Metodica Engleza

INTRODUCTION
The course represents an attempt to introduce trainees to the main problems concerned
with the methodology of teaching English. It tries to be an instrument of work, which
might help them with choosing and handling different approaches/ methods/techniques,
planning a lesson, teaching skills/vocabulary/grammar/literature and cultural awareness,
or, getting information about class management, evaluation, testing and error correction.
AIMS
1)to facilitate the trainees‘ understanding of the principles and practice of English
language teaching, with particular reference to the Communicative Approach
2)to familiarize the trainees with different aspects of the process of language learning and
teaching, with different methods, approaches, techniques and strategies of TEFL and
make them understand the advantages and disadvantages of using a certain method and
technique
3)to help the trainees link theory to practice
4)to prepare the trainees for the teaching practice and help them get familiar with different
schools, grades and learners‘ needs
5)to develop trainees‘ ability to evaluate adapt and design teaching materials (tasks,
exercises, lesson plans and teaching aids) and testing materials
6)to teach the trainees how to organize different types of activities in the classroom
7)to help the trainees become aware of the teacher‘s and the learner‘s role, as well as the
learner‘s needs and problems, as necessary basis for effective teaching practice and theory
8)to encourage trainees‘ current and future professional development through reflection
on their practices and beliefs, self-evaluation and co-operative work with other teachers
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course the trainees will be aware of the different approaches in ELT, the
nature of communication, the role and functions of language and their implications for
teaching and will be able to:
1)demonstrate their understanding of the principles of ELT through lesson-planning,
micro-teaching, selection and adaptation and design of tasks
2)use English appropriately for classroom management
3)establish and apply appropriate criteria for the evaluation and selection of materials
4)exploit, adapt and create materials for different purposes and contexts
5)use appropriate techniques to evaluate and assess learner performance
6)self-evaluate through critical reflection, observation and analysis
7)develop awareness of the needs and interests of their learners
8)develop awareness of their own needs for self-development as language teachers
9)evaluate ELT materials
10)develop critical understanding of the rationale behind the existing materials and
methods
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TEACHING METHODS
-delivery of lectures
-seminars
-workshops
-micro-teaching; peer-teaching
EXAM REQUIREMENTS
-evaluation of the tasks established in the course
-written paper of the end of the semester
-book/article report
-evaluation of a lesson plan
CONTENTS
I.LANGUAGE LEARNING AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
I.1. Language learning
I.2. Learning theories and approaches
I.3. Language teaching
I.4. Teaching approaches and methods
Task
II.TEACHING SKILLS
II.1. Teaching listening
1.1.Listening and its place in the context of teaching skills
1.2.Classroom activities
II.2.Teaching speaking
2.1.Speaking and its place in the context of teaching skills
II.3.Teaching reading
3.1.Reading and its place in the context of teaching skills
II.4.Teaching writing
4.1.Writing and its place in the context of teaching skills
4.3.Developing project work in English classes
Task
III.TEACHING VOCABULARY
III.1.Teaching vocabulary in the context of language teaching
III.2.Classroom activities
III.3.Teaching pronunciation
Task
IV.TEACHING GRAMMAR
IV.1.Grammar in the context of teaching English
IV.2.Classroom activities
Task
V.TEACHING LITERATURE AND DEVELOPING CULTURAL AWARENESS
V.1.Literature and its place in the context of language teaching
V.2.Classroom activities
V.3.Developing cultural awareness
Task
VI. LESSON PLANNING
VI.1.General considerations
VI.2.Types of lesson plans
Task
VII. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
VII.1.Field of investigation
Task
VIII.EVALUATION AND TESTING
VIII.1.Evaluation
VIII.2.Testing
VIII. Error correction
Task
GLOSSARY
NOTES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix 1: Objectives for learners
Appendix 2: Activity types and procedures in the classroom
Appendix 3: Objectives of TP
Appendix 4: Classroom observation
I. LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING
Aims
1)to introduce to trainees the concepts of language learning and language teaching
2)to identify the theories and approaches in language learning and language teaching
Objectives
1)trainees will increase their awareness of the similarities and differences between L1 and
L2
2)trainees will understand the way knowledge of language learning influences language
teaching
3)trainees will be able to identify the appropriate needs of their students
4)trainees will be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each method
according to the teaching context they have been exposed to
Contents
I.1.Language learning
I.2.Learning theories and approaches
I.3.Language teaching
I.4.Teaching approaches and methods
Task
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I.1.Language learning
Language is a social phenomenon, a part of the culture of a people. Knowing a language
means knowing the items that make up the language, being able to supply these items
when they are missing, or being able to do without them. It also means the ability to
produce an infinite number of sentences in response to an infinite number of stimuli.
Knowing a language means knowing its:
-pronunciation (knowledge of sounds, stress and intonation)
-grammar (knowledge of the rules which help creating an infinite number of sentences =
grammatical competence)
-vocabulary (knowledge of what words mean both literally and metaphorically)
-discourse (knowledge of how language is used appropriately and how language is
organized as discourse = communicative competence)
-appropriacy (knowledge of how to use language appropriately: “how to get it to do what
we want it to do in the right circumstances”)1
-language skills (possession of the four basic skills: speaking, writing, listening and
reading)
Learning a language is a step-by-step process proceeding from the simple to the more
difficult. It is a heterogeneous process, comprising lots of mechanisms, beginning with
those of Pavlov‘s conditioning type, up to the most complex ones, those of the type of
problem solving. Language learning means the acquisition of psychological habits closely
related to the cultural and social background of a people. One is said to know a second
language when one‘s competence (knowledge of the grammar that determines an intrinsec
connection of sound and meaning of each sentence) is like that of a native speaker. It is
not necessary that one‘s performance (what the speaker/hearer actually does) be identical
with the native language. One is said to know a language even when one speaks
hesitantly, with errors or a foreign accent. A good language learner finds his own way,
taking charge of his learning and experimenting with grammar and words; organizes
information about the language;
is creative; makes error work for him; uses linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of
the first language, in learning a second language; uses contextual cues to help his
comprehension ; makes guesses; learns certain strategies to keep conversation going;
learns different styles of speech and writing, according to the formality of the situation.
There are several learning styles; according to them, we distinguish between:
-visual learners – learn better by visual means (by reading and by looking at pictures or
films); they remember instructions best if they see them on the blackboard
-auditory learners – learn well by hearing things (lectures or tapes); they like teachers to
give oral instructions and they like making tape recordings of what they are learning and
having discussions
-kinaesthetic learners – learn best when they have hands-on experience, when they are
physically involved or can actively participate; they like moving around when they learn
and prefer a variety of classroom activities
I.2.Learning theories and approaches

Acquisition and learning. The distinction between these two processes was made by
Stephen Krashen.2 Acquisition is considered to be the “natural” way, paralleling first
language development in children. It represents a subconscious process which has as a
result the language proficiency through understanding and using language for meaningful
communication. It is more successful and longer lasting than learning. Learning refers to
the process in which conscious rules about a language are developed; it result only in
“knowing about” the language, that is explicit knowledge about the forms of a language
and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. According to him, successful acquisition
depends on the nature of the language input which the students receive, that is, the
language that students hear or read. The input should contain language that the students
already know and language they have not previously seen. He also considers that students
are able to acquire language on their own, provided that they get a great deal of
comprehensible input. Krashen‘s merits are:
-he stressed on the importance of input (students should receive much comprehensible
input in speech or writing
-his acquisition/learning theory raises the problem of transferability of language skills
from the formal learning situation to real life
-recommends taking care that the comprehensible input provided to the learner should
slightly exceed the learner‘s current competence
-recommends learning by communication
Despite the fact that many learning second language theories originate in studies of how
people learn their first language, they had a profound effect upon the practice of language
teaching. Among the most well-known hypotheses regarding language acquisition are:
1)Behaviouristic– developed by Skinner, who applied the theory of conditioning (an
animal can be trained to learn something through a three-stage procedure: stimulus,
response and reinforcement/ reward) to the way humans acquire their first language.
Language was considered as a form of behaviour. Language learning is considered to be
based on experience, imitation and selective conditioning and the language “habit”
formed by constant repetition. Mistakes were immediately criticized, while good results
were immediately praised.
2)Nativistic– language acquisition is considered to be a more or less autonomous process
based on an inborn mechanism of language acquisition. Linguistic competence is the most
important thing. The conception was developed by Noam Chomsky, who considered that
language was not a form of behaviour, but a rule-based system. A large part of language
acquisition means in fact the learning of the system. The language learner acquires
language competence (knowledge of the grammar rules present in the system) and he
experiments it as language user.
3)Cognition hypothesis – takes into account the relationship which exists between the
developing cognitive and intellectual abilities
4)The social constitution hypothesis – considers child‘s socialization and interaction
very important
Other theories of learning a language include:
1)task-based learning – is based on the idea that attention should not be given too much
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to the nature of language input, but to the learning tasks that students are involved in.
Students should be asked to perform communicative activities (tasks) in which they have
to use the language. The more they do this, the better they become at using the language;
the tasks chosen, should: contribute to communicative goals; enhance learning; have
carefully designed elements and well specified objectives;
engage students in some form of genuine problem solving activity
2)cooperative learning – involves the learner-centered characteristics; it also refers to the
collaborative efforts of students and teachers working together to pursue goals and
objectives
3)interactive learning – created for communicative purpose; the interactive classes are
those which do group and pair work; receive authentic language input in real-life
contexts; produce language for meaningful communication; produce oral communication;
write to and for real audience; focus on the social aspect of language;
integrate the four skills.
4)self-directed learning. The theory is based on the idea that students have to be trained
to be good learners; their learning is better if they make most of their own resources, if
they can take their own decisions about what to do next, how best to study. A good
language programme should be based on a mixture of class-work and self-study.
5)humanistic approaches – based on the idea that the humanistic aspects of learning
should be stressed. The experience of the students is what counts. The development of the
students‘ personality, as well as the encouragement of positive feelings are considered to
be as important as their learning of a language.
I.3.Language teaching
The teaching process is as complex as the learning process. Its main components are
considered to be the acts of:
-presenting and explaining the new material (in a clear, comprehensible and available for
learning way)
-providing practice (in order to consolidate learning and improve performance)
-testing and evaluation (to check what has been mastered and what still needs to be
learned or reviewed; to evaluate both the students‘ and the teacher‘s work)
There can be mentioned some principles of teaching a foreign language:
1)the communicative principle – language as a means of communication is an activity,
so foreign language classes should be active; students should be encouraged to work
throughout the whole course of a class; the foreign language should be used almost
exclusively during the classes; conversational practice is introduced from the very first
stage
2)the meaningful learning principle – asks for avoidance of too much grammatical
explanation and mechanical techniques; stress should be on students developing their
power of making associations, on their capacity of analysis and synthesis
3)the intrinsec motivation principle – stress should be on the students developing their
intrinsec motivation, which is concerned with what takes place in the classroom (as
opposed to extrinsec motivation, which means concern with factors outside the classroom
– learning a foreign language, understood as attraction to the culture of the target
language community or as an instrument of getting a better job or status, promotion or
passing an examination); intrinsec motivation plays an important role in the students‘
success or failure as language learners, being influenced by such factors as: the physical
condition in which learning takes place, the method by which students are taught, the
teacher and his teaching style, as well as the students‘ success in learning. The teacher‘s
task is to develop strategies so as to give students reasons to work, to motivate them to
fully take part in the process of learning
4)the risk-taking principle – students should be encouraged to take risks in their attempt
to use the language; the teacher should choose suitable techniques – from simple to
complex and constantly affirm his belief in their ability of solving tasks
5)the language–culture connection principle – students should develop a positive
perception of the target language and its people; teaching a language means teaching
about the people speaking that language; their culture and way of thinking
6)the affective principle – language learning and teaching should take place in a relaxed
and supportive atmosphere; the teacher should be patient and understanding; he should
also encourage co-operative learning
I.4.Teaching approaches and methods

Pedagogical literature operates with such terms as: approach, method, procedure,
technique, strategy and tactics. An approach is a conception, a system, a point of view
concerning the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It involves commitment to a
particular theory about language or learning, representing the level at which assumptions
and beliefs about language and language learning are specified. It determines the methods
and techniques. It includes many methods of teaching. A method is an orderly
presentation of the material at a given stage of the lesson; it is a set of techniques and
procedures, representing the level at which theory is put into practice and at which
choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught and the
order in which this content will be presented. Within one method there may be several
procedures. A procedure is a part of a method; it encompasses the actual moment-to-
moment teaching (drills, dialogues, the feedback given to learners concerning the form or
content of their utterances). A technique is a stratagem used to accomplish an immediate
objective in the lesson. There can be static techniques (illustration, explanation,
demonstration); dynamic techniques (dramatization, simulation) or integrated ones –
consisting of both a linguistic “object” and a related activity (e.g.: a song = an object;
singing = the activity). The term strategy refers to the way of dealing with the subject
matter in the process of teaching. Strategies are specific methods of approaching a
problem, a task; they represent modes of operation for achieving a particular goal.
