT VARY) because it is the electron which determines chemical
behaviour, isotopes have the same chemical properties.
Atoms and Isotopes

Atomic structure consists of a small dense positive nucleus of a small dense
positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons (e-) that move at great distance from
the nucleus at the speed of light (300 00 km/s).
The number of protons (+) = # of protons = atomic number
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Within the nucleus we find protons (+) which are relatively heavy and carry a
positive charge. Neutrons are also in the nucleus which are heavy but carry no charge.
Q. Why do electrons remain in orbit?
A. Two forces act on e- to hold them in orbit around the nucleus.
i) force of attraction + -
ii) centrifical force due to movement at the speed of light is balanced with
attraction to “hold” in orbit
Q. Why doesn’t the nucleus break apart?
A. Recall: + repels +
The presence of neutrons (neutral) permits protons to remain tightly grouped in the
nucleus. The number of neutrons must be approximately the same as the “+” to keep the
nucleus together. Rutherford described this as a nuclear force which is stronger than
electrostatic repulsion.
Subatomic Particles
PROTON NEUTRON ELECTRON
Location nucleus nucleus orbit around the nucleus
Charge positive none negative
mass very small almost the same so small it is not counted

a proton in the mass of the atom
Alpha, Beta and Gamma
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Bohr, Arc and Lewis Dot Diagrams
Bohr Electron Orbitals

Every element has a characteristic colour when placed in a hot flame. Bohr developed his
model of the atom from studying the line spectrum (ie. the colours given off) of the
hydrogen atom. His conclusions:
* electrons only posses specific amounts of energy so they occupy certain energy levels
* each energy level is a specific distance from the nucleus
* Bohr used a number and called it the Principal Quantum Number (n) (1 to ∞)
* The closest energy level to the nucleus is the nucleus is the Ground State
* The various energy levels can be pictured as a series of steps of different heights
Electron Arrangement in Atoms

Atomic structure was further developed by Neils Bohr. He studied the spectra of
elements and used the design of the arrangement of electrons in the atom:
* electrons arranged in layers or regions around the nucleus
* each layer holds a maximum number of electrons
* elements with filled (completed) layers of electrons will be non-reactive
* incomplete layers make the atom reactive
* each row (period) of the periodic table represents the filling of a layer of electrons
# of elements # of electrons
Row 1 2 e- in 1st layer
“ 2 8 e- in 2nd layer
“ 3 8 e- in 3rd layer
“ 4 18 e- in 4th layer
“ 7 incomplete
8
Bohr-Rutherford Model
eg Mg 12p, 12e-, 11n
Modified Bohr Model - Electron Configurations

Why?
Bohr’s Model
1. Predicts line spectra results that deviate from the observed as the Atomic Number
increases.
2. Fails to maintain consistency with observed periodic structural trends in valence
level and valence electrons beyond atomic number 18.
3. Equates position with energy and does not allow Potential and Kinetic Energy
inter-convention
4. Fails to account for how electrons make energy (orbit) transitions if they are not
permitted to be at any distance but the allowed distance
Modification
1. Each Bohr orbit is viewed as a Principle Energy Level
2. Each Principle Energy Levels contains “n” sub levels or orbital types
n=1 s
n=2 s, p
n=3 s, p, d
n=4 s, p, d, f
3. Each Principle Energy Level contains a total of “n2” orbitals

1 of type s
3 of type p
5 of type d
7 of type f
4. Each orbital can hold two electrons at most
5. Orbital types will half fill each orbital before fully filling
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6. Orbital energies within a Principle Energy Level of multi electron atoms are split.
N=6 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f

N=5 5s 5p, 5d, 5f
N=4 4s 4p, 4d, 4f
N=3 3s, 3p, 3d
N=2 2s, 2p
N=1 1s
Element Orbital Box Diagram
1H
1s1
2H
1s2
3Li
1s2 2s1
4Be
1s2 2s2
5B
1s2 2s2 2p1
6C
1s2 2s2 2p2
10
7N
1s2 2s2 2p3
8O
1s2 2s2 2p4
11
Every atom now has a specific ‘address’ for their electrons as described by four quantum
numbers:
principal quantum number
second quantum number
third quantum number
fourth quantum number
Each energy level only has a specific number of orbitals possible for each energy level as
seen bellow:
Energy Level # of orbitals
(n) (n2)
1
2
3
4
Trends In The Periodic Table

Mendeleev tried to find patterns to known elements.
Today, elements are arranged in rows of increasing atomic number but in general atomic
mass still does increase in a row.
Similarities between elements in the same column include:
1. atomic radii
2. ionization energies
3. similar reactivity with other elements or compounds
4. same ion charges
eg. Column I ( Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr )

1. very soft metals
2. react violently with water; oxidize (black coating) readily in air
3. form +1 ions
4. have largest atomic radii relative to neighbouring elements
5. have smallest ionization energies
Elements can be classified as:

1. METALS
2. NON-METALS
3. SEMI-METALS (metalloids) eg silicon
12
Certain columns (families) of elements are given names:

Column 1 alkali metals
2 alkali-earth metals
17 halogens
18 Nobel gases (originally called Inert gases
There are trends (patterns) to ion charges:

Column# 1 2 3 11 12 13 15 16 17
+1 +2 +3 +1 +2 +3 -3 -2 -1
Trends in the periodic table and characteristics of a family can be used for predictions:
eg. chloric acid is HClO3(aq)
- therefore bromic acid should be HBrO3(aq)
eg. aluminum oxide Al2O3
- gallium oxide will be ____________
eg. sodium phosphate Na3PO4
- lithium phosphate will be _____________
Ionization Energy and Electronegativity
13
LEWIS DOT DIAGRAMS
- simple method used to show the arrangement of e- around the nucleus

- Lewis developed a diagram system to show covalent bonding. It includes the element
symbol and the valence electrons only (outer most e-).
-valence e-‘s determine the reactivity and therefore are involved with bond formation
- He assumed only outer electrons (valence electrons) are involved in bonding. He also
assumed that the maximum number of valence electrons is eight except for elements in
period 1 (max valence e-)
therefore chlorine would have 7 valence e-
Cl
Lewis Dot Diagrams should follow 4 basic rules:

1. Write the correct element symbol to rep. the nucleus
2. Use a "dot" to show each valence e- (ref P.T.)
3. Start by placing one e- in each of 4 possible positions
4. continue to fill orbitals with e- until all 8 positions full
Example:
Draw Lewis Dot structures for hydrogen and helium atoms
H He
Example: Draw Lewis Dot diagrams for the elements :
Lithium Carbon Oxygen Neon
Li C O Ne
Chemical Bonding
• Atoms coming together and forming a new valence level arrangement
• Done to obtain a noble gas configuration
Two types of bonds:- Ionic vs Covalent
Ionic
• Consists of metal ions attracted to non-metal ions.
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Properties
• Referred to as “salts”
• Solids at room temperature
• Solutions are electrolytes (in molten form they are also electrolytes)
• Very high melting points and boiling points (due to their 3d array form)
• Crystalline structure.
• Brittle (because of the structure is very dependant on it’s regularity to keep it’s
structure)
Formation of Ionic Bonds

Chemical Bonding
• Atoms coming together and forming a new valence level arrangement
• Done to obtain a noble gas configuration
Two types of bonds:- Ionic vs Covalent

Ionic
• Consists of metal ions attracted to non-metal ions.
• Bond formed from the attraction of opposite charges.
Properties
• Referred to as “salts”
• Solids at room temperature
• Solutions are electrolytes (in molten form they are also electrolytes)
• Very high melting points and boiling points
• Crystalline structure.
• Brittle (because of the structure is very dependant on it’s regularity to keep it’s
structure)
Formation of an Ionic Bond

Sodium reacts with chlorine to form an ionic particle of sodium chloride, table salt.
Na must lose 1e- to be ‘isoelectronic’ with Ne
Cl must gain 1e- to be ‘isoelectronic’ with Ar
Ionic Formula
formula unit (not molecular unit since it contains ions and not molecules) must be
neutral
# of electrons lost = # of electrons gained
by the metal atom by the non-metal atoms
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[ M+a ] b [Nm -b ] a
Nomenclature and Formulae for Compounds

* different system for ionic and covalent
* in a formula the more metallic element usually goes first
Ionic Name
Metals lose electrons when they form ionic compounds.

Na ---> Na+ + e-
Note: The lose of e- is called "oxidation" because it was first observed in
reactions with oxygen.
Nonmetals gain electrons when they form ionic compounds.
F2 + 2e- ---> 2F-
Note: The gain of electrons is called "reduction" because it was first used in reactions in
which metal ore was reduced to concentrate. There are two atoms here for fluorine
because it is a gas. You must remember the elements that exist as diatomics in their
elemental state: H2 , N2, O2 , F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 , At2
Those that form positive charges shrink in size substantially (size shrinks as the
magnitude of the positive charge of the ion increases). The net charge becomes more
positive so the ionic radius becomes very small as they are pulled in.
Those that form negative charges grow (more if more negative charge) because net
charge becomes more negative and the nucleus has less ability to hold them in.
16
Covalent
Properties
• Low melting and boiling points
• Soft
• Non-conductive of heat and electricity
• Non-crystalline.
• Referred to as “molecules”
Covalent Bonding and the Octet Rule

The tendency of atoms to aquire a noble gas electron configuration can often be
used to predict the # of covalent bonds that will form.
Octet Rule
When atoms react, they tend to achieve an outer shell having eight electrons.
An octet is achieved in covalent bonding by sharing electrons.
There are many nonmetals that form more than one covalent bond. Eg.
If the above combined with hydrogen the formulas for the compounds could be predicted
using the octet rule.
Use the octet rule to predict the formula of a compound from hydrogen and sulfur.
17
Multiple Bonds
Sharing one pair of electrons = single bonds
Sharing more than one pair of electrons= double or triple bond
Note: Polyatomic ions can also form, these covalently bonded atoms have extra electrons
(-) or less electrons (+) .
Drawing Lewis Structures

-Try to obey octet rule!
Steps:
1. decide which atoms are bonded
2. count all the valence electrons
3. place two electrons in each bond
4. Complete the octets of the atoms attached to the central atoms by adding electrons in
pairs
5. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom.
6. If the central atom does not have an octet, form double bonds. If necessary -triple
bonds.
Hints – The Central atom is usually written first in the formula.

Ex. CO2
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Bonding
When two atoms approach each other the area of electrons of one atom repel the
e- of other atom. If the two atoms are given sufficient energy (force), their outer electron
(valence electron) regions overlap and begin to pair up e-. This requires that each atom
has unpaired e-’s.
If the two atoms are from the same element (or very similar) they will equally
share these paired up electrons between their nuclei (covalent bond).
If the two atoms are not from the same element they will not equally share the
paired electrons thereby forming a polar covalent bond (or ionic bond). The “shared”
electrons are pulled toward the atom which has a stronger attraction for these electrons
making that atom at the end of the bond become slightly negative, ∂- (due to more e-
around it) while the other atom becomes slightly positive ∂+ (due to a lack of e-
around it).
If the two atoms are very dissimilar in attraction for the “shared” pair of e-, the
atom with the stronger attraction will completely pull these shared electrons to itself
making it form into a negative ions while the other atom becomes a positive ion (ionic
bond). In effect there is a transfer of e- from one atom to another.
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules

The attractive force for electrons in a bond is called *electronegativity* (related
to the amount of nuclear charge and size of atom).
Pauling (the vitamin C guy, double Nobel Prize Winner) devised a scale of
electronegativity:
0 4
noble gases fluorine
The type of bond formed depends on the amount of difference in electronegativity

between the elements in a compound.
Ionic Polar Non Polar
Bonds Covalent Covalent
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IONIC
- metals (low EN) with nonmetals (High EN)
- generally a difference ≥ 1.7
Note: Careful of H compounds (H is not a metal)

eg.
H F
Sometimes a number is < 1.7, but still ionic eg. MgI2
Remember that metals and nonmetal bonds are ionic.
Covalent (non polar)

-nonmetal with nonmetal
- difference in electronegativity is ≤ 0.5
- equal sharing of electrons
eg. O2 CS2
Polar Covalent Bond

- generally a difference of 1.7 > ∆ EN < 0.5
- unequal sharing of the electrons in the bond
- one atom has a greater ability to attract the e- (higher EN) than the other so the e-
spends more time around the higher EN atom than the other
eg. H F
∂+ ∂- The unequal sharing leads to a partial charge distribution.

The symbols show this partial charge and their positive and negative aspects.
Polar Molecules
Whether a molecule is polar or not depends on ts shape as well as ∆EN
You must look also at the structure, symmetrical molecules will not be polar even if they
have polar bonds. Look for polar bonds, lone pair electrons on the central atom and an
unsymmetrical shape.
Eg
Intermolecular Forces
-Physical properties of melting point, boiling point, surface tension, and solubility are
related to the strength of attractive forces between molecules
- These attractive forces are called Intermolecular Forces. The amount of "stick
togetherness" is important in the interpretation of the various properties listed above.
20
Two of the intermolecular forces are associated with POLAR structures.

* Hydrogen Bonding
* Dipole-dipole Forces
One of the intermolecular forces is associated with NONPOLAR structures.

* London Dispersion Forces
1. DIPOLE FORCES:
Polar covalent molecules are sometimes described as "dipoles", meaning that the
molecule has two "poles". One end (pole) of the molecule has a partial positive charge
while the other end has a partial negative charge. The molecules will orientate themselves
so that the opposite charges attract each other.
2. HYDROGEN BONDING:
- a special case of dipole forces

- attractive force formed when hydrogen is attached to a strongly electronegative atom
(ie. oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine)
3. INDUCED DIPOLE FORCES
-known as dispersion forces, London Forces, van der Waal’s forces

_- _+ _- _+
- Weakest intermolecular force H-H H: H H :H
- Exists with all molecules
- Called temporary dipoles
21
- Occur because at any given time only one of the atoms will have the electrons, they are
continuously being pulled back and force
The strength of induced dipole forces depends on how easily electron clouds can be
distorted. Large atoms or molecules with many electrons far removed from the nucleus
are more easily distorted.
Relative strength of Intermolecular Forces:

* Intermolecular forces (dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen
bonds) are much weaker than intramolecular forces (covalent bonds, ionic bonds or
metallic bonds)
.
dispersion < dipole-dipole < hydrogen bonds
forces interactions
Effect of Intermolecular forces on melting and boiling points:
- melting or boiling result from a progressive weakening of the attractive forces between
the covalent molecules
- the stronger the intermolecular force is, the more energy is required to melt the solid or
boil the liquid.
Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solubility

In general like dissolves like:
* non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents
* polar solutes dissolve polar solvents
* ionic solutes will dissolve in polar solvents
Binary Ionic Compounds

Univalent Metal Elements
To name:
1. metal name 1st – unchanged
2. non-metal name 2nd – suffix changed to “ide”
H C N O F
hydride carbide nitride oxide fluoride
P S Cl
phosphide sulfide chloride
Se Br
selenide bromide
I
iodide
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eg. MgCl2 magnesium chloride

Na2O sodium oxide
To write the formula:

1. Write the symbol for each element
2. Assign the positive and negative charges to metal and non-metal components
3. Use the crossover rule to find the # of each element in the formula
Eg. Potassium nitride K+1 N-3 => K3N

Zinc chloride Zn+2 Cl-1 => ZnCl2
Multivalent Metal Elements

The positive charge has to be determined from the negative ion and the formula
To name:
1. metal name 1st – unchanged
2. In brackets, a Roman numeral to denote charge on metal ion.
3. non-metal name 2nd – suffix changed to “ide”
Have to determine the charge on the metal using reverse crossover.

Eg. FeO Fe+2 O-2 => Fe+2 O-2 => iron (II) oxide
Fe2O3 Fe2+? O3-2 => Fe2+3 O3-2 => iron (III) oxide
To write the formula:

1. Write the symbol for each element.
2. Assign the positive (Roman Numeral) and negative charges to metal and non-
metal components.
3. Use the crossover rule to find the number of each element in the formula.
Eg. Nickel (I) sulfide N+1 S-2 => Ni2S

Copper (II) nitride Cu-2 N-3 => Cu3N2
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Classical (Alchemist) Method:

• Suffix added to “root” name
• Suffix: higher charge – “ic”
• Lower charge – “ous”
Eg cupric oxide Cu+2 O-2 => CuO

plumbous chloride Pb+2 O-2 => PbCl2
Binary Covalent Compounds

• Two non-metals may combine to form more than one molecular compound.
• Prefixes are used to indicate the number of each element in the compound.
Oxidation states are NOT used with this method. Do not use the crossover
method.
Prefixes
Number Prefix Number Prefix
1 mono 6 hexa
2 di 7 hepta
3 tri 8 octa
4 tetra 9 nona
5 penta 10 deca
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Exceptions:
1. The prefix “mono” is not used for the 1st element
2. for prefixes that end with an “a” or “o”, the “a” or “o” is dropped when combined
with an element that starts with a vowel (but not with iodine)
3. not used with hydrogen compounds.(ex. Water is hydrogenmonoxide)
eg. NO nitrogen monoxide

NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O dinitrogen monoxide
N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
N2N4 dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide
H2S hydrogen sulfide
HF hydrogen fluoride
Special names:
H2O water not hydrogen oxide
NH3 ammonia not nitrogen trihydride
Carbon Hydrogen compounds – to be taught later
Compounds With Polyatomic Ions

• Tertiary (3 elements)ionic compounds are composed of a metal ion and a
polyatomic ion.
• Polyatomic ions containing oxygen are known s oxyanions.
• There are 7 main oxyanions
NO31- nitrate
ClO31- chlorate
BrO31- bromate
IO31- iodate
CO3-2 carbonate
SO42- sulfate
PO43- phosphate
• Each main oxyanion has derivatives based on the number of oxygens in the
formula
• Only the number of oxygens change, not the charge on the ion.
• The prefix and suffix of the name indicate the number of oxygen atoms contained
in the derivative relative to the main or “ate” oxyanion.
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One oxygen added per………….ate

MAIN OXYANION ………….ate
One oxygen removed .…………ite
Two Oxygens removed hypo………..ite
Formula Oxyanion Name
SO52- persulfate +1 oxygen

SO42- sulfate main
SO32- sulfite -1 oxygen
SO22 hyposulfite -2 oxygen
Formulas to Names
As with binary ionic compounds the metal is named 1st the polyatomic name is not
changed. Multivalent metal ions need Roman Numeral.
MgSO3 magnesium sulfite Fe(ClO)2 Ion (II) hypochlorite
Names to Formulas
As with binary ionic compounds the polyatomic ion is treated as a single element by
putting brackets around it before crossing over the valences. Cancelling of subscripts can
only be done before the bracket is removed – never afterwards. This way the numbers in
the polyatomic ion do not change.
Eg. Calcium sulphate
1. Ca2+ [SO42-] Write down the symbols with their valences.
2. Cross over the valences Ca2(SO4)2
3. Cancel the subscripts if possible, but only outside the bracket, never inside. This
gives Ca(SO4)
4. After cancelling the subscripts, if the subscript outside bracket is 1, then the
bracket can be removed. The correct formula is the CaSO4
Examples
Sodium nitrate Na1+ [NO31-] Na(NO3) NaNO3
Stannous phosphate Sn2+ [PO43-] Sn3(PO4)2
Silicon periodate Si+4 [IO41-] Si(IO4)4
26
Hydrates
• Are ionic compounds that form crystals containing water molecules within the
crystal structure
Formula
• The formula for hydrates includes the ionic compound followed by a “dot” and
then the number of H2O molecules in the crystal unit.
copper (II) sulphate pentahydrate
Acids
• Are substances which yield the hydrogen ion, H+1, when in solution.
• ACIDS are the opposite of BASES or HYDROXIDES
• Acids are of two types: Binary acids and Oxyacids
Binary Acids
• As the name implies, these compounds consist of only two elements, one of
which is hydrogen and the other in a non-metal
• There are only five of these compounds
• When the covalent compounds are dissolved in water they form acids. (hydrogen
must form a polar covalent bond with a non-metal, therefore only some elements
have the right electronegativity values F, Cl, Br, I, S)
Naming:
Classical
• These acids all begin with the prefix “hydro” followed by the name of the
non-metal ending in the suffix “ic”.
IUPAC
• The word “aqueous” precedes the name of the dissolved compound.
Formula Classical Name IUPAC Name
HF(aq) hydrofluoric acid aqueous hydrogen fluoride

HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid aqueous hydrogen chloride
HBr(aq) hydrobromic acid aqueous hydrogen bromide
HI(aq) hydroiodic acid aqueous hydrogen iodide
H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid aqueous hydrogen sulfide
27
• The chemical formulas always have the subscript (aq) indicating that they are
dissolved in water.
HCl(g) means hydrogen chloride

HCl(aq) means hydrochloric acid or aqueous hydrogen chloride
In addition, although not a binary acid, it uses the same system:

Hydrogen cyanide HCN Hydrocyanic acid
Oxyacids
These are the hydrogen compounds of the oxyanions.
• The classical name of the main acids all end in “ic”
• The IUPAC names include the prefix “aqueous” followed by the name of the
dissolved compound
• The seven main oxyacids are:
HNO3 (aq) nitric acid aqueous hydrogen nitrate

HClO3 (aq) chloric acid aqueous hydrogen chlorate
HBrO3 (aq) bromic acid aqueous hydrogen bromate
HIO3 (aq) iodic acid aqueous hydrogen iodate
H2CO3 (aq) carbonic acid aqueous hydrogen carbonate
H2SO4 (aq) sufluric acid aqueous hydrogen sulfate
H3PO4 (aq) phosphoric acid aqueous hydrogen phosphate
• As with oxyanions, oxyacids also have derivatives based on the number of

oxygens in the compound
• The IUPAC names include the prefix “aqueous” followed by the name of the
dissolved compound
• The classical names include a prefix and suffix to indicate the number of oxygen
atoms contained in the acid relative to the main or “IC” acid.
One oxygen added per…….ic acid