Rebecca Oxford (1990)3 mentions some different techniques and recommends the
strategies:
-in order to lower inhibition: play guessing games, do role-play, sing songs, laugh with
students
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-to encourage risk-taking: praise students for their efforts to practise language
-in order to build self-confidence: tell students that you really believe in them
-to promote cooperative learning: direct students to share their knowledge; play down
competition; encourage students to ask questions
-to help students use their intuition: praise students for their guesses; correct only selected
errors
There have been developed lots of theories and trends concerning language learning and
teaching.
The earliest approach in foreign language teaching is considered to be Grammar
Translation Method. Within it, there could be distinguished two trends: the synthetical
and the analytical method. The synthetical method was grounded on the conception that
language is a synthesis of words arranged in sentences according to different rules. The
students had to learn the rules and construct sentences based on them. The rules were
memorized in a strict traditional order. The analytical method started from the conception
that teaching should start with the written text and by its analysis, to come to teach its
words and rules. Everything had to be taught by induction. The main technique was
translation into the target language. The advantage was that it paid great attention to
meaning. The drawbacks consisted in the fact that it was a very schematical and rigid
system, unable to embrace richness and variety of the spoken language (idioms and set
phrases could not be learned according to rules and lists).
The Direct Method – was introduced in the last decades of the 19th century in Germany.
In England it was used for the first time by Sweet (The Practical Study of Language). The
development of the method was linked with the introduction of phonetics. Its aim was to
develop the students‘ capacity of thinking in a foreign language. It stressed the importance
of acquiring the spoken language, and excluded completely the use of the mother tongue.
The meaning of the words was explained by the direct presentation of objects, by direct
intuition; abstract notions were explained by means of paraphrases, synonyms, antonyms
or by deducing the meaning from the context. Pronunciation was considered to be
important; little attention was given to the written language. The teaching of grammar was
considered secondary and was achieved by practice. The advantage of the method was
that it emphasized the spoken language and at the same time it replaced the learning of
isolated words and endless grammar rules and definitions with the learning of sentences,
phrases and idioms. The complete elimination of the mother tongue can be considered one
of its drawbacks.
The Oral Method – was introduced by H.E.Palmer. Its aim was to develop the students‘
capacity of memorizing and habit-forming. It excluded any form of writing, considered
that should be no reading matter at all, and provided methods of work meant to develop
the students‘ power of unconscious assimilation.
The Audio-Visual Approach – was introduced in 1926 by Michael West. The method is
based on sociolinguistics; it stressed on the simultaneous use of auditory and visual
stimuli: filmstrips, slides, films and tapes. The idea was that the foreign language should
be learned in its natural forms as speech, not as writing, and helped by the modern
technical aids. The advantage of the method is considered to be the fact that students
become familiar with everyday language and form the capacity to talk on general topics
and read non-specialized fiction.
The Audio-Lingual Approach – was a method of the 60‘s, whose description was
given by Brooks (1960), Roberto Lado (1964) and W. Rivers (1968). It meant the
application of the structural linguistics to the teaching of the foreign language; it was
based on conditioning and on behaviourism. Its aim was the acquisition of a practical set
of communicative skills and to make language accessible to large groups. The main
characteristics were repetition and memorization, which led to the development of skills
and habits. This is why drills (structural exercises) became the main activity, followed by
positive or negative reinforcement. Attention was given to stress, intonation and rhythm.
Dialogues were used as the main means of presenting language and emphasis was on
listening and speaking. The method brought two advantages: the first laboratory classes
were introduced and listening became a skill used for the first time. The drawback was
that using such drills, students could be in danger of becoming parrots.
The Situational Method - was also based on behaviourism and considered language as
an established set of habits, a set of responses conditioned to occur with certain stimuli
(situations or words). It considered that through the observation and imitation of language
in realistic situations, students could master the rules inductively, without needing to be
conscious of them.
Suggestopedia – was a humanistic approach, introduced by Lozanov, who considered
that the main aim of teaching was understanding and creative solution of problems. The
teacher‘s role was to create situations in which the learner is most suggestible and then to
present linguistic material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and
retention by the learner. This is why the method insisted on students comfortably relaxed,
on comfortable furniture and music. In such a setting (bright and cheery appearance of the
classroom, reclining chairs arranged in circle, baroque music), students were given new
names and listened to extended dialogues. The idea was that the special setting, the
general ease of the situation, the adoption of a new identity and the dependence on
listening to dialogues could help students to acquire the language. The students were
expected to give themselves over to activities and techniques designed to help them regain
the self-confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of a child.
The Silent Way – was a method devised by Caleb Gattegno. It was based on the idea that
the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom and the learner should be
encouraged to produce as much language as possible; the teacher offers a very limited
amount of input, he models the language to be learned once only, and then indicates what
students should do by pointing or other silent means. The method views learning as a
problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which the learner is the main actor. The
teacher does not praise; he does not criticize either; he simply indicates that the student
should try again, until success is achieved. Learning becomes a process of personal
growth resulting from growing student awareness and self- challenging. Successful
learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent
awareness and then active trial. Learners create their own utterances by putting together
old and new information. They are expected to develop autonomy and responsibility, to
interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other. Charts and other visual
aids are used. Teacher is responsible for designing teaching sequences, creating lesson
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elements and creating an environment that encourages students risk taking and that
facilitates learning; he writes the script. Chooses the props, sets the mood, models the
action and designates the players.
The Total Physical Response – was a method developed by James Archer. It is built
around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through
physical activity. Its ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills. The teacher gives
students instructions; students do not have to speak; they have to listen carefully and then
carry out the teacher‘s commands. They respond to these commands individually and
collectively. They have little influence over the content of learning, since content is
determined by the teacher. The teacher plays an active and direct role; he decides what to
teach, models and presents the new material, selects supportive material for classroom
use. He emphasizes comprehension skills before students are taught to speak. When
students are ready for it, they give commands to other students; they are encouraged to
speak only when they feel ready to do it. Speaking abilities are developed in learners at
their own natural pace. This way, they learn language through actions, through physical
response.
The Communicative Approach. This approach in language teaching starts from a theory
of language as communication; this is why the main goal of the approach is enabling
students to communicate using the target language appropriate to a given social context,
that is, developing their communicative competence. Within this approach, concentration
is on use and appropriacy rather than on meaning and grammar; attention is given to
communicative tasks to be achieved through the language rather than exercises on the
language and the emphasis is on student initiative rather than on teacher-centered activity.
The teacher evaluates not only accuracy but also the students‘ fluency. The role of the
teacher is not the same as in the traditional approaches; the teacher is a facilitator of his
students‘ learning; he is a manager of the classroom activities (modifies them and adjusts
them to the needs of his students); during the activities he is an advisor, answering the
students‘ questions and monitoring their performance. He is the initiator of the activities,
but does not always interact with students; sometimes he is a co-communicator, but more
often he establishes situations that prompt communication between and among students.
Students do not follow the lesson passively; they are actively engaged in negotiating
meaning; they try to learn to communicate by communicating. They become more
responsible for their learning; they use the language through several communicative
activities: games, role-play, simulation and problem solving tasks. The new types of
activities: brainstorming, story-telling, info transfer, recognition exercises, dialogues,
mime, identification, give them freedom and responsibility, developing their analytical
and creative thinking. They put much more effort into these activities; they are offered
large possibilities to use the language and learn it both consciously and unconsciously.
The four skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing are integrated. The classroom
procedures favour interaction among students, giving them the chance to work
individually, in pairs or in groups. The approach uses such concepts as forms, meanings,
functions (situations, likes, dislikes, agreeing, disagreeing, offering, accepting, refusing,
arguing) and notions (time, location, weight, etc.). Dialogues center round communicative
functions; they are not normally memorized; contextualization is a basic premise.
Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very beginning and this is why errors
are considered a normal part of learning. The students‘ native language has no particular
role in this approach; the target language should be used not only during communicative
activities, but also for examples, in explaining the activities to students or in assigning
homework. The students learn from classroom management exchanges. Teacher helps
learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language; any device which
helps the learner is accepted.
In “Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and
testing”(1980), Canale and Swain established four dimensions of communicative
competence:
-grammatical competence: the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity; the mastery
of the language code; knowledge about the language and the necessary skills required to
understand and express the literal meaning of utterances
-sociolinguistic competence: refers to the ability to understand the social context in
which communication takes place; the ability to produce and understand utterances in
terms of the context in which they appear; it includes taking into consideration the status
role of the speaker, his attitude, the shared information, the communicative purpose, the
degree of formality and social convention
-discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual message elements; the
ability to combine meanings with unified texts
-strategic competence: refers to the verbal or non-verbal strategies that communicators
employ to initiate, maintain, finish, repair and redirect communication
Another characteristic of this approach is the use of authentic materials. It is considered
desirable to give students an opportunity to develop strategies for understanding language
as it is actually used by native speakers.
Harmer offers some criteria for evaluating how communicative classroom activities are:
-communicative purpose: the activity must involve the students in performing a real
communicative purpose
-communicative desire: the activity must create a desire to communicate in students
-content,not form: the students must be concentrated on what they are saying and not on
how they say it
-variety of language: the activity must involve students in using a variety of language;
they should feel free to improvise
-no teacher intervention: the students must work by themselves rather than with the
teacher
-no materials control ; the activity should not be designed to control what language the
students should use; the choice of the language should rest with the students
A linguistic theory of communication favoured in Communicative language teaching is
Halliday`s functional account of language use, developed in Language Structure and
Language Function,1970). He mentioned a number of seven functions that langugae
performs for children learning their first language:
-the instrumental function: using language to get things
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-the regulatory function: using language to control the behaviour of others
-the interactional function: using language to create interaction with others
-the personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meaning
-the heuristic function: using language to learn and discover
-the imaginative function: using language to create a world of imagination
-the representational function: using language to communicate information (p.11-17)
The Natural Approach – has as its main representatives S.D. Krashen and Tracy Terrell.
It is a communicative approach, which focuses on teaching communicative abilities.
Language is considered as a vehicle for communicating meanings and messages.
Techniques recommended are borrowed from other methods and adapted to meet
requirements. The learner is seen as a processor of comprehensible input. He acts out
physical commands, points to pictures, answers questions, fills in charts, involves himself
in role-play, games; participates in group problem solving or offers personal information
and opinions. The teacher is the primary source of comprehensible input; he creates an
interesting and friendly classroom atmosphere, in which there exists a low filter for
learning; he chooses a rich mix of classroom activities, involving much group work or
pair work. The theory of learning is grounded on Krashen‘s acquisition theory. He made
the distinction between acquisition and learning; for him, acquisition means the
knowledge leading to communicative performance, while learning means knowledge
leading to the ability to monitor. Krashen also established the main hypotheses regarding
language acquisition:
a)the acquisition – learning hypothesis (the difference between acquisition and learning
mentioned above)
b)the monitor hypothesis - the basic idea is that the acquired linguistic system is said to
initiate utterances when we communicate in a second or foreign language; conscious
learning acts as a monitor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system;
conscious learning has the function to call upon learned knowledge to correct ourselves
when we communicate
c)the natural order hypothesis - according to this, the acquisition of grammatical
structures proceeds in a predictable order (the order is similar to that in the first language);
errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during the acquisition
process, similar developmental errors occur in learners no matter what their mother
tongue is
d)the input hypothesis - claims to explain the relationship between what the learner is
exposed to (the input) and language acquisition; the main ideas are that people acquire
language best by understanding input that is beyond their current level of competence; if
there is a sufficient quantity of comprehensible input, the stage following the acquirer‘s
level of competence will be provided automatically; the ability to speak fluently cannot be
taught directly- it emerges independently in time, after the acquirer has built up linguistic
competence by understanding input
e)the affective filter hypothesis - the learner‘s emotional state or attitudes are seen as an
adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes or blocks input necessary to acquisition; the
main ideas are:
-a low affective filter is desirable, since it blocks less the necessary input
-acquirers with a low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with confidence
and are more receptive to the input they receive
-anxious acquirers have a high affective filter, which prevents acquisition
-learners with high motivation generally do better
-learners with self-confidence and a good self- image tend to be more successful
-low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conducive to second language
acquisition
-whatever helps comprehension is important
-as much comprehensible input as possible must be presented; input should be interesting
-in order to lower the affective filter, student work should center on meaningful
communication rather than on form
As a conclusion, there exist important differences between traditional approaches and new
approaches in teaching English. The characteristics of the traditional approaches are:
-passive learner role
-cognitive domain emphasized
-extrinsec motivation
-mainly competitive
-regular testing
-teacher as instructor and imparter of knowledge
-mainly memory, practice and rote
-hierarchical and authoritarian structure
-little creative expression
The characteristics of new approaches are:
-active learner role
-learners and teachers see each other as equals
-cognitive and affective domains are given equal status
-intrinsec motivation
-teacher is considered as a guide and learner too
-learning is made by discovery
-accent is on creative expression
-little testing
-mainly co-operative group work
-learning is understood as a process and errors are seen as natural
Task
1)What do you understand by some concepts as teacher-centred approaches and student-
centred approaches?