MAIN ACID ……ic acid “ate” oxyanion
One oxygen removed ..….ous acid “ite” oxyanion
Two oxygens removed hypo…..ous acid
H3PO5 (aq) perphosphoric acid aqueous hydrogen perphosphate
28
Acid Salts
• Oxyacids may lose all of their hydrogens to become oxyanions
• For oxyacids that contain more than 1 hydrogen, they can lose their hydrogens
one at a time and form acid salts with metal ions.
• These oxyacids are called “diprotic” (2 hydrogens) or “triprotic” (3 hydrogens)
Diprotic acids are H2SO4 and H2CO3 and ALL their derivatives.
• If they lose a single hydrogen atom they form these polyatomic ions.
HSO41- called hydrogen sulphate or bisulphate

HCO31- called hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate
• Amphoteric (can either gain or lose and electron in water to become basic or acid)
Triprotic Phosphoric acid, can form two different polyatomic ions:

• Loss of 2 hydrogens
HPO42- called hydrogen phosphate or biphosphate

• Loss of one hydrogen
H2PO41- called dihydrogen phosphate (exception to the rule that you don’t give
hydrogen compounds a prefix because there is already a hydrogen
phosphate).
Salts containing acid anions:
NaHCO3 is sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate (produces water,
carbon dioxide and sodium oxide)
Bases
• Are substances which yield the hydroxide ion, OH-1, when in solution.
• BASES are the opposite of ACIDS.
• These are aqueous solutions of metal hydroxides
Name
• Is the name of the ionic hydroxide, preceded by “aqueous”
Formula
• Is the formula of the metal hydroxide with an (aq) subscript
NaOH(aq) aqueous sodium hydroxide
29
Chemical Changes
• Produces a new substance
• Evidence:
o Change in colour (not due to mixing)
o Heat evolved (transferred out of the system) or absorbed
o A change of state from reactants to products (ex. Precipitation forms)
o A gas is produced (may have an odour), not from boiling (so ANY
production of water vapour does not count)
• Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT):
o All particles undergo random motion
o Temperature is a measure of the particles
o KE (put a bar over it) = _ mv2
KE (average)
# particles
KE
• Collision – Reaction Theory
o Increased T (temperature) leads to, increased number of collisions, and
increased number of effective collisions (require correct orientation and
sufficient energy to overcome the repulsive force)
A reaction doesn’t progress when:

• The same reactants collide (like ozone with itself)
• Ozone and nitrogen monoxide don’t collide in the “right way”
• One of the reactants collides with one of the products
• The products collide with each other
Chemical Equations
1. Word equation
o Lead (II) nitrate solution + Potassium Iodide solution => lead (II) iodide +
potassium nitrate solution
2. Skeletal Equation
o Convert each word to its chemical formula
o Pb+2(NO3)2 (aq) KI (aq) => PbI2 (s) + KNO3 (aq)
3. Balanced
o Pb+2(NO3)2 (aq) 2KI (aq) => PbI2 (s) +2 KNO3 (aq)
o 4Fe + 3O2 => 2Fe2O3(s)
30
Types of Chemical Reactions
Synthesis (combination)
• Two or more reacting substances (elements or compounds) combine to form one
product
• Vast majority are exothermic (give off energy)
• General Equation: A + B = AB (give off energy to increase disorder to
compensate for AB forming a compound which increases order and disobeys
entropy)
o 2Mg(S) + O2(g) => 2MgO(s)
o S(s) + O2(g) => SO2 (g) (textbook considers both to be combustion)
o N2 + 3H2 (g) => 2NH3 (g)
o CO2 (g) + H2O(l) => H2CO3 (aq)
Decomposition
• One product produces two or more substances
• Most are endothermic
• Chemical Formula: AB => A + B
o 2NaCl(s) => 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)
o CuSO4 (dot) 5H2O => CuSO4 (s) + 5 H2O(l)
o H2CO3 (aq) => CO2 + H2O (Important)
o NH4OH(aq) => NH3(g) + H2O(l) (Important)
o 2NaHCO3 (s) => Na2CO3 + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
Combustion
• Occurs with C,H, O (sometimes) and O2
• Very exothermic
• 2C8H18(l) (octane) + 25O2(g) => 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(l)
31
Single Displacement
A single-displacement reaction is when one element moves out of one compound and
into another. This is usually written as
A + BX → AX + B
This will occur if A is more reactive than B. You can refer to the activity series to be sure
of this.
Metal Activity Series
Metal Metal Ion Reactivity
Lithium Li+ Most Reactive

Potassium K+
Barium Ba2+
Calcium Ca2+
Sodium Na+
Magnesium Mg2+
Aluminum Al3+
Manganese Mn2+
Zinc Zn2+
Chromium Cr2+, Cr3+
Iron Fe2+, Fe3+
Lead Pb2+
Copper Cu2+
Mercury Hg2+
Silver Ag+
Platinum Pt2+
Gold Au+, Au3+ Least Reactive
Notes on the Metal Reactivity Series:

By studying replacement reactions we can arrange the metals in decreasing order
of reactivity. The reactivity series list the different metals (and hydrogen) in order of
their decreasing tendency to lose electrons in water solutions at specified temperatures.
Hydrogen is on the list because it behaves as though it were a metal in certain reactions.
Metals found above hydrogen will replace hydrogen in acid solutions, while those below
will not.
As we know the tendency of metals to lose electrons depends chiefly on the
nuclear charge and on the atomic radius of the metal atom. The reactivity series may be
used to make reasonable predictions concerning the reactivity of different metals.
According to the table, for example, aluminum will replace mercury in an aqueous
solution of a mercury compound. Silver will not replace iron.
• Halogen series
o (most reactive) F => Cl => Br => I (least reactive)
• always an element and a compound, if the element is higher on the activity series
than the one in the compound they switch places.
eg. Silver nitrate solution + copper => Silver + Copper(II) Nitrate Solution
2AgNO3 (aq) + Cu(s) => 2Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq) (Cu is most stable in 2+ state)
32
General Formula
A + BC => AC + B
(element) (compund) (compund) (element)
(generally aqueous) (aqueous)
Double Displacement Reactions

• Always occur in solution Background on Solubility:
 Ionic compounds dissociate in water. The ionic bond gets
separated.
 It is a physical change, NOT chemical
 NaCl(s) + H2O => NaCl(aq) => Na+1(aq) + Cl-1(aq)
+1
• O Na+1 O (surrounded by water molecules on ALL sides in
Na three dimensions to isolate it, likewise the Cl anions would
be surrounded by water molecules with the hydrogen ends
pointing in.
 There MUST be enough water to completely surround them
 With metals size decreases as you go left to right, so aluminium is
smaller than sodium, and it forms a +3 not a +1 charge so it is
much smaller, therefore sodium is the more soluble because it is
larger and can be surrounded by more water molecules which
isolate it more effectively than a few surrounding the aluminium.
This is why group one is ALWAYS soluble, so group one
compounds are assumed to have high solubility.
 It is easiest to dissolve large ions or polyatomic ions with a low
charge. (eg Nitrate is large but only has a –1 charge so it is very
soluble, but Carbonate has a higher –2 charge so it is less soluble).
 Small size and low charge are still hard to dissolve
 Hg+1(exist as Hg22+) Cl is insoluble but Hg+2 Cl is soluble
 All nitrates and group one compounds are soluble
1. Precipitation Reactions
Ba(NO3)2 + 2KCl(aq) => BaCl2(aq) + 2KNO3(aq)
Therefore NO REACTION because no solid formed
Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+1(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) => Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2K+1(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Therefore NO REACTION nothing has happened
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) => AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
33
SOLUBILITY OF IONIC COMPOUNDS AT SATP

Anions
Cl-, Br-, I- S-2 OH- SO42- CO32-, PO43-, C 2 H3 O2 - NO3-
SO32-
High most Group 1, Group 1, most Group 1, Most all
solubility Group 2, NH4+1, Sr2+, NH4+1
(aq) ≥0.1 NH4+1 Ba2+, Tl+
mol/L
Cations
Low Ag+, Pb2+, most most Ag+, Pb2+, most Ag+ none
Solubility Tl+, Hg22+, Ca2+, Ba2+,
(s) <0.1 Cu+ Sr2+, Ra2+
mol/L
2. Gas Production
Na2S(aq) + 2HCl(aq) => 2NaCl(aq) + H2S(g)

3. Neutralization
H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) => K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Use an indicator to discover if a pH change has occurred indicating a
neutralization reaction.
1) The Law of Conservation of Mass
In any chemical reaction the total mass of reactants = the total mass of the
products. Matter is neither created or destroyed as long as the reactants are used up.
H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O
2g 16g 18g
34
2) The Law of Definite Proportions
A compound is made up of elements which are always present in the same whole
number ratios.
eg. H2O H:O=2:1
CO2 C:O=1:2
3) Law of Constant Composition
A compound always has the same % composition by mass.

eg. In H2O
% H = 2g x 100 = 11.1%
18g
% O = 16g x 100 = 88.9%

18g
H : O = 2 : 16 = 1 : 8
H2O2 mass = 34.02g
If a compound of H and O does not have the composition of 11% H and 89% O then it is
not water.
eg 1 H2 + O2  product
0.23g x 2.07g
a) Is it H2O? %H=
b) mass O2
c) simple mass ratio H:O  0.23: 1.84 = 1:8
35
eg.2 H2 + O2 - product
0.75g 12.0g
a) Is it H2O? % H =
What might it be?
Average Atomic Mass

The values of atomic mass on the periodic table are the average Atomic Mass for the
element.
This is due to the fact that most of the elements are composed of different isotopes that
have different masses.
The average atom’s mass depends on the relative amounts of each of the isotopes in a
sample of the elements
eg. Cl has two isotopes
a) Cl in 75.4% of a sample Number of neutrons =
b) Cl in 24.6 % of a sample Number of neutrons =
To calculate the Average Atomic Mass

= (% isotope1 x mass number) + (% isotope2 x mass number)
DO IONS COMBINE IN DEFINITE RATIOS?

CuSO4 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → CuCO3 (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
Test Tube
1 2 3 4
Drops Cu2+ 1 3 5 7
Drops CO32- 9 7 5 3
Cu2+/ CO32- 0.11 0.43 1 2.3
Precipitate Height 1 3 5 3
Appearance no blue color remaining blue color re
Significance no unreacted Cu2+ equal volumes with equal excess Cu2+ r
therefore precipitate amount limited by available Cu2+ concentrations and largest amount of therefore pre
precipitate therefore the reacting ratio available CO
must be 1:1
36
The Mole
We use terms to express groups of items or another unit to express a large amount as a
smaller number:
eg. 1 dozen = 12 items
1 km = 1000m
1 year = 365 days
The mass of one proton is known as 1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u.)

1 a.m.u. = 1.66 x10-24 g
and 1g = 1
1.66 x10-24 a.m.u
= 6.02 x 10 23 amu therefore 6.02 x 10 23 converts amu to grams
This value is called Avogadro’s Number (NA) = THE MOLE!
NA = 6.02 x 10 23 particles (atoms, ions, molecules)/mole
Mass 1 C atom = 12 amu (can’t see it)
Mass 1 mol of C atoms = 12g ( can measure on a balance)
The masses on the periodic table can be converted to grams if you have 1 mole of the
element.
37
The mole is a unit for counting (measuring) numbers of molecules of particles (atoms,
molecules, ions). A mole is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12.000 g of carbon
isotope 12. This also means that a mole is the number of atoms in an elements atomic
mass expressed in grams. A mole of any material has 6.02 x 10 23 items.
eg. 1 mole Pb = g
1 mole Na = g
It also means that a mole is the number of molecules in a compound Molar Mass
(MM) expressed in grams
eg. 1 mole H2O = g
1 mole CO2 = g
ie. Molar Mass = Formula Mass (FM) or Gram Molecular Weight (GMW)
eg. What mass of H2O is needed to have 3.75 moles of H2O molecules.
eg. How many moles of molecules are in 97.25 g of CO2?
eg. What mass of MgCl2 is needed to provide 5.000 moles (of molecules)?
eg. How many molecules are in 1.56 mol of N2 ?
38
eg. How many moles of molecules are in 2.84 x 10 24 molecules of CO2?
Aside: The Factor-Label Method

Units, like numbers, can be multiplied or divided (canceled). This method will help us
perform the proper arithmetic. The method consists of using conversion factors to change
the units given to us in the data to the units asked for in the data.
given quantity x conversion factor(s) = desired quantity
Units behave just as numbers in mathematical operations. A conversion factor is a
fraction obtained from a valid relationship between the units.
eg. 1.00 in = 2.45 cm
A conversion factor can be used to cancel units:
Cancel cm: 1.00 in or to cancel inches: 2.45 cm
2.54 cm 1.00 in
A conversion factor is always a fraction, a ratio that relates the unit you are given to the
unit you want. Sometimes you may need to use more than one coversion factor to
complete the problem since the unit given and the units wanted do not have a conversion
factor that relates them directly.
Hand in the answers for each of the “convert the following” questions throughout the
preceding pages. You must show all your work with the appropriate units.
Convert 3.00 in to centimeters
given quantity x conversion = desired quantity
factor
3.00 in x 2.54 cm = 7.62 cm

1.00 in
39
Percentage Composition
When elements combine to form a given compound, they are
always present with the same percentage composition by mass. This means the
percentage of the total mass that is contributed by each element.
Calculating Percents
1. What is the percentage by mass of the potassium, chlorine and oxygen in KClO3 ?
% concentration
* % by weight or weight/weight %
* symbol is usually %(w/w) = # of grams of solute per 100g of solution eg. a
solution labeled 0.9% (w/w) NaCl has a ratio of 0.9g of NaCl to 100 g of solution.
* When both solute and solvent are liquids, or both are gases, then it can be
convenient to use percent by volume (% (v/v)). -- which is the number of volumes of one
component in 100 volumes of the entire solution.
Many made-up solutions are available from chemical supply houses and stockrooms.
Sometimes molarity is known sometime % concentration is known. You may find that
40
you will have to move between these concentration calculations. The only additional
information you may need for some calculations are formula weights, and density.
Empirical Formula
An empirical formula is the smallest whole number ratio between ions in an ionic
compound or between atoms in a molecule of a covalent compound.
For an ionic compound, an empirical formula is the formula for the compound
while for a covalent compound the empirical formula may be the same as molecular
formula or a fraction of the molecule formula.
The empirical formula can be derived from data on masses in a compound.
eg. When a 43.2 g sample of carbon burns (with oxygen from air) it forms 159.0 g of a
compound (of carbon and oxygen).
What is the empirical formula?
mass of C in compound =
mass of O in compound =
Moles C atoms : Moles O atoms:
What do these reduce to in

simple whole numbers?
Ratio :
moles O atoms =
moles C atoms =
therefore empirical formula is
sometimes a ratio may need adjusting
Molecular Formula
The molecular formula (for covalent compounds) is a multiple of the empirical
formula.
eg. A compound has the empirical formula of CH2 but its molar mass is 28 g.
mass of CH2 formula =
molar mass =
mass of molecular formula =

mass of emp formula
* since MW is twice the mass of CH2 therefore molecular formula is C2H4
Percentage Composition by Mass

14.01g / mol
NO  %N = = 46.68%
30.01g / mol
41
16.00 g / mol
%O = = 53.32%
30.01g / mol
N2O2  same percentages

N4O4  same percentages
• Base formula is called the empirical or simplest formula

• To determine the Molecular Formula you need the molecular mass of the actual
component
A sample of a compound contains 40.0%C, 6.71% H and 53.29%O by mass.

a. Calculate the empirical formula
b. The molecular mass is 90.03 g/mol – determine the molecular formula
Quantity C H O
% 40.0 6.71 53.29
Mass in 100g 40.0 6.71 53.29
n (mol) 40.0g/12.01g/mol = 6.71g/1.01g/mol = 53.29g/16.00g/mol
40.0g x 6.71 x 1mol/1.01g = 53.29g x
(1mol/12.01g) = = 6.64 mol 1mol/16g =
3.33 mol 3.33mol
Simples n ratio 3.33mol/3.33mol = 6.64mol/3.33mol = 3.33mol/3.33mol =
1.00 = 1 1.99 = 2 1.00 = 1
Note: if values were 1.25, 3, 4 then you cannot assume it is a ratio of one, you must
multiply it all by four to get the simplest formula
Simplest formula is CH2O
b) Mx = 90.03 g/mol
M CH 2O = 30.03 g/mol
Factor = Mx/Msimplest = 90.03/30.03 = 3
Molecular Formula = C3H6O3
Hey, do you need help with this material? I am available for assistance set up a time with me…(MacLeod)
So you’ve just aced your last chemistry test and you’ve decided to throw a party. You
want to make a dip for the chips but the only recipe you can find is the following:
2 times as much mayonnaise as sour cream
1/4 as much fresh parsley as mayonnaise
1/4 as much onion as parsley
1/2 as much salt as onion
This recipe only gives you the proportions of the ingredients, it does not give you the
specific amounts. Like this recipe a balanced chemical equation only gives information
on the proportions of reactants and products. It does not give specific amounts for each.
42
Now we need to take mole ratios of equations and translate them into more useful
“recipes”--------> STOICHIOMETRY
Always remember the Mole is at the HEART of chemistry.
Recall that the coefficient in an equation represent the mole ratio between reactants and
products.
eg. N2 + 3H2 ----> 2NH3
Ratio 1 mol : 3 mol : 2 mol
The mole values can be used to determine other quantities in a reaction (stoichiometry).
mole -----> mole
eg. How many moles of nitrogen will be needed to react with 0.870 mole of hydrogen
during the synthesis of ammonia?
N2 + 3H2 ----> 2NH3
moles N2 :
• If you have 5.7 mol of H2 how much N2 will be needed?

1molN 2
nN2 = 5.7 molH 2 × = 1.9 mol N2
3molH 2
• If have 10.1 mol NH3 produced how many mols of H2?

3molH 2
n H 2 = 10.1molNH 3 × = 15.2 mol H2
2molNH 3
Mass to Mass
In a reaction, 1.028g of calcium carbonate was produced by using an excess of calcium
chloride solution and a known amount of sodium carbonate solution. What amount of
sodium carbonate was used?
Must have a balanced chemical equation

Mass of given
MG (g) (3)MWrequired (g)
(n = m/MW) (m = nxMW)
(mole ratio)
(1)NG (mol (2)Nrequired (mol)
Step 1 nG = mG/MWg Step 2 mole ratio -> Step3 mrequired = nrequiredxMWrequired
43
1 c. f .required
mrequired = mG × × × M required
MG c. f .given
1molCaCO3 1molNa 2 CO3 105.99 gNa 2 CO3

m Na2CO3 = 1.028 gCaCO3 × × × =1.089g
100.09 gCaCO3 1molCaCO3 1molNa 2 CO3
Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
m=? m = 1.028g
MW= 105.99g/mol MW= 100.09g/mol
Gravimetric Stoichiometry
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
1 atom 1 molecule 1 molecule
12.01_ 32.00 _ 44.01 _
23
6.02x10 atoms 6.02x1023 molecules 6.02x1023 molecules
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
12.01g 32.00g 44.01g
Mole -----> Mass

eg. What mass of potassium chlorate must be decomposed to produce potassium chloride
and 1.65 mol of oxygen?
2 KClO3 ------> 2 KCl + 3O2
Mass ------> Mole

eg. How many moles of sodium metal would be needed to react with chlorine gas to
synthesize 845 g of sodium chloride?
44
Mass ------> Mass

eg. What mass of oxygen is needed to burn 100.0 g of C8H18 ?
Limiting and Excess reactant (Reagents)

Often when 2 reactions (reagents) are mixed it is difficult to get “exact” quantities
(for the correct mole ratio) so one reactant is in excess, (or to ensure that a reactant is
completely consumed).
The reactant that is completely consumed is called the limiting reagent while the
other is the excess reactant. All stoichiometry calculations are based upon the limiting
reagent.
eg. If 5 moles of Mg and 3 moles of O2 are mixed, how many moles of MgO are
produced?
If 1.21 mol of zinc are added to 2.65 mol of hydrochloric acid, HCl, then zinc chloride,
ZnCl2, and hydrogen gas, H2, are formed. Determine which reactant is in excess and by
what amount. Calculate the moles of each product.
Zn + 2HCl -----> ZnCl2 + H2
45
* You are asked four questions: 1) reactant in excess?? 2) amount of excess??

3) mol of ZnCl2?? 4) mol of H2??
To answer the first two questions, the relationship between the reactants is needed:
mole ratio---> 1 mol of Zn to every 2 mol of HCl
Theoretical and Actual Yields

For known amounts of reactants, theoretical amounts of products can be calculated in a
chemical reaction or process. Calculated amounts of products are called theoretical yield.
In these calculations, the limiting reactant is the limiting factor for the theoretical yields
of all products.
However, in a reaction to prepare a compound, you may get less than the theoretical
yield, because of incomplete reactions or loss. The amount recovered divided by the
theoretical yield gives a percent yield (% yield) or actual yield.
% yield = experimental value x 100%
theoretical yield
46
An Introduction to Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures – only one phase is visible! Note: Solutions
and Pure substance look the same to the human eye
• Solutions are composed of at least one solute and at least one solvent.
• Solutions should be transparent – you should be able to see through them.
• A solute is the substance dissolved in the solvent.
• The solvent is the medium in which a solute is dissolved.
Example: Ammonia gas (solute) dissolves in water (solvent)

• An aqueous solution (aq) has water as the solvent.
• Compounds are considered to be electrolytes if they conduct electricity when
dissolved in water.
• Ionic compounds are usually electrolytes, while most covalent compounds are
nonelectrolytes
Explaining Solutions
Ionic compounds dissolve in water by breaking apart into ions:
Example: NaCl (s)  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Covalent compound dissolve in water by mixing with water:
Example: NH3 (g)  NH3 (aq)
The rule for the mixing of covalent compounds is:
“like dissolves like”
Polar substances will mix easily with other polar substances.
Why?  similar intermolecular forces
 dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding
Non-polar substances will mix easily with other non-polar substances.