2)What are the advantages of the modern approaches in language learning and teaching?
13
II. TEACHING SKILLS
Aims
1)to introduce trainees to the main skills in language learning and teaching
2)to identify the main classroom activities for each of the language skills
3)to stimulate trainees‘ capacity of appreciation and critical thinking
Objectives
1)trainees will be able to distinguish between receptive and productive skills
2)trainees will understand the necessity of choosing/devising the most appropriate types
of activities in order to teach skills and sub-skills
Contents
II.1.Teaching listening
II.1.1.Listening and its place in the context of teaching skills
II.1.2.Classroom activities
II.2.1.Speaking and its place in the context of teaching skills
II.3.1.Reading and its place in the context of teaching skills
II.4.Teaching writing
II.4.1.Writing and its place in the context of teaching skills
II.4.3.Developing project work in English classes
Task
II.1.Teaching listening
II.1.1.Listening and its place in the context of teaching skills
Besides teaching pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or literature, teaching a foreign
language means teaching skills such as: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening
and reading involve reception in the foreign language; this is why they are called
receptive skills. Speaking and writing involve production; they are called productive
skills. The teaching of listening comprehension is somehow a recent innovation in
language teaching; listening was neglected in teaching, especially because the strategy of
audio-lingualism had made students listen and repeat rather than listen and understand.
Listening is an active process, which means the ability to identify and understand what
other people are saying; it also means recognizing speech sounds, dialects and speech
rhythm. It is different from hearing. When we hear someone/something, it is only
perception of the sound; when we listen to someone/something, we usually pay attention
to the sound or message. The main aim is that of making students understand the foreign
language spoken at normal speed and in normal conditions. Other listening aims could be:
-listening for discriminating among the distinctive sounds of English
-recognizing reduced forms of words
-recognizing grammatical word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives
-recognizing systems: tense, agreement plural forms
-listening for the main idea/gist
-listening for specific information
-distinguishing between literal and implied meaning
-inferring situations or participants
-listening to check if your answers are right or wrong
-listening to match pictures with descriptions
-listening to complete a picture
-listening to re-order a jumbled dialogue
-listening for dictation
-listening for identifying intention/attitudes
-listening for identifying relevant points and rejecting irrelevant ones
-listening for recognizing discourse markers (well/now/finally)
-listening for recognizing cohesive devices in spoken discourse (which/that)
-listening for guessing unknown words or phrases
-predicting outcomes
This skill is not acquired automatically. It involves students being able to concentrate
upon the whole meaning of the message, without paying conscious attention to the
component elements which he can deduce out of the conversational context. This skill is
preliminary to oral proficiency. Listening can be divided into sub-skills:
-ability to follow the general trend of what is said
-ability to understand specific details
-ability to check a specific piece of pre-knowledge against what is said
-ability to understand the speaker‘s intention
-ability to understand the speaker‘s attitude
Teachers must first teach sub-skills; they can:
-direct students listening, particularly if this is taped; teacher should provide them with
preparation; this allows students to use anticipation; the amount of preparation varies
according to the class, the level of difficulty of the material and the students‘ language
level. The teacher should give them guidance on the structure of what they are going to
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hear.
-let the students hear “the real thing” from early stages in the course
-tell students that they do not need to understand everything from the very beginning; the
teacher must make sure that students can notice the difference between different sounds
and use a variety of listening and responding activities
-students should be offered a first listening for a general idea and then segments of tape
for detailed work
-students should be let to check answers together in pairs or groups before a feedback
work
-the listening material should be graded according to the students‘ level
-the interest of the students should be encouraged
-students‘ should be provided with different types of input: lectures, radio news, films, TV
plays, announcements, everyday conversations, stories, English songs
-longer pieces of listening should be divided into shorter sections, each with its own
listening task
-providing students with a variety of voices, accents and speaking styles
-listening should be integrated with oral or written activities
listening activities should be stopped once the students become restless or frustrated
II.1.2. Classroom activities

We have already stressed upon the idea that listening is an active process, an interactive
one, which requires much effort and practice on the part of the students. The process
involves recognition/ identification (of sounds, elements of meaning conveyed by stress,
intonation and pitch, identification of words and phrases in their structural relationships),
selection (drawing out from communication those elements which seem to express the
purpose of the speaker) and then the use of correct punctuation, register and style. So,
although the main focus is on listening, the skill is frequently integrated with oral or
written activities. The role of the teacher is very important; he introduces the material,
elicits, checks and manages the listening activities properly; he uses lots of active
listening strategies in order to develop in students abilities in listening comprehension.
Among these strategies there could be mentioned:
-inferring information about the speakers and the situation that is implied in what they
hear
-matching what they hear against their own experience and knowledge of the world ant
their preoccupations
-distinguishing the most important information from less important details
-trying to visualize elements of what is heard and form a mental picture that corresponds
to that of the speaker
-making predictions about what the speaker is going to say
-responding intellectually or emotionally to the listening material: agreeing, disagreeing,
approving, disapproving, etc.
A listening activity class has three stages:
a)Pre-listening (meant to provide a context for listening, to activate the learner‘s
background knowledge about the topic and activate a vocabulary set associated with the
topic). Most listening activities are done using a cassette recorder, with no visual clues or
context provided; in such a case, a pre-listening activity compensates for this. The
activities included in this stage could be:
-elicitation/discussion about the topic (to encourage students exchange ideas/opinions
about the topic)
-brainstorming (students predict the words and expressions likely to appear in the passage,
express hypotheses about the content of the passage, based on previous knowledge)
-games (for warming-up relaxation and training in basic listening skills; e.g. miming
words and expressions heard; minimal-pair distinction)
-guiding questions
During this stage, the new vocabulary is introduced to students and they are also offered a
reason for listening. The teacher may also assign a task to be completed by the students.
The task must be always given before the students do listening, and teacher must be sure
that the task is one the students can do while they are listening.
b)While-listening
The students should be made to listen the first time for general comprehension; then, they
listen the second time. During their second-time listening, the teacher stops the cassette
after meaningful “chunks” of language, checking for comprehension and allowing time
for completion of listening task. Then, there follows the last listening; students confirm
comprehension by responding in writing or orally. The stage may include activities such
as:
1)bottom-up exercises of the type:
-discriminating between phonemes
-obeying instructions – students perform actions or draw pictures in response to
instructions
-ticking off items – students are given a list, text or picture and they are asked to tick off
words or components as they hear them within a spoken description, story or simple list of
items
-word recognition (matching word with pictures; circling in a list the word they hear;
pointing to a image or a thing; pointing to a image or a thing)
answering questions – students are asked one/more questions in advance; they listen to the
text which offers the correct answer and detect it
-note-taking – students take brief notes from a short lecture or talk
-recognizing pertinent details
-comparing (to compare passages with prediction in pre-listening)
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-obeying instructions (students show comprehension by physical movement, finishing a
task, etc.)
-repetition of short phrases or complete utterances recorded
-detecting differences or mistakes – the teacher tells a story or describes something the
class knows, including a number of deliberate mistakes and students have to detect them
-true/false exercise – students tick or cross what they think is right or wrong
-cloze – the listening text has occasional brief gaps; students write down what they think
might be the missing word
2)top-down exercises:
-paraphrasing – students rewrite the listening text in different words
-summarizing – students write a short summary of the listening passage
-problem solving- a problem is described orally; students listen to it and discuss the
solution
-getting the gist of the text
-recognizing the topic
-analysing discourse structure
-evaluating themes and motives
-finding main ideas and supporting details
-making inferences
-predicting outcomes
-information transfer (maps/plans/grids/lists/pictures)
-sequencing - students give the right order for a series of pictures
-information search - students listen to a passage and take notes on the segments that
answer a particular question
c)Post-listening
The stage may include activities such as:
-answering to show comprehension - students answer to multiple-choice or true/false
questions
-problem solving - students are given all the information relevant to a particular problem
and then set themselves to solve it
-summarizing
-jigsaw listening - different groups of students listen to different but connected passages,
each of which supplies some part of what they need to know; then, they come together to
exchange information in order to complete a story or perform a task
-writing as follow-up to listening activities
-speaking as follow-up to listening activities
II.2.1.Speaking and its place in the context of teaching skills
Speaking is a productive skill. Teaching speaking involves developing oral

communicative competence, that is the ability to use forms in appropriate ways operating
within real language situations. It is one of the most necessary language skills for
displaying students‘ language proficiency. The principle of starting the teaching of a
foreign language with the spoken language is nowadays unanimously accepted; the
spoken language is the source of the literary language. The main condition for developing
skill in speaking is practice, the opportunity to hear and speak English as much as
possible. Speaking is often integrated with the other language skills: listening, reading and
writing. Speaking competence must be built systematically, beginning with easy to more
demanding tasks. It is achieved successfully if the topics for speaking reflect real-life
issues, the students‘ interests and age and if students are allowed to express their opinions
freely. Students should be encouraged to experiment with the language, be aware of
variations in language use, express themselves, and use language for real purposes. This
means that students‘ speaking skills must be developed in close relationship with the
presentation and practice of functional language.
We must have in view that verbal communication always has a relation aspect and a
content aspect. The relation aspect can be achieved formally; students need to develop
interactive strategies such as:
-starting up a conversation (initiating a content: greetings);
-maintaining and modifying a content (formal questions, exclamations, corrections;
processing ideas and expressing utterances)
-dealing with hesitations, embarrassing situations, hedges (avoidance of direct answers)
-interrupting conversation (interruption of an already existing relationship by joining in a
conversation)
-ending a conversation (breaking off a content: leave taking)
It can also be achieved qualitatively, by expressing the personal attitude of the speaker to
the listener (positive, negative or neutral attitude).
The content aspect refers to communication as information; the speaker always means
something by his verbal utterances (has particular intentions). These intentions can
include:
-requesting information (about a person, event, object)
-giving/offering information
-formulating a wish /invitation/warning/advice
-describing the facts
-judging facts
-adding information
-expressing feelings (happiness, surprise, regret, anger, depression)
-expressing agreement/disagreement, refusal
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-clearing up misunderstandings
-contradicting
-raising objections
-justifying something
-making comments
A quick look at all these types of activities show us that they are communicative
activities, which are considered to have specific and clear purposes:
-they provide “whole-task practice”
-they improve motivation (the students‘ ultimate objective is to take part in
communication)
-they allow natural learning
In fact, there can be distinguished two types of communicative activities (Littlewood)4:
-functional activities (there may a problem which students must solve or information
which they may exchange) –the main purpose is that students use the language they know
in order to get meanings as effectively as possible; success is measured according to
whether they cope with the communicative demands of the immediate situation
-social interaction activities , which are based on the idea that students choose language
which is not only functionally effective, but also appropriate to the social situation they
are in; success is now measured in terms of the acceptability of the forms which are used.
In many of the communicative activities, the teacher creates the situation and sets an
activity in motion, but it is the students themselves who are responsible for conducting the
interaction; the activities become student-directed activities.
Having in view that conversational exchanges are governed by what Grice5 called “Co-
operative Principle”, students need to learn how to handle and obey the four
conversational maxims:
a)The Maxim of Quantity– refers to the quantity of information which should be offered;
people can generally assume that in conversation, in which, for example the exchange of
information is primary, speakers will not say more than is necessary to convey the
information required; the two rules of the maxim being:
-your contribution must contain as much information as necessary;
-your contribution must not contain more information than necessary
b)The Maxim of Quality (truthfulness): Your contribution should be truthful.
-do not say what you think is false; do not assert what you cannot prove
c)The Maxim of Relation
-be relevant to the topic at hand
d)The Maxim of Manner – concerns the modality in which things are said:
-be perspicuous.; avoid ambiguity; speak briefly; be methodical
Students should become conscious of the fact that as participants in verbal exchanges,
they play out different roles that reveal a great deal about the social personae they are
assigning to their interlocutors (E.Goffman)6; this is why they should learn how to handle
various registers, their tone of voice (serious, jesting, sarcastic), the way they take the
floor, the feedback signals they give, the choice of lexical and grammatical structures, as
well as the distribution of their silence.
There are several things which must be taken into consideration when we define a good
speaking class: the teacher; the students; the atmosphere; correction and activities.
The teacher should exploit any opportunity for short spontaneous conversation and the
features of natural conversation should be incorporated into classroom activity he should
generate a need to speak. The teacher should not interfere too much, but assign topics
which encourage students to speak. Encouragement can take the form of a general
question, an inquiry look, a smile, a pause, during which students have sufficient time to
formulate their thoughts and decide what they want to say and how they could say. The
use of language for informative purposes is the aspect of the spoken English that students
most often have difficulty with. The need to quickly plan and organize what they must say
often results in an immediate drop in fluency and confidence. To develop fluency teachers
should generate a need to speak, make learners want to speak. Michael Lewis and Jimmie
Hill (Practical Techniques. For Language Teaching, London, l995) offer some techniques
to be used by the teacher:
-do not distort when offering a model
-the model should be given with proper accent, rhythm and intonation, and at proper
speed
-make use of choral pronunciation (choral work brings the class together and refocuses
their attention on the teacher after some activity; teacher can control speed and
pronunciation)
-do not talk simultaneously with the students; the teacher must conduct their discussion
-beware of setting an artificially high standard of correctness in the early stage; an
insistent correction should be replaced by a positive atmosphere and by encouragement
-resort to variety in working with the class
-use pair-work, as it is very efficient
-do not be explain intonation but demonstrate it
The students must be convinced of the need to communicate to each other; they need to be
tolerant of each other, supportive and encouraging.
Classroom atmosphere should be relaxed, make students feel confident; it should be
encouraging. It is wrong for the teacher to jump on mistakes and discourage students‘
contribution. Both accuracy and fluency in speaking have to be developed, but classroom
activity should concentrate on fluency rather than on accuracy. This is why, mistakes
made while speaking, must be understood as a natural and necessary step towards
learning. Small errors may not be corrected while students are speaking. The proper time
for correction should be after the conversation , rather than interrupting it.
As we have already seen, one characteristic of the communicative activities in the
classroom is to have a functional language. Other characteristics could be also mentioned:
-these activities involve student- student interaction (working in pairs or in groups,
student have different possibilities to exchange ideas, to ask questions, give answers,
interpret, contradict each other, support and encourage each other, process information
and compare results; their talking time and activity time are maximised);
21
-the activities are task-based (students are given a task which is to be achieved; they are
motivated to work).
The main sources available to develop the students‘ skill of speaking under school
conditions are the interchange between teacher and students and the texts, as a source of
developing skill in speaking.
Each stage of the lesson offers possibilities for teaching students everyday expressions:
-organization of the class: Who‘s absent?/Who‘s on duty?/Why is he absent?
-motivation and discipline: Attention please!/Stop talking!/Silence!
-checking the homework: What‘s the correct tense?/ Are there any mistakes?/Have you
got another solution?
-at the blackboard: Go to the blackboard!/Use the sponge!
-reading and speaking: Read in chorus!/ Say it again!/Will you repeat?
-pictures: Look at the picture!/ What do you see in this picture?
-at the end of the lesson: There‘s the bell!/Stand up!
The texts contain the speech material which the students have to acquire within each
form; the teacher is the real key to the students‘ acquisition of this material. Activities that
contribute to the achievement of this task are:
-choral repetition of words, phrases and sentences
-individual repetition
-answering questions
-asking questions
-offering original sentences after given patterns
-engaging in oral drill activities
-engaging in a conversation
-learning by heart poems, songs, riddles
Exercises in speaking can be divided into two large categories:
a)receptive exercises – based on listening to and comprehending the teacher‘s voice:
-understanding and execution of certain commands, followed by the reproduction of what
is being done:
Teacher: Tom, give the pencil to Mary. What are you doing?
Tom: I‘m giving the pencil to Mary.
-understanding and answering questions
-short communications
b)productive exercises – based on receptive work:
-imitation of what has been heard
-informal discussion and conversation
-reaching a consensus – students have to agree with each other after a certain amount of
discussion
-dialogues and monologues
-reporting speech
-giving/having interviews
-questions and answers
-moral dilemmas - students are given a situation and alternative suggestions for acting in
such situation; they are asked to reach a consensus on the issue; or, students are given a
complex situation and are told to work out a means of survival
-learning decisions - students establish together a correct answer/meaning/words or
phrases
-word guessing game
-oral summary
-book report
-story-telling
-creative retelling (a story retold from different points of view)
-the debate/controversial topics /“in favour” or “against” exercise
-giving instructions
-poem/story reconstruction
-describing things/processes
-simple activities such as : Talk about yourself/ about your hobby/ your favourite movie
star/ your favourite pop/rock singer
-simulation and role-play - a decision-making activity where the participants, acting
either as themselves or in different social roles, discuss a problem/a series of related
problems within a defined setting; students simulate the real world in the classroom; the
teacher may act either as a prompter or as a participant, helping students in difficulty
-summary
-the personal interview
-comparing two or more things
-expressing opinions about a certain topic
Communicative games may include activities such as:
-describe and draw – one student is given a picture which the other students cannot see; he
has to describe the object in the picture and the others have to draw it, by listening to
instructions
-find the similarities/differences – in pairs/groups, students are given pictures; through
discussion, they have to establish the similarities and differences between pictures.
All these activities provide a relaxed classroom environment; they offer students
opportunities to practise most of the aspects of the language: structures, functions,
vocabulary and interpersonal skills. Pair-work and group discussions are excellent means
of increasing the students‘ involvement in the learning process, promote the skill of
cohesion, and provide students opportunities to express their own feelings, needs,
interests, attitudes, opinions. Supportive atmosphere is the key-word for such activities;
students should encourage one another, should be tolerant with their fellows and not jump
on mistakes.
23
II.3.1.Reading and its place in the context of teaching skills
Reading is a receptive skill, which means more than applying decoding conventions
and grammatical knowledge to the text. It represents an interactive process between what
a reader already knows about a given topic and what the writer knows; it is an active skill
as it involves a lot of guessing, predicting, checking and asking oneself questions.
Reading must not be regarded as a passive activity; students must recognize sonorous
models represented by graphical symbols, their combinations as units of language; they
must recognize structural indices (of word classes, of persons, of tenses or category).
Aukerman7 divided the process of reading into four major categories, talking about:
-perceptual learning- the ability to progress in perceptually discriminating first of gross
shapes, objects, people, places and then of finer shapes such as letters and words
-associative learning – as contrasted to rote memorization – influenced by the students‘
intelligence, past experience, motivation (a student whose experiences are minimal will
have little basis for the development of associative learning in reading)
-cognitive learning – relating new experience to past experience and past learning; it
involves comparing, being aware of similarities, differences, values and truths ; it is
essential to learning to read
-affective learning – it is learning triggered by emotions; in reading, this takes place when
the reader‘s emotions (joy, delight, excitement, fury, disgust, envy) are aroused by the
printed word
The reading passages activate the students‘ mental structures; develop their capacity for
inference, anticipation, deduction, analysis and synthesis; stimulate their capacity for
appreciation and critical thinking by discussion and reflection on the text; raise awareness
of language use; foster confidence in reading and interpreting texts. They also develop in
students some micro-skills in reading comprehension:
-discrimination among orthographic patterns
-recognition of words at sight
-distinction between the main idea and the specific information
-understanding implied information and attitudes
-understanding layout and use of headings
-recognition of grammatical word classes (nouns, adjectives, verbs)
-recognition of systems (tenses, agreement between subject and predicate, sequence of
tenses)
-recognition of the communicative functions of the written text
-deduction of causes and effects
-distinction between the literal and implied meaning
-development of reading strategies
-development of skills in reading silently and orally
-knowledge about how to use an index, a table of contents, a dictionary
-development of such skills as predicting, recognizing discourse markers.
The reading skill is closely related to all the other language skills and it also serves as a
means of introducing and practising the components of language: articulatory skills,
intonations, vocabulary and grammatical structures. There are several types of reading
grouped in opposites: oral/mental; individual/chorus; prepared/unprepared;
controlled/independent; intensive/extensive.
Intensive reading is related to acquiring competence under the teacher‘s guidance; it is
an accurate type of reading, during which we often take notes, highlight the important
parts, identify details; the activities focus on comprehension. In such activity, the students
focus on the linguistic or semantic details of a passage. The texts fit to develop such
reading are: letters, postcards, telegrams, notices, recipes, weather forecasts, instructions,
directions, rules and regulations, labels, menus, tickets, price lists, diagrams, charts, maps,
time-tables, essays, reviews, questionnaires, reports (especially functional texts).
Extensive reading has as its main purpose the direct and fluent reading for pleasure; its
activities focus on students‘ response to texts. For extensive reading, the following types
of texts are generally used: diary pages, extracts from novels, tales, stories, newspaper and
magazine articles, biographical and autobiographical passages, jokes, poems, comic strips
(especially artistic texts).
The first step in teaching reading in a foreign language is to make students aware of
what they do when they read efficiently in their own language. The second step is to give
them guidance and practice, help them recognize and respond appropriately to the type of
text in front of them by adopting a suitable attitude and suitable tactics. The overall
purpose in teaching reading is to develop in students the attitudes, abilities and skills
needed for obtaining information, developing interests and finally driving pleasure by
reading through understanding. Students must develop reading skills that lead to a
thorough understanding of the text without using translation in their mother tongue. This
process must be slow, gradual and continuous. Reading is not recommended with
beginners without the help of the teacher. Reading must not be delayed too long as
students are tempted to take notes of what they seem to hear. The texts used for reading
must contain the orally studied material and symbols will continuously be associated with
oral version.
At first, students will read and repeat after a reading model and they will correlate
correct pronunciation with printed sound-symbol combinations, together with accent and
intonation. Once introduced, reading permits the introduction of some writing exercises,
carefully chosen.
The biggest problem in acquiring reading habits is to prevent the students from
assigning Romanian values to familiar letters. There are also some factors which may
hinder reading in a foreign language and teachers must be aware of them and always take
them into account:
25
-the eye movement – a good reader is considered the one who makes fewer eye
movements (take in several words at a time, has ability in noticing sense units – Nuttall8 -
do not make regressive eye movement, moving their eyes back to check previous words)
-reading habits in the mother tongue - some students may not be efficient even when
reading in their own language
-faulty reading habits – some reader, while reading, do not completely eliminate moving
their lips or saying the words sub-vocally or mentally
The three stages in the reading lesson are:
a)Pre-reading
The main aims of this stage are: to introduce students to the topic of the text they are
about to read; to activate their background knowledge about the topic and the vocabulary
related to it; to stimulate students‘ interest and encourage them to read more. Elicitation,
brainstorming, guiding questions, listening to a passage on a related topic, perhaps based
on visuals are effective techniques. The teacher pre-teaches a few new key-words related
to the topic and write them on the blackboard in sentences. A task can be also assigned to
be done as they are reading. Such tasks can include: filling in a chart; matching pictures to
paragraphs, answering true/false questions, finding out specific words, etc.
b)While-reading
Reading activities can be of three types:
-conscious imitative reading- implies the imitation of the examples set by the teacher or
the tape; it can be both choral or individual; is especially useful with beginners
-semi-independent reading – implies work of the students with the help of the teacher; the
model reading is not considered important; the students read in class first silently and then
aloud, individually; thy may also get some texts to read at home and then read them in the
class aloud during the next lesson
-independent reading – used with advanced students; the most important thing is
comprehension
The way of actually reading the text involves four tactics/strategies:
a)skimming- running the eyes very quickly over the text in order to get a general
impression of its character and content; to get its main idea/the gist
b)scanning - reading the text very quickly in order to locate the information we need
c)sequential - reading the text from the beginning up to its end
d)focusing - intensive reading of the part of the text of special interest
Oral reading is fit for beginners; the intermediate and advanced students must use
efficient silent reading techniques for rapid comprehension. Silent reading can be
intensive and extensive. Students also need to get used to visualizing more than one word
at a time and inferring meaning through context. Students should also be encouraged to
guess meanings.
c)Post-reading
Students are expected to extract from the text both its literal and implied meaning: the
surface information; the main idea/general meaning; specific information; details;
information relationships not especially stated in the text; deduced meaning. Besides this
text-content information, they have to extract meta-content information, including:
-the type of text (descriptive; narrative; argumentative; reflective; explanatory;
comparison and contrast; allegorical)
-the genre (novel; poem; newspaper article; advertisement)
-the theme of the text
-types of relationships within the text (cause and effect; consequences of actions; facts
and opinions)
-the intention of the author (if he wants to shock, to amuse, to persuade, to warn, to impart
information)
-the attitude of the author (subjective/objective; indifferent/involved; confident/detached)
-the point of view
-the setting
-the characters
-the atmosphere of the extract (gloomy; optimistic)
-the tone of the writer (monotonous, optimistic, hopeful, pessimistic, ironic, humorous,
enthusiastic)
-the rhetorical devices (cohesive devices; lexical linkers – repetitions, synonyms,
pronominal references; stylistic devices – metaphors, personification, types of images,
etc.)