Why?  similar intermolecular forces
 London dispersion forces
Two substance that will not mix (such as oil and water) are said to be immiscible.
Classification of Solutions
Solute in Solvent Example

Gas in gas
Gas in liquid
47
Gas in solid
Liquid in gas
Liquid in liquid
Liquid in solid
Solid in liquid
Solid in solid
Properties of Solutes and Their Solutions
Type of Solute Conductivity Test
Electrolyte
Non-electrolyte
Type of Solution Litmus Test
Acidic
Basic
Neutral
Solution: A homogeneous (uniform distribution, 1 phase, same throughout) mixture of

at least 2 substances
• 1 substance = solute (dissolves)
• 1 substance = solvent (dissolver)
• may be clear, colour, colourless
• Solvents: water, alcohols, oils, ammonia,
NaCl(aq) I2(al) C2H4(eth) Na+(NH3)

We will concentrate on aqueous solutions
48
Properties (physical): - clear, but not always colourless

Electrolyte – substance that conducts electrons in solution
Sample Electrolyte Litmus Test Ionic/covalent Acid/Base Substance
A No No Covalent Neutral Distilled
water
B Yes (2nd No Ionic Neutral CaCl2
strongest)
C Yes (strongest) Blue (based) Ionic Base Ca(OH)2
D No No Covalent Neutral Sugar
solution
E Yes (weakest) red Ionic Acid Citric acid
(covalent that
is slightly
ionised)
Explaining Solutions
Recall:
Intramolecular (particle) Forces
-a specific attraction within a compound (covalent or ionic bond)
Intermolecular Forces
- an attraction between molecules
- three different types, in increasing order of strength:
London Dispersion (LF) – non-polar compounds
Dipole – Dipole (D-D) – polar molecules
Hydrogen Bonding (H – B) – molecules that have H bonded to N, O or
F.
Aqueous Solutions
Water is a very polar substance
Water that contains H bonding.
It readily dissolves polar molecules

and ionic compounds.
Ammonia Ammonia is very soluble as it

Has lone pairs of electrons on the
Nitrogen atom that attract the
∂+ H atoms of the H2O.
Hydrogen bonding between N and ∂+H

And between N –H and the ∂+ O
49
See page 275

Ethanol Ethanol is also soluble in water as
it is a polar molecules with
H – B sites on it’s “O” atom
And the ∂+H atoms of H2O
Acids (polar covalent) Water ionizes acids.
Water breaks apart of dissociates ionic compounds. Water ionizes acids.

Molecular Substances in Water
In polar solvents, solubility increases with increasing intermolecular forces.
Highest - most H-bonds or H-Bonding sites
High – some H-bonds or high dipole-dipole
Low – only London forces
Non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents – solubility with only non-polar as there
is only London Forces
See p276
Examples:
Solution Concentrations
Concentration, C , is used to express the amount of solute dissolved in an amount of
solvent
In general: Concentration = quantity of solute
quantity of solvent
General terms: concentrated – large quantity of solute per unit volume of solution
dilute – small quantity
Concentrations are expressed in several different ways. The type of concentration used
must be specified
1) % concentration (Three different types, seen mostly with consumer products)
a) volume/volume, % V/V mL/100mL
50
-used when both solute and solvent are liquids
C = V solute x 100% Note: V solution = V solute + V solvent

V solution
Eg. A 500 mL bottle of rubbing alcohol contain 360 mL of isopropyl alcohol. What is the
% by volume concentration of the alcohol?
V solute = V alcohol = 350 mL
V solution= 500 mL
C = V solute x 100 = 350 mL x 100% = 70%
V solution 500 mL
Therefore the concentration of isopropyl alcohol is 70% V/V.

b) weight/volume % w/V g/100mL
- used when both solute + solvent are solids
C = m solute = g/mL
V solution
Usually m solute doesn’t change the volume of solution from the volume of solute in
dilute solutions.
c) weight/weight % w/w g/100g

- used when both solute and solvent are solids
C = M solute = g/g
M solution
2) Very low concentrations
- part per million
- parts per billion
- parts per trillion
These are measured in W/W or W/V regardless of solute and solvent type.
Conversions
Remember the density of water = 1g/mL
51
Eg. The BOD level in a 500.0 mL sample was found to be 4.4mg. What is the
concentration of oxygen in ppm?
m O2 = 4.4 mg
V O2 = 500.0 ml = 0.50000L
C O2 =
3) Molar concentrations (Molarity) This is the most important for chemistry. Solutions
used in reactions we need to know the moles of solute in a solution.
C = amount of solute (in moles)

Volume of solution (in litres)
Calculations Involving Concentrations

1. Write down the given and required
2. determine the equation required
3. substitute values into equation
4. isolate and solve
eg. A nurse needs to calculate the mass of dextrose, C6H12O6 present in a 1L IV bag of
D5W (solution 5% w/v dextrose in water).
eg. What volume of a 0.75M NaOH solution contains 0.25 mol of NaOH?
52
Preparation of a Molar Solution

Molar solutions are prepared in containers known as volumetric flasks. These
flasks come in set sizes:
25 mL, 50 mL, 100 mL, 250 mL, 500 mL, 1L, 2 L, 5 L
with very precise volume calibration (two decimal places).
eg. 1 L = 1000.00 mL therefore solutions are prepared to only these volumes
eg. 75 mL prepared as 100.00 mL of solution
* Solutions are often prepared as precisely as possible. Precision of solution depends on
the precision of weighing instrument. Before preparation, the mass of solute must be
known.
eg. prepare 250 mL of 0.180 M KNO3

Moles KNO3 :
MW KNO3 =
Mass KNO3 :
Weigh out 4.55g KNO3, place into 250 mL volumetric flask, half fill with distilled water,
shake and dissolve, fill to mark, shake. Add water if necessary. Label container 0.180 M
KNO3.
Dilutions
When two solutions are mixed together, or when water is further added to a solution, the
original concentration(s) are changed. There is a straight forward calculation used to find
the new (diluted) concentration.
ViMi = VfMf
where: Vi = volume initial
Mi = molarity (concentration) initial
Vf = volume final
Mf = molarity (concentration) final
53
example: Dilute 1.00L of 3.00M HCl with water to 6.00L.
Standard Solution
• Exactly known concentration
Preparation
1. From a solid
Eg. mNaCl = 4.45g
Volume of solution = 250ml
C = n/v = m/M/v = m/Mv
C = 4.45g/58.44(g/mol) x 1/0.250l = 0.305mol
Works best if solid is not:
1. hydroscopic
2. capable of forming insoluble carbonates, bicarbonates
3. slightly insoluble
2. By Dilution
• Set volume from a known concentration and dilute to a new volume
Initial Final
Ci Cf
n
Vi C= Vf
v
ni nf
n nf
∴ Ci = i ni = n f ∴ C f =
v1 vf
C i vi = C f v f for DILUTION ONLY!

example
C i = 0.305M C f = ?
Vi = 25ml V f = 250ml
C i vi = C f v f
C i vi
Cf =
vf
0.305mol ⋅ L−1 × 0.025 L
Cf =
0.250 L
C f = 0.0305mol / L
54
Solubility
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given
solvent. The units for solubility are usually grams of solute per 100mL of solvent,
g/100mL.
A saturated solution is a solution where no more solute can be dissolved in a given
amount of solvent at a given temperature.
Solubility curves are graphs of solubility (maximum concentration) against temperature.
Solubility in Water
Ionic and covalent solids usually have higher solubility in water at higher temperatures.
Gases usually have higher solubility in water at lower temperatures.
Liquids that do not mix with water and form a separate layer are said to be immiscible.
liquids that do mix are said to be miscible.
55
Reactions in Solution
By dissolving a solid in a liquid, the solid is broken-up and as a consequence, more
frequent and successful collisions between reactants occur.
In solution, ionic compounds are dissociated:
Pb(NO3)2 (s)  Pb(NO3)2 (aq)  Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3 - (aq)
And
KI (s)  KI (aq)  K+ (aq) + I - (aq)
In general
MbNma  bM a+ (aq) + aNm b- (aq)
Eg.
Remember, double displacement reactions occur if

i) precipitation forms ii) water forms iii) gas forms
so, for i) precipitation
Balanced equation reaction:
Total ionic equation: all (aq) solutions are written as their dissociated ionic equations:
Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ---> PbI2 (s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq)
Since K+ and NO3- ions do not participate in the reaction (act as spectators) they
can be eliminated from the complete ions equation to form the net ionic equation.
Net Ionic Equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2I -(aq) ----> PbI2 (s)
This equation outlines the basic reaction but does not indicate the source(s) of reactant
ions. It emphasizes that the reaction takes place only due to the presence of specific ions,
any lead (II) solution with any iodide solution will produce solid lead iodide.
eg . Write the balanced chemical, total ionic and net ionic equations for the reaction of
(NH4)2SO4 and Ba(NO3)2
ii) Similarly for a neutralization reaction or formation of water

balanced:
total ionic:
net ionic:
56
Qualitative Chemical Analysis

Chemical analysis of an unknown chemical sample can include:
Qualitative analysis – identification of the specific substances present
There are several different types of identification tests:
- indicators for acids/bases
-conductivity test for electrolytes
- limewater test for CO2
- CoCl2 paper exposed to vapour (blue to pink) indicators H2O
- flaming splint “pop” for H2
- glowing splint ignighting for O2
- flame test  colours for the elements Table 2 p. 242
- line spectra
Usually two or more tests need to be preformed to positively identify a substance.

Sequential Qualitative Chemical Analysis
-uses solubilities to precipitate and eliminate ions from solution
- the technique is to ppt only 1 ion at a time so that only 1 solid is formed from
the mixture
- after removal, the rest of the solution can be tested for other ions
By using an excess of a highly soluble compound containing the ion we wish to use to
form the new ppt, we ensure complete removal of the suspect ion from solution.
-if the known source solution requires an anion for ppt use Grp 1 compound in
combination
- if the known source solution requires a cation for ppt use nitrate compounds in
combination
Use a flowchart to display the strategy:

eg Design an experiment to analyze a single sample of a solution for any or all of
Ag+ , Ba2+ , Pb2+ ions
Qualitative Analysis
Measurement of the quality of a substance present.
Solution Stoichiometry
The same as Gravimetric Stoichiometry, but the equation for calculations of
moles is different:
Gravimetric (Solids) Solution (Liquids)
n = mass C= n
molecular mass V
n = VC
57
eg. What volume of a 14.8 mol/L NH3 would be needed to react completely with 1.50L of
12.8 mol/L H3PO4 solution?
eg. Calculate the concentration of 25.0 mL of H2CO3 needed to react completing with
12.5 mL of 0.270 mol/L TlOH in solution
Acid/Base Theories
Arrehnsis Theory of acids and bases
• Acids – a compound that ionizes in H2O to form H+
• Ionization – any process by which a neutral atom or molecule is
converted into an ion
2−
H 2 SO4 ( g ) H
2O
 → 2 H + ( aq ) + so 4 ( aq )
• Bases – an ionic hydroxide that dissociates in H2O to form OH-
• Dissociation – the separation of ions that occurs when an ionic compound
dissolves in H2O.
NaOH ( s ) H
2O
→ Na + ( aq ) + OH − ( aq )
• These definitions account for the fact that both acids and bases are
electrolytes
Acids, Bases and Neutral Substances
Type Empirical Definition Theoretical Definition
Acids Turn blue litmus red H containing compound
Are electrolytes ionize to H+(aq)
In solution neutralize bases H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l)
Bases Turn red litmus blue Ionic compound dissociate
Are electrolytes to OH-(aq)
In solution neutralize acids H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l)
Neutral In solution do not affect No H+(aq) or OH-(aq) are
litmus formed
Some are electrolytes Some exist as ions in
Some are non electrolytes solution
Some exist as molecules in
solution
58
solution
The Bronsted-Lowry Concept