-the discourse markers in the text (enumerative: firstly/ secondly/ in the end; showing
reinforcement: again and again/ also/ above all; showing similarity: similarly/ likewise;
showing transition: now/ by the way; illustrative: for instance/ for example; contrastive:
on the contrary/ by contrast)
They also have to find evidence in the text to support their answers and to give personal
response to the text. Comprehension can be checked in various ways:
-asking students to answer definite questions beginning with “who/ what/ when/ where/
why”
-asking students to answer to true/false questions
-multiple-choice exercise
-asking students to give responses based on their personal experience and opinions
-asking students to respond physically to a command
-asking students to extend/provide an ending to a story
As post-reading activities there can be also mentioned:
-asking them to follow specific directions (“find the words which show/describe/tell”)
-asking them to indicate sequence of ideas by rearranging sentence
-numbering sentences in the order they appear in reading
-activities based on charts
-dramatized dialogues
27
-eliciting a summary of the entire passage
-rewriting the story and changing the dialogue into indirect discourse
-selecting key sentences which illustrate certain characteristics of the ideas
-finding synonyms and antonyms of the new words
-finding other stories on the same theme
-completing sentences
-making use of the new words and sentences in original sentences
-a game, to practise vocabulary
-illustrating favourite events by drama or drawing
-engaging in a conversation that indicates appropriate processing of information
II.4.Teaching Writing
II.4.1.Writing and its place in the context of teaching skills
Writing is a productive skill. Traditional views of writing in English teaching
methodology considered writing as a means rather than as purpose for communication.
More recent mehodologists stress on the idea that in teaching a foreign language,
importance should be given to all four skills. So, writing activities should be designed to
reinforce listening, speaking and reading abilities and give practice in the structural and
lexical items which have been introduced. There has been also noticed a shift from the
traditional product-oriented approach to a process-oriented one during the last decades.
Writing is no longer understood as a product (essay, report, story) but it is seen as a
process that can be taught; a way of learning, as well as communicating. Writing forces
the learner to focus carefully on the language and be precise and attentive to details such
as punctuation and spelling. Students should be directed to understand their
composing process; they should be trained to develop their strategies of prewriting,
drafting and rewriting. There must be in fact a balance between process and product; the
product is the ultimate goal; process is the means to the end. Spelling principles have to
be introduced gradually, practised intensively and examples of them given whenever
possible.
The process should be viewed in two lights: firstly, as a language problem – a problem
of assembling words to form grammatical sentences; secondly, as a rhetorical problem – a
problem of teaching students to organize words and patterns so as to fulfil a given
rhetorical aim. Emphasis should be given to the specific communicative purposes of
writing. The main aim should be to develop students‘ ability to convey information
through linking and developing ideas and arguments in whole pieces of written discourse,
to develop accuracy and fluency in writing, to raise their awareness of sentence,
paragraph and whole text structure as well as their awareness of sentence linkers and
discourse markers.
Summarizing, students need to develop two types of micro-skills in writing: a)mechanical
skills:
-correct spelling
-appropriate vocabulary
-knowledge of grammar (express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms)
-knowledge of punctuation
-knowledge of formats (letter format, memos, etc.)
-correct choice of register and style appropriate to the task and
b)composition skills:
-to choose an appropriate layout
-to achieve a high degree of accuracy (to avoid ambiguity)
-to use linkers (in order to achieve cohesion : However/In addition/First…/Finally)
-to get coherence of the text (paragraphing, introductions and conclusions)
-to use creativity and imagination
-to develop writing strategies: using prewriting devices, using paraphrasing and synonyms
Students should be encouraged to go through the process of selecting, planning and
organizing and revising their work systematically.
The skill of correct writing is mainly attained by practice, by exercises. They go from a
very controlled activity up to a free one. The stages of the lesson include:
a)Pre-writing – has the role to stimulate and motivate students to generate materials to
write on; it is a structural experience that influences active student participation in
thinking, talking, writing and working on the topic under focus; usual activities include:
-oral group brainstorming - the use of leading questions to get students think about a topic
or idea
-discussing a topic or question
-debating - orally presenting two sides of an argument/topic
-cubing - a quick consideration of the subject from six points of view: describe it;
compare it; associate it; analyse it; apply it; argue for/against it
-clustering - beginning with a key word, then adding other words, using free association
-reading - silent reading or extensive reading generate ideas for writing
-group discussion - students are guided to generate ideas about the topic
-meditating/mind transportation - require students to make a voyage into a fantasy world,
thus providing a mood which makes students want to write
-looping - non-stop writing on anything that comes to one‘s mind on a particular topic;
thus, ideas or bits of ideas for the proper writing stage are generated
b)While-writing
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The most elementary type of exercise in spelling, introduced from the initial stage is
copying. This type of exercise is often boring and uninteresting for learners because it is a
completely mechanical one. Copying can be simple (word for word) or tasked (to
underline letters or groups of letters which represent a sound; to mark certain grammatical
forms; to write only certain parts of the sentence; to copy an exercise and change the
subject, etc).
Another type of exercise is dictation. This exercise represents an intensive activity; it
makes learners concentrate; it helps developing listening as well as writing, but
sometimes, can be quite mechanically done, without real comprehension. According to
the way it is carried out, dictation can be: auditive and visual. In the case of auditive
dictation, the teacher first reads the whole text and the students listen; then, the teacher
reads again sentence by sentence and the students write; once finished, the teacher reads
the text for the third time, while the students look over their writing, correcting the
possible mistakes. The visual dictation consists in the teacher writing a word, a phrase or
a sentence on the blackboard and analyses it; he cleans the blackboard and the students
write the unit from memory.
Dicto-comp is a technique for practising composition; it is a type of controlled writing
that combines text dictation and text reconstruction. It requires students to write, but it
also demands careful listening and the retention of the material read aloud. The technique
is the following: the teacher reads a passage to the class; the students listen carefully; the
teacher puts key words on the blackboard and the students write out what they remember
from the passage using the words on the blackboard. Besides listening, the exercise
involves the students‘ ability to summarize, to elaborate and use English in a particular
context. Dicto-comp is a form of controlled writing.
Once the students acquired basic skills of sentence writing, they can progress beyond
very controlled writing to free paragraph writing. The transition can be done by “guided
writing”(Doff)9. This means to give the students a short text as a model, do some oral
preparation for writing (with the whole class, students giving suggestions; the teacher
builds an outline or a list of key expressions on the board, expressions which are used by
students as a basis for writing).
The technique of a controlled/guided composition includes:
-asking the students to tell a given text by the help of main ideas indicating the beginning
of sentence just to avoid the repetition of “and”
-oral practice – that begins with the choice of the title, then the students answer the
teacher‘s questions in order to repeat the vocabulary or enrich it with new items
-written exercises – comprise structural exercises in relation to the chosen subject;
students have to complete sentences, to change the tense of the verbs or to combine
sentences using conjunctions
-vocabulary study – the teacher teaches students the correct use of vocabulary
-student writing- the student starts to write the composition
-simple paragraph writing – the students are offered a paragraph as a model for their own
Paragraph writing can include: paragraph about a favourite subject/season/; paragraph
about a city/town/place; a narrative paragraph, etc.
Beginning composition work may be developed in different ways:
-the teacher gives a list of words within one social or cultural situation and asks the
students to use them in short dialogues, paragraphs or letters
-the teacher may give the students a model of a short composition which is read and
discussed and then they are asked to write a similar one, changing the name of the
characters
-the teacher may ask students about an experience they have had or answer a series of
sequential questions on a story they have read in class; the students may be asked to write
a summary.
Free writing has advantages. From the very beginning the students become aware that,
like their first language, the second language is creative, varied and personal; it can be
used to express perceptions, realities and points of view. An exercise in free writing,
which is very much used in schools now is essay writing. The stages for writing an essay
are:
-brainstorming - getting ideas together (by help of mind-maps, discussions, pictures
information is collected; the source is personal experience, imagination, reading; students
discuss the main ideas and support details)
-grouping the ideas into units with common themes - this means finding the topic for each
paragraph
-organizing the paragraphs (depending on the type of essay)
-planning the essay (a plan of the essay with the ordered paragraphs and an introduction
and conclusion)
-writing the essay (sometimes this process may include writing of first/second draft before
writing the final essay)
Complete essay writing can be preceded by essay questions, an exercise which requires
students to give response to the story as a whole or to focus their attention only on one
particular aspect of it: its meaning, the type of character, the structure of the plot, the
setting, etc. This exercise may use either open questions which invite students to relate
some experience of their own to similar experience in the story they have read, or critical
questions which invite students give their personal comments on the theme, character or
certain issues about those in the text they have read.
Paraphrasing is an aid to writing. It means working on someone else‘s piece of writing.
The teacher should know how to introduce paraphrasing to students; he should dictate and
discuss the text. The first model paraphrase should be thoroughly discussed in class.
Paraphrasing implies certain transformations in the text:
-subordinate clauses are replaced by gerund constructions
-passive voice is replaced by active voice; or active by passive
-long sentences can be split into short ones
-short sentences can be linked to form long ones
Other written communicative activities may include:
-substitution exercises - based on a model and then personalized
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-giving directions – students write down directions which other students have to follow
-writing commands – students write each other messages which contain commands
-writing broadcasts – students write items for news broadcasts which they organize for
“transmission”
-the tourist brochure – students can be asked to write together a brochure about the place
they live in, are studying in or are about to visit
-letter writing – to their friends in the country and abroad; to their favourite pop stars or
film actors; formal and informal letters, with their specific layout
-summary of a song/poem or novel (used especially for lower-intermediate students, and
will help them prepare for comprehension and discussion questions )
-writing reports (book/film/play /interview report)
-writing advertisements (to advertise food, clothing, books, places)
-writing journals or diary pages
-fairy tale writing - in groups, students may invent a fairy story
-story reconstruction – students are shown pictures from a story sequence and are asked to
write sentences about them, reconstructing the story
-warnings or notices
-list of advice for keeping fit
-resolutions for the future
-instructions for using different objects
-descriptions of places, people and processes
-writing postcards
-writing recipes
-opinion paragraphs; contrasting opinion paragraph,
-autobiographical writing
-profile of a person
-newspaper/magazine articles
-rules for a game or sport
-filling in an application form for a job
-argumentative essay
-e-mail/fax messages
-letter of reference
Steps to improve writing include:
-constant and systematic use of reading material to introduce the main rhetorical features
of English
-use of written exercises that require the students to connect sentences by means of the
proper linking devices
-rearrangement of scrambled sentences into a proper paragraph
-use of a non- paragraphed text that can be studied and broken into 2-3 paragraphs
-training in order to distinguish between different registers an d styles, level of formality,
modes of address and use of lexical items
Feedback is necessary after each new step in writing. One way of giving feedback is to
involve the students in the process of evaluating their own work. The idea is to improve
without discouraging .
c)Post writing activities

It is a revising stage which besides drafting represents the core of the process of writing.
The following is a list of some of the factors which may be considered in grading, a
piece of written work:
-length
-correct grammar
-originality of ideas
-range of vocabulary used
-range and complexity of structures used
-appropriateness of style
-spelling
-handwriting
-punctuation
-organization of ideas
-relevance to the title
II.4.3.Developing project work in the English classes
Project work is rather a practical than theoretical means of teaching English. It means
any work on a specific subject which has a concrete result a product: charts, maps,
articles, letters, posters, albums, etc. Its main characteristics are that students have a task
to complete and have the option of completing the task in a variety of ways. Most of the
new textbooks offer much project work, an activity which might help bridge the gap
between the classroom (language study) and real-life situations (language use in formal or
informal situations); it provides solution to the problem of students‘ autonomy, teaching
them to cope and take initiative by themselves. This activity allows students to be
responsible for their own learning and encourages co-operation. It helps students attain
communicative competence (something that recent approaches to language learning and
teaching emphasize), encourages their spontaneous expression, helps students use English
both orally and in writing, mainly in group work. Pair and group work allow students to
use the language in a practical way; it represents an opportunity for personal involvement,
both effectively and affectively, which is nothing but a step towards discovering and
learning team spirit and team work. The group work gives students opportunity to
participate actively in discussions, share opinions, agreeing, disagreeing with each other,
simulating real- life situations, contradicting or pleading for something.
Among the most obvious advantages of such activity there could be mentioned: variety
to the range of learning situations; increase of student-student communication (social
interaction occurs); change of the role of the teacher from formal instructor and imparter
of information, to member of the group (becomes a participant, a coordinator the one who
evaluates and checks the language used in the activity at the same time); affective learning
is increased; stimulus towards self- analysis and self-knowledge; opportunities to
33
reinforce the material previously studied.
Among the most common projects students can be asked to do, there are:
-planning a holiday/a trip
-planning and setting up an English event (a party; a festival)
-magazine writing – including the most important news of the school, information on
sports, music, fashion, new books, songs, poems, riddles, jokes
-interviews on different topics
-a tourist guidebook of the town where the students live
-a tourist itinerary
-designing cards for Christmas, New Year or Valentine‘s Day
-preparing a menu for birthdays or other important events
-making list of things for their holiday trip, holiday camp
-drawing posters
-advertising singers/musical groups
-designing albums
-looking into areas of the life of the English people: the press, homes and gardens,
important events, etc.
Each project work generally consists of three stages:
-a setting up stage – students are given input of factual or non-factual information to read,
think over, discuss and process; establish the objectives, the sources of information that
can be used; establish the linguistic support the students might need; establish the dead-
line for the project work
-production stage – implies brainstorming and creativity: the output of the project lesson
(the teacher offers help)
-presentation stage
-evaluation
Project work can be short-term (completed in one or two lessons) or long-term (taking a
large part of the semester or the year)
Evaluation is a necessary component; the teacher should evaluate the entire process: the
activities and tasks the students perform, the working methods, attitude, critical sense,
responsibility and group interaction.
The results of the project work can be presented in different ways: a poster, a completed
product, a report, a radio programme, etc..
Task
Answer the questions:
1)How does pre-listening help learners understand better?
2)What advantages and disadvantages are there for teachers and learners of using the
model pre- while- post listening activities to teach a listening lesson?
3)What makes listening comprehension successful?
4)What are five possible ways to motivate students to read English and to enjoy reading ?
5)What are the main reasons for doing a pre-reading activity?
6)List five solutions a teacher must have at hand in order to get efficient communicative
classes.
III.TEACHING VOCABULARY
Aims:
1)to teach trainees how to select the vocabulary to be taught
2)to offer trainees different techniques and procedures of introducing and explaining the
meaning of new vocabulary items
3)to offer trainees guidance in devising exercises/activities meant to consolidate (new)
vocabulary items
Objectives
1)the trainees will be able to introduce and explain the meaning of new vocabulary items
2) trainees will be able to handle procedures for reinforcing vocabulary items
Contents
III.1.Teaching vocabulary in the context of language teaching
Task
III.1. Teaching vocabulary in the context of language teaching

Vocabulary represents the potentially infinite number of words existing in a language.
It usually divided into active vocabulary (vocabulary for productive use) – including the
words which students have been taught /the students have learned, and which they use, or
are expected to use – and passive vocabulary (vocabulary for “receptive” recognition)10 –
including words which students know, can recognize whenever they meet them, but which
they do not use. The recent accent on functionality and communication in language
learning and teaching (words understood as vehicles for relaying information and ideas;
35
for communication) made linguists and methodologists turn their attention to vocabulary
and stress its importance in language teaching. Thus, acquisition of vocabulary has
become as important as the acquisition of grammar. Teaching a word means several
things: teaching its form/shape/spelling; teaching its pronunciation; teaching its meaning;
teaching that form and meaning go together.
Students should know that one word has usually more than one meaning, that the
meaning can be changed, stretched or limited by how it is used. Decoding the meaning
means attention given to the context (the entire non-verbal environment which is
linguistically relevant for communication purposes) and the co-text (the linguistic
environment proper; the items in the text which play a role in specifying the meaning of a
given lexical item) in which the word is used. “Knowing a word –as Jeremy Harmer
explains – means knowing the meaning, the word use, the word information and the word
grammar”11; this is why the study of vocabulary cannot be separated from the study of
phonetics and grammar. So, knowing a word means in fact being aware of the following
features:
-the correct pronunciation and spelling
-the denotative meaning – “the objective, impersonal and intellective meaning of a
word”12 ; the nucleus of a word; the meaning which has been fixed in the language of the
whole people, implying the possibility to be understood in the process of linguistic
communication; the cognitive or communicative aspect of meaning; it conveys the
informational load carried by a word and is neutral as far as the attitude of the speaker is
concerned
-connotations – “the subjective, personal and emotive <extra-meaning> of a word”13; the
emotional overtones the speaker usually associates with each individual use of words; the
field of associations, implications, suggestions which surround the word
-the appropriate grammatical forms
-the style – formal/informal
-the transfer of meaning
-the lexical sets - if the word relates to other words within a common topic/ situation/
theme
-the relations of synonymy/antonymy/homonymy/hyponymy
-collocations – in what way it can combine with other words
-idioms
The students‘ native language, their previous language experience, transfer effects and
learning strategies are among the factors which affect their abilities to learn new
vocabulary.
In teaching vocabulary the following considerations are highly important: the students
must be interested and must make an effort to understand; it is the teacher‘s responsibility
to provide a variety of activities that will keep the students interested and will help them
understand; the teacher should also provide frequent repetition, to reinforce the learning
process and fix the new vocabulary firmly in the minds of the students; students should be
exposed to different kinds of contexts in which a word may be used, to ensure its proper
usage; to learn new words, students have to work with them actively, regularly and
systematically; learning of words should be meaningful (words should be learned through
comprehension, association and integration of the new material with the one which has
already been learned).
Research into memory has proved that people do not store words in their brain in
alphabetical order; words that are somehow related, join together in groups, called lexical
sets; this means it is better to teach students lexical sets, in which words are related in
several ways:
-by topic: animals, family relationships, jobs
-by similarity of meaning: monkey, ape, gorilla
-in pairs – synonyms: journey/trip; margin/edge
-in pairs – opposites: hot/cold; old/new
-in a series or a scale: boiling, hot, warm, cool, cold, freezing
-by super-ordinates and hyponyms: furniture: bed, table, chair, armchair
-by activity or process: steps in making a coffee or building a house
-word families: paint, painter, painting, paint work
Generally speaking, the main approaches to teaching vocabulary are : system-oriented;
topic-oriented; strategic- oriented (using contextual clues; using knowledge of related
forms; analysing internal structure; using knowledge of cognates) or discourse-oriented.
There are several possibilities of introducing the new vocabulary into the lesson: during
the introductory conversation, during the proper work with the text under study or during
the students‘ individual work with the dictionary.
When the new vocabulary is introduced during the introductory conversation, the
teacher has the role of selecting those words which should be acquired by students in an
active manner; each uttered sentence should include only one word with a definite
meaning in the given context, in a familiar grammatical structure, which needs to be
simple and natural. The teacher utters a sentence related to the text and explains the new
word by means of a technique of word interpretation. This implies ostensive ways of
teaching:
-demonstration- by showing an object or a cutout figure;
-using realia – different objects brought into the classroom
-using pictures – using photographs, blackboard drawings, illustrations from magazines or
newspapers
-using pictograms – the teacher draws the word to represent its meaning
-using flash-cards, handouts, OHP, tape recorder, cassette recorder
-miming - by gestures or by performing an action
37
-using explanations – by description; by giving synonyms or opposites for the words
students already know; by putting the word into a defining context; by paraphrasing or by
translating; giving the definition; giving examples; resorting to the semantic field the
word belongs to
-translation
Other techniques of presentation and discovery might include: word-building (use parts
of words to help students build new words or guess their meaning); matching (students
match words to words, or sentences or pictures); using songs; using familiar or famous
names words (well-known words from song titles, books or people).
The new words can be also introduced during the work with the text. Textbooks are
open; the text is read and students are asked to relate what they have understood. The new
words are introduced in different possible ways:
-guessing from the context – interpretation by means of contextual inference from
meaningful sentences, in which students understand almost all words, except the one in
question
-the definition of the new word by other words in the foreign language
-word analysis technique – from a known stem to a new word
-the use of synonyms or opposites
-substitution
-matching words with their definitions –students are asked to find words in the text after
having read their definitions
-word lists – students list words under appropriate headings
-word charts – students are asked to bring to mind what certain words can be associated
with
detailed descriptions – students connect the words in column A and B to make sentences
connected with a certain topic
-word webs – words are topic-related
-finding out differences between related words
-identification of false friends
-work with collocations, phrasal verbs
-the use of affixes to construct new words
-the use of translation
Introducing new vocabulary during the students‘ work with the dictionary is a good
exercise especially beginning with the third year of study; it is a step forward in training
students to work independently. Students need to be trained to isolate the unknown word,
trace it back to its root form, read the word again in the context, in order to grasp the
meaning of the whole sentence, so that the appropriate meaning of the word should be
looked up in the end. Dictionaries are important tools in most vocabulary-building
exercises and activities. A monolingual dictionary is the best to be used, because it offers
information about pronunciation, spelling word formation metaphorical and idiomatic use.
The ability of students to use a dictionary should be practised in the classroom.
Exercises in teaching vocabulary are of three types:
1)exercises of understanding vocabulary – based on the teacher‘s explanation
2)exercises of recognition:
-copying the text and underlying the new words
-analysis of the word or lexical unit as to form: root, stem, affixes
-analysis of word according to semantic peculiarities: synonyms, homonyms, antonyms
-picking up words from the text and then grouping them according to different criteria
3)exercises of use:
-filling in the blanks with new words
-substitution of drills and known structures
-translations from Romanian into English
-retelling
-description of pictures
-composition on a given topic previously prepared
-questions referring to the text under study
-classification of words according to certain topic
-correction of statements not true to facts
-completion of certain unfinished sentences
-replacement of certain words by others making all the other necessary changes
-rearrangement f words in the correct order
-crossword puzzles
-games
Pronunciation is an integral part of language learning. Any learner with a goal for
learning English for communicative purposes needs to learn the rhythm and intonation of
English. Yet, it is not only important for oral communication; it is closely connected with
the other aspects of language use. Learning about pronunciation develops learners‘
abilities to comprehend the spoken language; it also helps learners with the spelling
system of English. Pronunciation can convey grammatical information (rhythm and
intonation can perform grammatical functions) and a lack of knowledge in pronunciation
can easily affect reading. Teaching pronunciation goes hand in hand with teaching
vocabulary. Some methodological considerations must be observed:
-the teaching of pronunciation should start in the early stages of the language course
-the teacher should be consistent in correcting the errors
-the correction should be done on the spot
-the teacher should stimulate the students to notice the mistakes made by their classmates
and ask them to offer the correct forms
-the teacher‘s explanations concerning pronunciation should be illustrated by many
examples and exercises
-the teacher must avoid to repeat the students‘ errors in the form of question of reproach
-the teacher is not allowed to make fun of the mistakes
-classroom atmosphere should be relaxed
-much attention should be given to intonation and stress
-the first lessons are of great importance; it is the stage where correct pronunciation
should be acquired
Generally, there are three ways in teaching pronunciation: imitation, articulatory
39
description and comparison. Teachers should not make an extensive use of the last two
ways, without asking the students to imitate the correct pronunciation of sounds.
Articulatory description is made use of especially when the students find it difficult to
pronounce a sound (usually because this does not exist in their mother tongue).
Comparison is used especially when the students confuse two sounds which are similar.
Pronunciation practice should not include only sounds, clusters and words, but also
sentences. The use of audio-visual aids, tapes, cassettes, radio or TV together with many
exercises of recognition and production ensure the learning and mastering of correct
pronunciation.
Task
Make a list of ten elements which constitute for you an effective presentation of new
vocabulary.
IV.TEACHING GRAMMAR
Aims
1)to help trainees understand the importance grammar plays in the context of language
teaching
2)to help trainees identify different methods and techniques appropriate to grammar
teaching
3)to give trainees hints regarding the types of exercises and other different activities
which ensure much practice in grammar
Objectives
1)the trainees will be the trainees will become aware and show understanding of the use
of different techniques in teaching grammar
2)the trainees will become confident in their ability of choosing and devising the best
types of exercises in grammar
Contents
IV.1.Grammar in the context of teaching English
Task
IV.1. Grammar in the context of teaching English

Anyone using a language must use its grammar. Grammar is the way a language
manipulates and combines words or bits of words in order to form longer units of
meaning. It is a systematization and codification of a bulk of data which thus become
relevant. It is a system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship
of words in a sentence. Knowing a language involves knowing the items that make up that
language; it also involves being able to supply these items when they are missing, or
being able to do without them, as well as the ability to produce an infinite number of
sentences in response to an infinite number of stimuli. One is said to know a foreign
language when one‘s competence (knowledge of the grammar that determines an intrinsec
connection of sound and meaning for each sentence) is like that of a native speaker. The
ability to handle new sentences is evidence of knowing the rules that are needed to
generate them. What does teaching of grammar involve?
Our aim in teaching grammar should be to ensure that students are communicatively
efficient with the grammar they have at their level. Language awareness is also very
important. It means that students have to be aware of language and how it is used. Some
methodological considerations include:
-grammar should never be taught and learned for its sake; it is expected to form new
habits in the correct use of the foreign language
-the students should use the language and not talk about it
-grammatical explanations given to the students should be brief and to the point;
-grammar teaching should avoid excess of abstract theory;
-the problems beyond the students‘ power of assimilation should not be theoretically
learned, but as structures to be learned by heart
-grammar should always be dealt with in relation to the text under study;
-any grammatical item must not be explained before the analysis of the text under study
-in teaching any problem of grammar; it is necessary to establish the connection with the
chapters previously learned by students
-it is important to establish connections between grammar and phonetics, spelling,
vocabulary and oral expression
-teaching of grammar should be very natural
-the study of grammar should be turned into an interesting and attractive activity in the
classroom
-the teacher should make use of tables, charts, schemes, drawings and other auxiliary
materials
-students must be encouraged to speak, offer their own examples
-most of the time devoted to the study of grammar should be spent on the practical
application of theoretical knowledge
-learning is from known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from proximate
to more distant
-the students‘ interest must be kept alive during the whole lesson; this means the lesson
must be dynamic
-students must learn through performing tasks or group activities, so that they are using
the language as much as possible
-any classroom activity should be introduced by means of some brief comments
The choice of the method to be used is not a simple problem, if we have in view the fact
that each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.