These two scientists independently devised a new theory
• They focused on the role of an acid or base in a reaction instead of their
aqueous properties
Acid – is a proton (H+) donor

Base – is a proton acceptor
Acids and Bases then have to react together

• There has to be an acid present to donate to a base that accepts it!
Eg. HCl is a strong acid in H2O

Therefore H2O has to act as the base not just the solvent
H+
HCl(aq) H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Acid base acid 2
H3O+ is the entity responsible for acidic properties

-it is capable of donating a proton
eg// NH3 is a weak base in H2O

Therefore H2O has to be the acid!
NH3 + H2O  NH4 + OH-

Base acid base acid
Give the solution basic properties
pH
59
The most common solvent for acids and bases is water, we think of the strengths of acids
and bases in relationship to this solvent and its own self-ionization.
WHY pH? pH = -log [H+]
This scale was developed to make things easier. For example, to compare the
concentrations of 4.6 x 10-8 mol H+/ L with 8.3 x 10 -8, our eyes have to search two
places. We have to compare the exponents on the 10; then after noting that they are the
same, we have to compare 4.6 to 8.3. The pH concept was developed to help handle this
problem, which occurs frequently because very low values of H+ concentration often
appear in discussions of weakly acidic or basic solutions.
The pH of a solution is the negative of the logarithm of the molar concentration of
hydrogen ion.
pH = -log [H+]
Since the [H+] = 1.0 x 10-7 mol/ L in pure water (25˚C), the pH of pure water is 7.00,
because
pH = -log (1.0 x 10-7)
= -(-7.00)
= 7.00
Why is the first digit not significant?

3.2 x 10-5 = 0.000032 The 10-5 serves only to set off the decimal place.
log 3.2 x 10-5 = log(10-5) + log(3.2)
The pH concept was devised to make it easier to handle a specific problem-->

How to express and compare concentrations of H+ ions when they have very small values
involving awkward exponential terms.
For some calculations where you are given the pH and want to solve for the [H+], the
following can be used:
[H+] = 10 -pH mol / L Or [H+] = antilog (-pH)
60
This is simply the previous calculation in reverse. To describe the molar concentration of
H+ we can write the pH of a solution as the negative power (the p in the pH) to which ten
must be raised.
Since the self-ionization of water gives hydroxide ions as well as hydrogen ions,
there is an analogous pOH concept. The pOH of a solution is the negative of the
logarithm of the molar concentration of OH- ions.
pOH = -log [OH-]
In exponential form, this is the same as
[OH-] = 10-pOH mol / L
In actual scientific work, pH values are normally used far more frequently than pOH
values.
What is a logarithm?
A logarithm is an exponent. We are using common logarithms with a base 10.

log x = a , where x = 10a
Logarithms are exponents and, as such, represent the power to which the base is raised.
log 1000 = 3, since 103 = 1000 To find the log of a number that is greater than ten
or less than one we can express the number using scientific notation:
log 6400 = log (6.4 x 103)
Since logarithms are exponents, the logs of products are added:
log ab = log a + log b
Strong Acids/Bases
• Strong or weak terms arise from an electrolytes conductivity.

• Percent ionisation  gives a measure of the acid/base strength
amount _ of _ ions
• × 100
amount _ of _ acid / base
• Strong  100% ionisation/dissociation
o Acids:
 HCl, HNO3, HClO3, H2SO4
 HBr
 HI
o Bases:
 Highly soluble OH-1 compounds
 SO, Group 1, NH4+
• Weak  <50% ionisation/dissociation
o Acids:
 H3PO4, CH3COOH, H2CO3
o Bases
 NH3, ammonium compounds, ammonia-carbon compounds
61
 Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2  slightly soluble OH-1
pH
• Power or percentage of H+1, H3O+1
[H3O+] M [OH] M pH pOH Sample Solution Chart

101 10-15 -1 15 Strongly acidic
100 or 1 10-14 0 14  1M HCl
10-1 10-13 1 13
gastric juice
-2 -12
10 10 2 12  lime juice
 1 M (mole/litre)
CH3CO2H
10-3 10-11 3 11  stomach acid
 wine
10-4 10-10 4 10
10-5 10-9 5 9  coffee More acidic
10-6 10-8 6 8
10-7 10-7 7 7  pure water neutral
blood
10-8 10-6 8 6
10-9 10-5 9 5 More Basic
10-10 10-4 10 4
Milk of magnesia
10-11 10-3 11 3
10-12 10-2 12 2  Household
ammonia, NH3
10-13 10-1 13 1
10-14 100 or 1 14 0  1 M NaOH Strongly Basic
pH = -log[H3O+]
[H3O+1] = 10-pH
eg// concentrated HCl [H3O+] = 12.5M
pH = -log(12.5)
[H3O+] = 2.5 x 10-4M

pH =3.6
[H3O+] = 5.0 x 10-4M
pH = 3.3
Calculate [H3O+] given

PH = 5.6
[H3O+] = 10-pH
[H3O+] =
62
Calculate pH from pOH = 13.2

pOH + pH = 14
pH = 14 – pOH
pH = 0.8
Calculate the pH of a 2.75g NaOH solution of 50 mL
Acid-Base Titration
Titration is a laboratory technique that can be used to determine the concentration
of certain substances. A standard solution of known molarity is titrated against (reacted)
with a solution of unknown concentration can be quantitatively determined.
Acid-base titrations involve the neutralization reaction between aqueous hydrogen
and hydroxide ions. These ions combine to form the neutral water molecule:
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  H2O (l)
The indicator phenolphthalein will be used to show when the number of moles of
acid equals the number of moles of base. This point is called the equivalence point.
Titration is one of the most common operations performed by the chemist. We all
depend upon chemical analysis, and it is with this branch of chemistry that the average
citizen is most likely to come into contact. Decisions involving huge sums of money, or
even life and death, depend upon the accuracy and speed of chemical analysis, whether in
hospital lab testing, environmental pollution monitoring, or crime detection.
When completing a titration, several trials are required (often three trials, we will
have our trials within 0.1 mL of each other). The three results are averaged.
Acid - Base Neutralization Stoichiometry
eqn (balanced) ---> mole ratio ---> calculations
eg. What is the [HNO3] if a 50.0 ml sample is neutralized by 42.5 mL of 1.02 M NaOH?
HNO3 + NaOH  H2O + NaNO3
63
eg. What volume of 0.2000 M H2SO4 is needed to neutralize 15.08 mL of 0.3524 M

NaOH?
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  2H2O + Na2SO4
Standardizing (NaOH)
Some compounds (eg. NaOH) absorb H2O from air (ie. hydroscopic). These
compounds are difficult to weigh which means solution preparation of exact molarity is
difficult. The exact molarity must be determined through reaction. This process is called
standardizing.
The solution must be standardized against a known molarity solution or against a
highly pure, known composition non-hydroscopic compound refered to as a primary
standard.
Primary Standards:
- have high purity
-remain unchanged in air during massing, stable during storage
- high MM to reduce massing errors
- react with solution to be standardized in a desired, well-defined way
64
For NaOH use potassium hydrogen phthalate, KHC8H4O4, KHP.

NaOH (aq) + KHC8H4O4 (aq)  KNaC8H4O4 (aq) + H2O (l)
V= m=
C= MM= 204.23 g/mol
Before starting, get a ball park range of the volume for the titrant:
CNaOH approx. 0.200 M (that’s what we were making it to be in our lab)
VNaOH =
Graph of a titration between a strong base and a strong acid.
Consider the graph below depicting the titration of 0.20 M HNO3 using 0.20 M KOH.
14
12
10
8
pH
6
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Volume of Base Added (mL)
Find the equivalence point on the above graph. ___________ What does this point
represent?
65
What is the endpoint in a titration?
Strong Acid- Strong Base Mixtures

eg. What is the pH of a mixture containing 25.00 mL of 0.1845 M NaOH and 37.12 ml of
0.1340 M HNO3 ?
KMT = Kinetic Molecular Theory

Matter is composed of particles that are constantly moving and colliding
There are three types of particle potion:
translational (straight line)
rotational (spinning)
vibrational (back and forth)
For a system the type of motion that predominates depends on:
Solids – vibrational only

Liquids – all three, small translational
gases – all three, most important – translational
Energy of Motion = kinetic Energy (KE)

Energy of position = potential energy (PE)
The faster the motion, the greater the KE: KE =
Temperature in a measure of the KE.
- In any substance there will be a range of KEs from very high to very low (see
KE distribution graph)
As temperature increases, KE increases, until a threshold value is reached and a change
of state occurs. The high energy particles escape and with a constant input, the
temperature remains constant until the change of state is complete
Gas State
Intermolecular forces are virtually nonexistent
Gases diffuse (move to fill) any available volume.
Assume: for an ideal gas
-no attractive forces between gas molecules
66
- move in straight line independently of each other
Four factors have to be considered with gases:

1. temperature
2) volume
3) amount of gas
4) pressure
-force per unit area (exerted by the moving molecules as they collide with objects
in their path, usually the container walls; the greater the area, the smaller the pressure
Standard Pressure
SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa) = 1N/m2
Atmospheric pressure is stated in kPa
There are several units for standard pressure:

101.325 kPa Note: 1 atm = 15 psi
1 atm
760 mmHg
760 torr
STP = standard temperature and pressure:

SATP = ambient:
Conversion of units
Method : Unit required x SP req’d
SP given
eg. Convert SAP to atm, and mm Hg (torr)
eg. Convert 746 mmHg to atm, kPa
67
Toricelli (1643) – invented a method of measuring atmospheric pressure by using an

inverted tube filled with Hg. The Hg is placed in a tube then inverted and placed in a tub
of Hg. The Hg level in the tube changed daily. The standard pressure was assigned the
units 760 mm Hg or 760 torr.
Gas Laws
P, V, n, T are the factors which must be considered when studying gases. The
relationship between any two factors can be investigated when the other two factors are
kept constant. A graph helps to determine the relationship (ie. proportional, inversely
proportional).
Many scientists studied gases and determined the following relationships:
P1V1 = P2V2
Boyles Law 1 n, T constant
V∝
P
P1 P2
=
Gay-Lusac’s Law T1 T2 n, v constant
P∝T
V1 V2
=
Charle’s Law T1 T2 n, p constant
V ∝T
V1 V2
=
Avogado’s Law n1 n2 p, T constant
V ∝n
The above equations can be combined into one overall equation:
Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT

Where R is the universal gas constant: R= 8.314
68
Ideal Gases Continued

Assumptions:
- gas particles have a volume of 0
- gas particles do not attract each other
- gas volume = 0 at absolute zero
- gas does not condense to a liquid when cooled
- V-T and P-T graphs are perfectly straight lines
The ideal is when: V is high; P is low; T is high