So, The Grammar Translation method stressed upon the fact that the students have to
learn words and grammatical rules and construct sentences based on rules; rules were
memorized in a strict traditional order, related to different parts of speech. The text was
the starting point and grammar came after it. The drawback of the method consisted in the
fact that it stressed the role of the mother tongue and in its incapability of understanding
41
that phrases and idioms could not be learned according to rules and lists.
On the contrary, the Direct Method eliminated completely the mother tongue, considering
that the patterns of the first language influence the acquisition of the second one. The
advantage of the method consisted in the fact that it replaced the learning of isolated
words and endless grammatical rules and definitions with the learning of sentences,
phrases and idioms, developing the students‘ power of analysis and synthesis. The
students were given coherent texts, and not unconnected sentences to prove and illustrate
certain grammatical rule. The teaching of grammar is considered secondly and achieved
by practice.
The Audio-Visual Approach, as well the Audio-Lingual Approach stressed upon the
structures that are drilled. The study of grammar is not a waste of time and students are
introduced to language. Repetition of structures leads to fluency and correct usage in
speaking a foreign language. Once the students are sure of the structure, they use it
willingly and unhesitatingly, their language becoming disciplined. They become aware of
their mistakes and are able to correct them.
The advantage of the Cognitive Code Approach is that it stressed upon understanding of
structures; their understanding precede their use and drill. In developing language ability,
the teacher proceeds from competence to performance. The learner must know the system,
the rules of the language, before being asked to apply them.
The Grammar Explanation Method involves a systematic attempt to provide students with
conscious knowledge of the rules. It finds a justification for this: some items appear to be
taught more efficiently if we appeal to the students‘ power of reasoning rather than
depend exclusively on pattern practice or memorization.
The Functional Approach does not deny the importance of mastering the grammatical
system of the language. Grammatical form is taught, not as an end in itself, but as means
of carrying out communicative intention. This approach is often lost in the concentration
on grammatical form. Students often master form without ever mastering how the form is
used to perform a communicative act. It is a student-centered approach to language
learning. The students are given the opportunity to discover the answers for themselves, in
groups, in pairs or individually. At the same time we must have in view that grammar
gives us the form or the structures of a language, but these forms are literally meaningless
without a second dimension, that of meaning/semantics, and a third dimension,
pragmatics. So, grammar tells us how to construct a sentence (word order, verb and noun
systems, modifiers, phrases, clauses); semantics tells us about the meaning of words and
pragmatics tells us which of several meanings to assign in a given context.
The experience of the last decades which is strictly connected with communicative
teaching considers that grammatical techniques should be embedded into general
language courses, rather than treating grammar as a separate “skill”.
Communicative teaching has demonstrated the fact that appropriate grammar focusing
techniques have the following characteristics:
a)are embedded in meaningful, communicative contexts
b)contribute passively to communicative goals
c)promote accuracy within fluent, communicative language
d)do not overwhelm students with linguistic terminology
e)are as lively and motivating as possible
There are two ways that lead to the understanding of the phenomena of grammar;
induction and deduction. The inductive approach offers various language forms to be
practised and lets the learner discover/induce rules and generalizations on their own.
Induction helps students to develop their own judgement; the rule or definition is arrived
at little by little.
It has some advantages: addresses learning-style needs of students who work better using
an inductive approach; it is in keeping with natural language acquisition; it serves as a
pre-test to identify what students already know and what they need to practise and gets
students more actively involved in the learning process. Besides this, the method adds
variety to the classroom routine, teaches students to be more independent learners,
demonstrates to them that they do not need the teacher for all the answers. It also teaches
them a new learning strategy and builds more intrinsec motivation
Induction is not sufficient; it must be followed by deduction, that is the rule must be
applied in examples, must be practised. So, we must choose the example which seems to
be the most suitable and write it on the blackboard; this becomes the “attention pointer”,
that calls the students‘ attention to the problem. A good example must illustrate and
confirm the structure unambiguously and must have a familiar and simple vocabulary.
There are four stages to be followed or, as Penny Ur defines them – four stages in the
organization of grammar teaching, that represent a general framework into which a
variety of teaching techniques will fit. In Grammar Practice Activities, Penny Ur
identifies these stages as being: presentation, isolation and exemplification, practice and
test.
The aim of presentation is to get the students to perceive the structure, its form and
meaning in both speech and writing and to take it into short-term memory. When the
structure is a very simple, easily perceived one, the presentation text may be no more than
a sample sentence or two, which serve as a model for immediate practice. In such a case,
the teacher gives the model of utterance for each pattern with the appropriate intonation,
stress and rhythm and the students repeat it. Some of the grammar presentation techniques
might include:
-using a song/poem text - the teacher finds a song/poem which contains –let`s say – a lot
of present continuous examples, the teacher makes a worksheet where some of the verbs
are in brackets; as the students listen to the song/poem, they try to fill in the gaps; the
teacher then asks questions concerning the way in which the tense was formed, the
adverbs accompanying it, and so on
-using a time line - the teacher draws a time line on the blackboard and points to the place
the particular tense occupies on it
-using a picture - to introduce Present Tense continuous, for example, the teacher shows
students a picture representing people doing several things; the teacher makes a statement
pointing to one person in the picture and then asks students to do the same for all the other
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examples
-using realia - in order to practice Present Perfect, the teacher puts some objects on the
teacher`s desk and asks the students to close their eyes; the teacher removes one of the
objects and when the students open their eyes he asks: What have I taken? He helps
students formulate the answer: You have taken…; the examples are written on the
blackboard and then commented upon
-personalising - the teacher asks one student to go to the blackboard and while this one is
performing the activity, he says: Look, Tom is going to the blackboard. What exactly is he
doing? The students answer, using the model; the teacher then asks another student to
perform another action, and repeats the procedure
-explaining directly
-comparing L-1 and L-2
-eliciting - in order to teach present Perfect, for example, the teacher tells the class what
he has done this morning: I have had breakfast; I have left the house at 8; I have taken a
bus to come to school; he writes on the blackboard: What have I done this morning? And
asks individual students to answer the question, thus eliciting the answers from them;
correction of wrong forms are corrected gently; he then offers the necessary explanations
concerning the tense
The objective of the second step– isolation and exemplification- is that students should
understand the various aspects of the structure. We move away from the context now and
focus on the grammatical items themselves: their meaning, their function, the rules that
govern them. By a careful process of questions and answers, inductively, the teacher helps
the students to observe and make the necessary generalisations. Sometimes, in some
classes we may make extensive use of the students‘ native language. They are asked to
concentrate on the comparison with their native language pattern. Where the structure is
very simple or very close to a parallel in the native language, or when the students tend to
learn the language inductively rather than intellectually, this step may take only a few
minutes.
It is assumed that after the first two stages, the students will have memorized the models
and understood the problem. They can pass now to the third stage, that is practice. The
aim of this to cause the students to absorb the structure thoroughly and to transfer what
they know from short-term to long-term memory. This is the most important stage. The
students are given the opportunity to use the patterns with different vocabulary and to
draw their attention away from the structure being taught, so that its use become a matter
of conscious habit. A great variety of exercises can be used. There are several principles
to be observed:
a)not too much time should be devoted to written exercises; most exercises should be oral
b)students should apply the rules
c)we must make use of a great number of exercises from colloquial speech
-individual exercises should be chosen for the students with certain gaps and deficiencies
There are several types of activities that students may make extensive use in the
classroom. Harmer considers that these activities may be based either on discovery
techniques, or o practice techniques.
Discovery techniques are those where students are given examples of language and
told to find out how they work; they have to discover the grammar rules rather than be
told the rules. In order to do this, several procedures can be used:
-using conscious-raising questions – the teacher addresses “concept questions” in
connection with a certain language point, to make sure they become aware of its form and
meaning; students are helped by these questions to notice/observe a new grammar point;
this way, the teacher elicits the right answer and explanation for it; this way, students are
involved in their own learning
-text study – students are asked to discover new grammar by concentrating on its use in a
text
-matching techniques – the students are asked to match parts of sentences and phrases;
this exercise allows students to make choices, thus discovering correct grammar facts
-rephrasing – by complex transformations they make, students can prove a sound
knowledge of grammar; by rephrasing, students show clear understanding of the sentence
to be rephrased and knowledge of the way in which language works.
The so-called practice techniques offer students the possibility to practise grammar
items. Among such types of exercises there are:
-drills
-interaction activities – make controlled language more meaningful and enjoyable; such
exercises involve the students‘ personality, help them interact actively
According to different authors who recommend them , the exercises can be of different
types:
-repetition- the students repeat an utterance aloud as they have heard it, without looking at
a printed text
-inflexion – one word in an utterance appears in another form when repeated ( I lost that
pencil – I lost those pencils)
-simple substitution – one word or some words in the pattern are exchanged for others of
the same class (a noun instead of another noun; a verb, instead of another verb)
-replacement –one word in an utterance is replaced by another. It is made in any part of
the sentence; the students listen carefully , determine where it will fit in the sentence and
then include it in the right place (Mary comes early/late - Mary comes late)
-restatement – the students rephrase the utterance and address it to someone else,
according to instruction (Tell him to open the book - Open the book!)
-completion –the students hear an utterance that is complete except for one word, then
repeat it in completed form (I‘ll do my homework, you‘ll do…homework becomes I‘ll do
my homework, you‘ll do your homework)
-transformation – the pattern given as stimulus is transformed into another pattern in the
response (present – past; affirmative – interrogative; active- passive)
-expansion /pyramid – starting with a short sentence, the students expand it by adding
additional units and making the necessary agreements (This new hat is mine.- can become
This new red hat is mine. -or This new hat on the table is mine.)
-drilling position of adverbs of frequency
-transposition – when a word is added it takes a certain place in the sentence (I am very
busy now. – can become So am I.)
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-contraction – a simple word stands for a phrase or for a clause (Put your pen on the desk
– can become Put your pen there.)
-integration – two or more sentences are integrated into one
-rejoinder – the student makes an appropriate rejoinder to a given utterance; he is told in
advance to respond in a certain way (to be polite, to agree, to disagree, to express surprise,
etc)
-translation – in the case of some problems where the contrast between the native
language and the second language pattern produce interference, translation is advisable as
the last stage of drilling. It is always the teacher who gives the translation, never the
students.
Success-orientation is a principle with wide pedagogical implications. A learner whose
performance is consistently successful, will develop a positive self-image as a language
learner. It contributes to a positive classroom climate of relaxation, confidence and
motivation. A part of their success is ensured by the teacher‘s careful choice of the drills.
Good drills have the following characteristics:
-teaching new grammatical structures and not testing the already known ones
each drill has in view one structural model, one given problem
-the structural characteristics to be practised should be already familiar to -the student,
from dialogues or known fragments
-repetition of the same drill
-minimal changes in the new item
-short items, easily memorizable
-each item should be a complete pattern that could appear in oral communications
-the drill should induce the production of a single answer, regarding only one aspect of the
language
-limited vocabulary (when teaching grammar)
-the drills have to be orally guided by the teacher
-drills should also involve creative participation on the part of the student
variation of drills to avoid boredom
-the series of teaching drills should be followed by a testing series
-final application of drills in a dialogue, in a series of questions and answers, a game, etc.
The teacher‘s activity in the course of practice should be largely directed towards
supporting and assisting the students in their production of acceptable responses, rather
than towards assessing and correcting. Among the examples of assistance there can be
mentioned:
-giving extra time to reveal and think
-repeating or simplifying a text
-approving the beginning of an utterance in order to encourage production of the whole
-suggestions, hints, prompts
Task
Write two advantages and two possible problems for each of the grammar presentation
techniques presented above.