Ideal Gas Law
How is it derived? Arrange all the relationships according to volume:
Another useful formula:
eg. What pressure will be exerted by 25g of CO2 at a temperature of 25˚C and a volume
of 500.0 mL?
eg Calculate the volume that 4.20 mol of NH3 gas at 23˚C and 550. kPa pressure
occupy.
Avagadro’s Law
69
Equal volumes of gases, measured att he same temperature and pressure contain
equal numbers of molecules.
At constant temperature and pressure, a volume of a gas is directly proportional to
the number of particles, (n).
then, AVAGADRO”S LAW
Alternatively, since n = m
MM
If we have equal volumes of two gases, we can use their masses to determine the molar
mass of an unknown gas.
eg. An unknown gas at STP has a mass of 1.7103g. The same volume of H2 gas at STP
has a mass of 0.0785g. What is the molar mass of the unknown gas?
Standard Molar Volume

Since many reactions involve gases as reactants and/or products, the volume occupied by
a mole of gas particles is of interest. Since according to AV Law; equal # of gas particles
at constant temperature and pressure, would have the same volume. V = kn
…. therefore, 1 mol or 6.02 x 1023 gas particles at STP (0˚C, 101.3 kPa) would have the
same fixed volume, regardless of the type of gas particles.
70
Volume of a any gas at STP = 22.4L

VSATP=24.8L/mol
Combined Gas Law:

P1V1 P2V2
= Requires T in K (Must use Kelvin because centigrade could give a zero in
T1 T2
the denominator)
A canister has a pressure of 650. tor, temperature of 100ºC. It is subject to a pressure of
900. tor and temperature of 150. ºC with a volume of 225mL What is the initial volume.
P1 = 650tor. P2 = 900.tor
V1 = ? V2 = 225mL P1V1 P2V2
o O
Using: = (T in K, n constant)
T1 = 100 C T2 = 150 C T1 T2
T1 = 373K T2 = 423K
650tor × V 1 900.tor × 225ml
=
373K 423K
or
900tor × 225ml × 373k

V1 =
423K × 650tor
V1 = 275ml
Avogadro’s Law:
V ∝ n (P, T constant)
V = kn
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
N2 + 3H2  2NH3
If I have 26.0 L of H2, how much NH3 is produced?
V1 V2
VNH 3 = =
n1 n2
26.0l V
= 2
3mol 2mol
VNH 3 = 17.3L
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
71
• Total pressure = sum of partial pressure of the gas mixture

(air) Ptot = PO2 + PN 2 + PCO2 + PAr ......
Ptot ∝ ntot
Px n
∴ Mole Fraction: = x
Ptot ntot
PO2 ∝ nO2
A volume of 75.0ml of hydrogen gas is collected using the downward

displacement of water. The temperature of the water is RT at 21ºc. The
atmospheric pressure is 98.0 kPa. The partial pressure of H2O at 21ºC is 3.78 kPa.
a) What is the volume of dry hydrogen at STP?
b) What is the mass of the gas collected?
Molar Volume
V ∝ n (T, P constant)
nRT
STP, 1mol, (PV=nRT) V =
P
1mol × 8.314 × 273k

VM ( STP ) =
101.325kPa
VM = 22.4 L
72
1mol × 8.314 × 298k

VM ( SATP ) =
100kPa
VM ( SATP ) = 24.8 L
What volume does 0.15mol of CO2 occupy at SATP?

PV = nRT or VM ( SATP ) = 24.8 L / mol
Gas Stoichiometry
Reminder (for finding number of moles)
Gravimetric Solution Gas
m n PV = nRT
n= C=
M v PV
n=
m = nM n = cv RT
VSTP = 22.4 L / mol

VSATP = 24.8 L / mol
73
Molar Volumes
The reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen gasses at SATP produce 18.0L of
ammonia. What volume of each gas is required?
3H 2 ( g ) + N 2 ( g ) → 2 NH 3( g )
V=18.0L
VSATP=24.8L/mol
3molH 2
VH 2 = 18.0 L ×
2molNH 3
VH 2 = 27.0 L
1molN 2
V N 2 = 18.0 L ×
2molNH 3
V N 2 = 9.0 L
If you wanted to calculate mass of N2:
1
mN2 = VN2 × × M N2
VSATP
1 28.02 g
= 9.0 L × ×
24.8 L 1molN 2
= 10.2 g
Mass to Volume (or Volume to Mass)
Many reactions involve solids with gases. The given information in a problem may be the
mass of a substance or the V, P and T of a gas. This given information may be for a
74
reactant or a product. The required information might be a mass of substance or a V of a

gas.
General solution:
Given compound (A) Required Compound (B)
75
Not Standard Temp and Pressure

Iron (III) oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to produce iron and carbon dioxide. If 2.46g
of iron (III) oxide is used calculate the mass of iron produced and volume of carbon
dioxide at T=20ºC and P=102 kPa
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2
m=2.46g m=? V=?
M=159.70g/mol M=55.85g/mol P=102kPa
T=20ºC = 293K
R=8.314
1molFe2 O3 2molFe 55.85 gFe

m Fe = 2.46 g FeO2 × × ×
159.70 g FeO2 1molFe2 O3 1molFe
m Fe = 1.72 g
1molFe2 O3 3molCO2 8.314kPa ⋅ L ⋅ mol −1 ⋅ k −1
VCO2 = 2.46 gFe2 O3 × × × ⋅ 293k
159.70 g Fe2O3 1molFe2 O3 102kPa
VCO2 = 1.10 L
76
Air Quality
OMA – approximately 1900 people die/year in Ontario due to poor air quality (9800
hospital admission); Toronto Public Health in 2004 research showed that 1 700 premature
deaths in Toronto and 6 000 hospitalized
-$10 billion/year is spent on health care costs, lost work time
- smog alerts are on the rise
- recorded child asthma rate has increased by 60% in the past decade
Major Sources of Air Pollution:

industry, particularly the coal-fired electric generating plant, and automobiles
Primary air pollutants
gas - various nitrogen oxides, SO2 , CO2
- vapours from volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
- heavy metals, toxic and carcinogenic substances emitted primarily from
combustion of coal
Secondary
- ground level ozone – formed when nitrogen oxides _ VOCs react in sunlight
- Windsor – Quebec City corridor has one of the worst O3 problems in the
country
Nitrogen important element in living systems

-N2 fixing by bacteria and lightning into soil -> plant -> us
Pollutants:
• CO2, CO, SO2, SO3, NO3, NO, NO2, O3,
• VOCs (volatile organic compounds):
o Propane, gasoline, perfume, alcohol, hair spray, cologne, after shave,
deodorant, bug spray, WD 40
• CO2 (CH4)  greenhouse gas
• (CO2normal rain water – always been around) SO2, SO3, NO3  H2SO3, H2SO4,
HNO3  acid precipitation
• CO  respiratory problems (and DEATH)
• O3 (look up damage on lungs)
o Factories, cars
o Production from combustion reactions
N 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) heat
 2 NO( g )
→
2 NO( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 2 NO2 ( g ) (brown − red − smog )
then
NO2 UVlight
→ NO + O • ( radical )
O • + O2 → O3
Also
77
VOC + NO + O2 → O3 + HNO3 + reactive organic compounds

Stratosphere- (12km – 50)
• Ozone layer
• UV radiation is high energy
o Can break most covalent bonds.
UV
O2 → O• + O•
O • + O2 → O3
O3 UV
(lowenergy
 (UVB ))
→ O2 + O •
CFC – chlorofluorocarbon carbon
CCl4
CFCl3
CF2Cl2 “Freon”
Chain Reaction
UV
CFCl 3 → CFCl 2 + Cl • (initiation)
Cl • + O3 → ClO • (an int ermediate) + O2 propagation
ClO + O → Cl + O2
• • •
Overall O3 + O • → 2O2
Cl • + Cl • → Cl 2
Useful websites:
www.airqualityontario.com/
www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/air/airquality/standards.htm
78
Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons (hydrogen and carbon)
Two elements, carbon and hydrogen, account for 90% of all the biological matter on
Earth. An organic compound is a molecular compound of carbon. Organic chemistry is
the study of the preparation, properties, identifications, and reactions of those compounds
not classified as inorganic. Inorganic compounds include the oxides of carbon, the
bicarbonates and carbonates of metal ions, the cyanides, and a handful of other
compounds. All the other compounds of carbon are organic compounds, that consist
mainly of carbon and hydrogen but also O, N, S, or any of the halogens.
Virtually all plastics, synthetic and natural fibers, dyes and drugs, insecticides and
herbicides, ingredients in perfumes and flavouring agents, and all the petroleum products
are organic compounds. All the foods you eat consist mainly of organic compounds. The
first person to synthesize an organic compound was Friedrich Wohler (1828). He
synthesized urea!
79
Properties of Carbon
* Carbon has four bonding electrons. Carbon is able to form strong covalent bonds.
Carbon is also able to bond to other carbons, as well as, many different elements.
* Carbon can form strong single, double, and triple bonds with itself. This allows carbon
to form long stable chains of atoms- something that very few other atoms can do.
* Carbon atoms can bond together to form a variety of geometric structures. These
structures include straight chains, branched chains, rings, sheets, tubes, and spheres. No
other atom can do this.
* Chemical and physical properties are affected by the types of bonds:

1) C,C multiple bonds - creates weaker more reactive sites
2) C bonded to more E.N. atom (ie –O , -N , -Cl , -F)
-type and number of intermolecular forces increase m.p., b.p. , and water
solubility (dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding)
3) –C=O
-increased polarity to O with 4 not just 2e-
- m.p. , b.p. and H2O solubility
Naming Organic Compounds (IUPAC)

The naming of organic compounds is based upon carbon chains with H’s attached
in remaining bonds (producing hydrocarbon compounds).
# of C’s
in chain Prefix Alkane Alkyl
1 meth
2 eth
3 prop
4 but
5 pent
6 hex
7 hept
8 oct
9 non
10 dec
reference p. 169
80
*The Alkyl Group - any branch that consists of carbon and hydrogen, and has only
single bonds. The name of all alkyl groups end in -yle. See above chart.
H’s in alkanes can be substituted by other atoms or groups of atoms making substituted
alkanes. The name of the alkane is modified to show the name of the substitution group
and its position on the C chain.
Substitution Group Name
Br bromo
Cl chloro
I iodo
F fluoro
In terms of chemical reactivity we can divide organic compounds into two main
categories: alkanes and compounds containing functional groups.
1. Alkanes - hydrocarbons with carbons in chains connected by single bonds CnH2n+2
- often called saturated since all bonds are single and no more atoms can be
attached to molecule
methane
ethane
Naming Alkanes:
1. Find the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. (This is the “parent” hydrocarbon.)
Name it.
2. Identify any substituted group not included in the parent chain. Substitution groups are
given lowest possible numbers for their position and are listed alphabetically. Assign the
81
numbers to each carbon in the parent from whichever end that gives the first branch (or
substituent) the lowest numbers.
Hyphens always separate numbers from names and commas always separate numbers. If
more than one copy of the substitution group is present in the molecule then a prefix for
quantity is used as well as a number for position of each substitution group.
eg. Quantity Prefix
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra etc.......
Complete Structural Diagrams Simplified Structural Diagrams
Condensed Grouped
Line
Develop name backwards and also develop structure from name in reverse order.
eg. 2-bromo-1-chloropentane
82
Common Names
a) n(normal) b) i (iso) (same or mirror plane)
c) s (sec) (on second carbon) d) t (tert) (attached to 3 C’s)
Cyclics - carbons in circles

1. Cycloalkanes
83
Isomers
Reactions
• ALL will undergo combustion
o Alkanes fastest with greater energy (because the intermolecular forces
are weaker so it is easier to pull apart)
Alkanes are saturated (max. number of possible hydrogen bonds)

• No multiple bonds
Substitution
| | | | | |
-C-C-C- + Br2 slow
→
 -C-C-C-Br + HBr
| | | | | |
Cracking
- breaking hydrocarbons into small segments (in the absence of air)
- needed for the high demand for gasoline
C17H36 (l) + H2 (g)  C9H20 (l) + C8H18 (l)
Reforming
-combing smaller hydrocarbons into larger molecules
- high octane gas is formed this way
C5H12 (l) + C5H12 (l)  C10H22 (l) + H2 (g)
Combustion
84
Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes
-react faster than alkanes

-multiple bonds broken by- hydrogen, halogens, binary acids
eg.
C C + H H  C C
C C + H H  C C + H H  C C
C C + H Br  C C CH
“The rich get richer.”
Diagnostic Test
for Alkanes vs Alkenes Br2 KMnO4 Speed
Alkanes orange purple slow
Alkenes. Alkynes colourless colourless fast
85
2. Alkenes - carbon chain with at least one double bond between two C’s --- CnH2n
Alkanes are unsaturated since double bond can be broken down to a single bond and add
two more H’s. The carbon-carbon double bond has a rich chemistry because of the π
bond. we will discuss this later.
C2H2Cl2 3 isomers
Note: Stereoisomers is another name for geometric isomers, ie. isomers with the same
structural frameworks but different arrangements of the atoms in space.
C4H8 4 isomers
3. Alkynes - chain of C’s with a triple bond between C’s CnH2n-2

- unsaturated since triple bond can be broken down into a single bond by
adding 4 more H’s
C2H2
2. Cycloalkenes
3. Cycloalkynes
-rarely occur unless a very large ring (due to linear arrangement in triple bond)
86
4. Aromatics
All these compounds have a common 6 carbon ring called the benzene ring. The simplest
aromatic is benzene, C6H6.
The alternating single and double bonds in the ring constantly move in position and
cannot be identified as being in a locked position. The bond arrangement is shared
throughout the ring and the structural diagrams are modified to indicate the sharing.
Since this 6C ring (called a benzene ring) is very common it is frequently abbreviated in
structural diagrams to....
87
Energy Changes
Energy resources are substances that supply energy in one of four basic
sources
Nuclear energy  derived directly from a nuclear reaction
Solar energy  both directly (contact with rays)
Geothermal energy  geysers, hot springs, volcanoes
Chemical energy  directly from a chemical reaction
Sources of energy
 electrical
 thermal
 radiant (light, audio)
 nuclear
 chemical
The transfer of thermal energy is heat (q)
Heat _T ∝ q (_t negative  energy flows out) exothermic

(_t negative  energy flows in) endothermic
1
Mass _T ∝
m
1
Type of substances_T ∝ where c is the specific heat capacity (energy
C
to raise 1g by 1ºC)
IMPORTANT
J
C H 2O = 4.18
g ⋅O C
see p 568 Table 3
88
Endothermic Exothermic
Surroundings energyflow
 → substance Surroundings
Temperature decreases Temperature increases

_T = negative _T = positive
Calorimetry
Measurement of energy changes.
_E (system) = q (calorimeter) (no heat lost to the surroundings)
_E (system) = masssystem x hsystem (h is specific heat)

energy absorbed or released
per unit mass
and q (heat of the system) = mc_T (surroundings)
masssystem x hsystem= msurrcsurr_T
89
In a Styrofoam calorimeter, 1.50g of NaOH is dissolved in 100 ml of H2O.

The temperature of the water rises from 20.5ºC to 27.0ºC. What is the
specific heat for dissolving of NaOH?
Determine the heat required to boil water in an aluminum pot.

Room Temp. = 21˚C, mass of water = 5.0g. mass of Al = 208g
A household water heater, V= 200L, is heated from the combustion of

natural gas (assume CH4 ). The water temperature rises from 20˚C to 75˚C.
How much heat flows into a heater?
90
Heats of Reaction
All chemical reactions involve energy changes: either EXOTHERMIC (release energy)
ENDOTHERMIC (absorb energy)
reactant  products + energy

reactants + energy  products
As chemical equations are performed on a mole basis, we need to express the energy as a
per mole value, this is the heat of reaction:
∆Hrxn = q sys
n sys
previously q sys = m surr c surr ∆T
so ∆Hrxn = q sys
n sys
= m surr c surr ∆T
n sys
or
∆Hrxn = m sys h sys
n sys
= MM sys h sys
eg. The h wax (specific heat) = 36.7 KJ/g, What is the heat of combustion of paraffin,
C20H42?
Thermochemical Equations
When the ∆H rxn is placed into the chemical equation.
C20H42 + O2  CO2 + H2O + energy
91
Theory of Energy Change

Electrostatic forces and bonds hold atoms and compounds together
For reactions to occur:
a) energy needs to be supplied to break them apart, ∆ H BB
b) energy is released when they form new bond, ∆ HBF
If Energy BB > Energy BF endothermic
Energy BB < Energy BF exothermic
…. the difference is the ∆H rxn

Show the ∆H as either endothermic or exothermic by using a negative value for
exothermic reactions
Origins Of Hydrocarbons
Most hydrocarbons have their origins deep below the earth’s surface. Ancient eras that
had higher carbon dioxide concentrations, as well as warmer climates, gave rise to
abundant plant and animal life on land and under water. Over time, as these organisms
died, the organic substances that made up their bodies were chemically transformed into
the materials known today as fossil fuels.
Origin of Fossil Fuels
Coal is formed mainly Petroleum (crude oil) is Natural gas may form
92
from the remains of land- formed mainly from the under the same conditions
based plants remains of marine-based as petroleum.
microscopic plants, plant-like
organisms, and animal-like
organisms.
Refining Petroleum
Fractional distillation takes advantage of the fact that different molecules have different
boiling points in order to separate complex mixtures of volatile molecules. In general,
smaller molecules boil at lower temperature and larger molecules boil at higher
temperatures.
Petroleum- complex gas and/or liquid mixture composed mostly of hydrocarbons
with 1-40 carbons
- obtained by drilling into underground deposits
Natural Gas – Fraction of petroleum that vaporizes at normal temperature and pressure
- low molecular weight hydrocarbons, 1-5 C
- usually contains CO2 and H2S (extremely toxic)
- refined natural gas for homes is mainly CH4, ethenethiol (C2H5SH) is added
Crude oil – fraction of petroleum that is liquid at normal pressure

- also contains some dissolved gases and solids
- consists of higher molecular mass hydrocarbons
- refined into gas, liquid and solid components
Crude oil is separated using fractional distillation

- uses difference in boiling points
Cracking and Performing Reactions

-to produce greater amounts of gasoline two processes are employed:
cracking – reaction of a larger HC molecule with H2 that breaks it into 2 or more smaller
molecules
- requires high temperature or catalysts
- absence of air
- generally used with HC’s 15 to 18 to produce HC - C5 to C12
eg. C15H32 (l) + H2 (g)  C5H12 (l) + C10H22 (l)
Reforming – reaction of 2 or more smaller HC into larger or more branched HC

- catalysts required
eg. C5H12 (l) + C3H8 (g)  C8H18 (l) + H2 (g)
93
Pollution is any environmental change that adversely affects the lives and health of living
things
a. Burning fossil fuels results in hydrocarbons, carbon, nitrogen and sulfur oxides,
particulates
b. Automobiles consume one-third of the world's production of oil and are the chief
source of air pollution
c. Some estimate there will be four times more automobiles in the world in 2025
d. These sources are considered nonrenewable since they are in limited supply
Global climate change

A. Climate Fluctuation
1. Earth's climate fluctuates; we are currently between ice ages, and today's climate was
last seen 130,000 years ago
2. Some scientists are concerned that global climate will warm at a rate ten times faster
than in the past
- In 1850, atmospheric CO2 was about 280 parts per million (ppm); today, it is about 350
ppm
- This increase is due largely to burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests
- Oceans currently absorb half of the CO2 emitted or else the atmospheric level would be
higher
- Methane given off by oil and gas wells, rice paddies, cows, etc. is increasing by one
percent a year
- Greenhouse effect - warming of lower atmosphere caused by accumulation of certain
greenhouse gases that allow rays of the sun to pass through, but then reflect or reradiate
heat to the earth
Greenhouse gases:
1) carbon dioxide (CO2), produced by fossil fuel and wood burning
2) nitrous oxide (NO2), produced by fertilizer use and released from decomposition of
animals wastes
3) methane (CH4), produced by bacteria (especially in animal guts), in sediments, and in
flooded rice paddies
4) chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), in particular Freon (a refrigerant)
94

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SCH 3U Last Updated September 1, 2008

General Comments MacLeod

Recording Numbers From Measurement

place of precision precision

last significant figure

eg. 0.0025 175.00

last significant figure last significant figure

* more sig figs means higher degree of precision

Addition and Subtraction of Measurement Numbers

perimeter : 151.4 cm + 151.4 cm + 76 cm + 76 cm = 454.8 cm

But, you must round off at the least precise position:

Multiplication and Division

Multiple Calculations: (5.2 −3.24) x 2.19 =

% difference = accepted value-experimental value x 100

b) All zeros located between non-zero figures are significant.

The Factor-Label Method

Units behave just as numbers in mathematical operations. A conversion factor is a

Element Atomic Number Number of Protons

The particles in an atom have the following masses and charge:

3p, 3e-, 3n 3p, 3e-, 4n

Number of neutrons = isotope mass - number of protons (atomic number)

Atoms and Isotopes

Location nucleus nucleus orbit around the nucleus

Charge positive none negative

mass very small almost the same so small it is not counted

Alpha, Beta and Gamma

Bohr, Arc and Lewis Dot Diagrams

Bohr Electron Orbitals

Electron Arrangement in Atoms

Modified Bohr Model - Electron Configurations

3. Each Principle Energy Level contains a total of “n2” orbitals

4. Each orbital can hold two electrons at most

N=6 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f

Element Orbital Box Diagram

Trends In The Periodic Table

eg. Column I ( Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr )

Elements can be classified as:

3. SEMI-METALS (metalloids) eg silicon

Certain columns (families) of elements are given names:

There are trends (patterns) to ion charges:

- therefore bromic acid should be HBrO3(aq)

eg. aluminum oxide Al2O3

- gallium oxide will be ____________

eg. sodium phosphate Na3PO4

- lithium phosphate will be _____________

Ionization Energy and Electronegativity

LEWIS DOT DIAGRAMS

- simple method used to show the arrangement of e- around the nucleus

Lewis Dot Diagrams should follow 4 basic rules:

Example: Draw Lewis Dot diagrams for the elements :

Lithium Carbon Oxygen Neon

Formation of Ionic Bonds

Two types of bonds:- Ionic vs Covalent

Formation of an Ionic Bond

Nomenclature and Formulae for Compounds

Metals lose electrons when they form ionic compounds.

Covalent Bonding and the Octet Rule

Drawing Lewis Structures

2. count all the valence electrons

3. place two electrons in each bond

5. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom.

Hints – The Central atom is usually written first in the formula.