V. TEACHING LITERATURE AND DEVELOPING CULTURAL AWARENESS
Aims
1)to introduce trainees in the techniques of approaching a literary text
2)to help trainees develop critical thinking
Objectives
Students will be able to
1)demonstrate their abilities in planning and presentation of literary texts, using an
appropriate terminology and language register
2)handle techniques (recognition, guided discovery, awareness and response) which will
allow their students understand, interpret and respond to literary texts
3)handle techniques in text analysis (recognize and discuss elements of the plot and plot-
building; discuss any literary character/theme/point of view/ setting/symbol/language and
style)
Contents
V.1.Literature and its place in the context of language teaching
Task
V.1. Literature and its place in the context of language teaching

In recent years there has been an upsurge of interest in the use of literature in the
language classroom. The literary texts are considered to represent the basis for
imaginative interactive and discussion activities, developing the students‘ character,
helping them build emotional maturity and critical faculties. Literature represents a
valuable authentic material, valuable source of civilization knowledge. Literature provides
students with a rich storehouse to explore; it ca provide a stimulus for expressing different
opinions; it facilitates content-based classes; it represents a basis for student conversation,
group work, writing and problem solving activities. The literature class helps students to
get information, thus improving their cultural awareness; it can also help students to form
their artistic taste, refine their thinking and feelings, form new moral attitudes, stimulate
their creativity, improve their language skills. Meeting a literary text in a right way, will
give students an emotional and personal experience and give room for reflection. This
emotional appeal will involve students in the learning process, encouraging extensive
reading. Literature is also useful in reinforcing language points, exhibiting a wide range of
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vocabulary and developing all four language skills: listening, reading, writing and
speaking. The main aim of teaching literature is to communicate aesthetic values and
stimulate a sense of personal involvement and reaction that will enrich the students‘ life
experience. Extracting, appreciating and creating beauty should be the main objectives for
studying literature.
The teacher‘s role involves imparting and developing notions of taste, assessing
validity, recognizing beauty. The textbooks offer texts of literature already carefully
chosen; they also offer more or less supplementary information about the author‘s life and
literary activity. The students must be able to appreciate and respond to the text‘s coding
of its cultural and emotional experience. The teacher‘s role is to guide and assist students
in generalizing from the given text, in exploring relationships between literary texts and
everyday life and between types of literary texts. The literary text must be considered a
closed structure (it tells about a certain experience; it was written at a certain time, written
in a certain language and it belongs to a certain literary genre) and an open structure (it
has the meaning each reader finds in it) at the same time. Readers interpret the text, thus
becoming co-authors of it.
Teaching literature methodology implies taking into consideration that
-the study of literature should be stimulating and enjoyable
-students should be taught how to think and how to interpret a literary text
-students should be encouraged to personalize literary texts (students should be helped to
bridge the gap between the text which was written a long time ago and their own time)
-a balance should be reached between the traditional attitude in teaching literature (the
teacher seen as the only source of input) and the modern attitude (the student is
encouraged to become the only source of input)
Classroom activities must have in view to teach students how to think and how to
interpret the text; how to use concepts of literary theory. Attention should be given to the
need of having a balance between an overload of information and the extreme subjectivity
of interpretation. Any literary text should be presented in the context of the culture and
civilization of their time; so, cultural awareness is very important (maybe as important as
the understanding of the fact that literature and language cannot be separated; literature is
language in use; it cannot be separable from language; it provides students with an
abundance of examples of grammar and vocabulary of English.) Students should be also
helped to establish a link between the text under study and their own time, in point of
values, attitudes, mentalities, etc.
The activities in the classroom include:
a)pre activity- a time for students to guess and predict
The teacher builds up the students‘ interest by offering them information about the writer,
the literary trend he belongs to, his literary activity, characteristics of his works, themes
and characters. He also builds up interest in the work and gets students to anticipate what
they will read about or listen to.
b)factual analysis
The student can read the text silently or listen to a recording of it. A model reading (if
the text is not too long) can be offered, too. This is followed by some questions on the
surface level. The stage provides a means for checking whether the students have
understood the basic plot.
c)deep meaning analysis
It is a stage of interpretation and evaluation. The aim is for the students to react to the
work, construct meaning from it or discuss their ideas with each other. The most
important stages in the activity with the text are: recognition, interpretation and personal
response.
In order to talk meaningfully about a literary text, it is necessary to organize activities
according to a number of categories:
1)the literary trend the text belongs to
Students should be given the characteristic elements of the main literary trends, so that
they could easily recognize the one the text under focus belongs to (Romanticism,
Classicism, modernism)
2)the literary genre the text can belong to ( Is it a poem/play/novel/short story?)
3)plot and suspense
The first concern must be to focus the students‘ attention on the skeleton of the plot
structure. Until they grasp the basic plot structure, or other aspects of plot-building, it is
not possible to attempt any deeper level of text treatment. Students should discuss the
elements of the plot (exposition, initiating action, rising action, climax and resolution);
should be taught to identify different types of plot (the frame-story, the play –within-the-
play, the chronological or disrupted plot, as well as aspect of plot-building, such as:
flashbacks, psychological/chronological time; cinema/jazz technique; levels of the plot).
4)characters and relationships
The aim is to encourage students to identify the types of characters (real/imaginary;
ordinary/hero/non-hero/anti-hero/godlike) to analyse the role of the different characters in
the story. As an initial activity, students could be asked to draw up a profile of the
major/minor characters. This means offering information about the physical aspect; social
status, code of behaviour, the language the characters use. Later activities can be based on
the students‘ offering personal reactions. They should also be asked to consider the
relationships between the characters. Discussion activities could be centred on a closer
examination of these relationships. It will be valuable if they can provide textual evidence
to support their views, since this will allow a meaningful discussion to develop in the
classroom.
Besides this, characters should be analysed taking into consideration their physical aspect,
social status or code of behaviour; the role they play: main characters or secondary
characters; their development during the vents: round or flat characters; their participation
: dynamic or static.
5)major themes
49
The aim of this activity is to identify the central themes of the story and establish the
importance that each individual reader will attach to them. One possible activity is to give
a long inventory of possible themes and ask the students to select the prime themes of the
text or to rank the themes in order of relevance to the text. Students will be helped to
recognize such major themes as: love/hatred; good/evil; order/chaos; civilization/nature;
victory/ defeat; or: the theme of communication, escape, passing of time, power, etc.
6)the point of view
The main problems to be discussed here are connected with the difference between such
concepts as: 1st person narrative and 3rd person narrative; author‘s voice and the
character‘s/poetic voice; omniscient and selective omniscient point of view; subjective
narration and objective narration. Besides these, students should be introduced to such
concepts as: point of view as opinion, detached autobiography, multiple point of view,
interior monologue, diary narration, observer narration or dramatic monologue.
7)the setting
Students should be trained to recognize and analyse both the elements of the setting
(time, place, weather, season, physical environment) and the types of setting (realistic,
naturalistic, grotesgue, fictional, semi-fictional, supernatural, symbolic, open/closed, wild
nature/urban). Besides these, they should analyse the role the setting has: to create
atmosphere, to illuminate character, to help escape into the inner/outer world, or to help
escape into another space or time.
8)the language and style
The teacher and the students seek to uncover the methods by which the writer
communicates his own attitudes towards the unfolding story. Students should be helped to
identify. The students should be helped to understand the metaphorical use of language,
which is one of the most effective ways of communicating thoughts and emotions.
Students need to get sensitive to the way in which a writer makes certain objects or events
symbolic of a whole range of thinking and feeling that is built up throughout the text.
Students should be helped to identify and discuss: significant choices of language
(concrete or abstract), the use of alliteration, assonance, associations, allusions,
personification, connotations, ellipsis, hidden meanings, silence, length of sentences,
paradoxes, symbols (death, life, decay, knight, regeneration, river, sea, shadow, sleep,
numbers, places, etc.). They should also discuss on the use of the semantic relations
between words, the use of irony, sarcasm satire, the use of humour and of the different
types of images (visual, kinetic, caloric, auditory, tactile).Students should also be taught
to identify enumeration, gradation (from inside to outside or the other way round; from a
static picture to a dynamic one; gradation of chromatic elements), lexical and syntactical
repetition, syntactical parallelism and contrast. Students need also to be helped to find out
the artistic devices used: epithets, similes, metaphors, personifications, hyperbole,
allegory or irony.
9)reader‘s response
Though a writer clearly has certain intentions regarding the way in which the discourse
of a text will be understood by the reader, the possibility exists that the individual student
will interpret the text in a different way. The teacher should allow students to express their
ideas and thoughts freely, to contradict each other, be in favour or against an expressed
idea. He must encourage students refer to the work as much as possible and find evidence
in it to support the ideas. After group-work, there can be an open class discussion.
d)creativity
This is the last step in the classroom activity. It is the stage in which the literary work
becomes a springboard for the development of students‘ own ideas. The activity can be
done individually or in groups, orally or in written form. Creative writing can become part
of the follow-up work in literature. After writing short narratives, descriptions or poems,
students should be encouraged to criticize each other‘s efforts, reacting to vocabulary,
images, etc. Thus, the processes of induction and production would be closely linked.
The same practical and participatory approach can be applied to the introduction of
poetry. There can be used several types of activities:
a)language type activities:
-recording of words and lines
-putting lines in the correct order
-matching
-translation
-cloze-type exercise (in which all verbs or adjectives are removed)
-substitution of words
b)analytical/content type activities:
-looking at and analysis of the title
-discussing points that attract attention (words, phrases, punctuation or layout)
-grouping words thematically
-comparing poems
-constructing poems following the given example
-commenting on likes and dislikes
c)creative type activities:
-changing words (using synonyms and antonyms)
-writing own lines
-writing the poem in the form of a letter or dialogue
-translating
-performing
The teacher must also stress on the idea that there exist several types of approaching a
literary text:
-the textual approach - identification of the organisation of the text; its structure;
vocabulary; syntax; characteristics of the author`s style; the analysis of the incipit and the
ending
-the thematic approach
-the linguistic approach - the analysis of the words which become support for the idea
expressed
-the technical approach - the relationships between the character and the point of view;
between character and the plot; between character and feeling/action
-the stylistic approach
51
Before the 60s linguists restricted their attention to the formal aspects of language.
Beginning with mid 60s, they admitted the importance of culture in language pedagogy,
considering that a language is embedded in the culture of a people, reflecting the totality
of beliefs and sentiments of the speech community. According to Fries14 , in reading a
foreign language test, we extract three levels of meaning: lexical meaning, structural
meaning and sociocultural meaning. The third type of meaning involves values, attitudes
and beliefs of the speech community. The study of a foreign language enables an
individual to develop his cultural understanding of that language, and at the same time, it
promotes his personal culture through contact with great minds and literature. Language
and culture are thus inseparable; the learning of one of them cannot be done without the
learning of the other. This means that the teaching of cultural content should be integrated
with the teaching of language patters and lexicon. Most new textbooks are culture-bound.
They offer information and present-day realities about Britain and the English speaking
world, and students have the possibility to compare and contrast them with their own
realities; they are able to find out similarities and differences, developing their spirit of
curiosity and inquiry; this represents the essence of cultural awareness. This awareness is
helped by the presentation of authentic written and spoken texts including information
about the history of Britain, geographical aspects of the English-speaking world, the
peoples‘ life style, their literature, art, architecture, music, dance, their customs and
traditions as well as the important issues of the contemporary world. Cultural awareness is
meant to provide students with the necessary knowledge, skills and cognitive abilities to
enable them to establish links with other cultures and represent their own culture to
others. The students bring their own culture in the communication process with the
foreign culture.
At the beginning level, dialogues are considered to be an excellent vehicle for
introducing cultural items and pattern of behaviour. The language used during this type of
exercise, as well as the situations under discussion, should be natural and comprehensible,
base on the students‘ experience, and according to their age and interests. The dialogues
chosen by the teacher and acted by students should reflect the students‘ level of
proficiency. Once practised, the dialogues may become subject for analysis; the teacher
should explain the cultural aspects which are particular to native speakers of English,
contrasting them with the native culture of the students. The particular aspects which can
be easily analysed are: greeting; formal/informal interchange between the interlocutors;
ways of showing politeness; ways of expressing
agrrement/disagreement/acceptance/refusal/surprise/anger/joy/happiness; ways of proving
attention to what is said; expressing farewell.
Another way of providing cultural knowledge is by using pictures, slides, maps, albums.
Their selection should be well done, so that to illustrate the main aspect of cultural
behaviour; the teacher should offer explanation regarding the cultural content, because
observation alone may mislead students.
As the students gain more proficiency in the language, the use of dialogues and visuals
should be replaced by factual and expository materials; the strategy of teaching should be
also changed; culture should be taught through the medium of language. A textbook
comprising short stories, poems, articles from newspapers and magazines, should be used
for classroom instruction. At the advanced level, the study of literature is the one which
help students get their cultural understanding.
Task
Establish three objectives of lessons introducing literary texts.
VI. LESSON PLANNING
Aims
1)to raise trainees‘ awareness regarding the importance of lesson planning in the process
of teaching language
2)to help students identify objectives of each type of lesson
3)to guide students in the process of establishing stages and activities for different types
of lessons
Objectives
1)the trainees will be able to establish by themselves the objectives, the stages, methods
and procedures of a lesson
2)the trainees will be able to evaluate different types of lesson plans and choose the most
suitable one for a particular situation
Contents
VI.1. General considerations
VI.2. Types of lesson plans
Task
VI.1. General considerations
Success in teaching is directly proportional to the care of preparation of the lesson, of

the material to be taught, preparation which can be of two types: a long-term preparation a
short-term preparation. Lesson planning means taking into consideration what to do with
the students during the time they are in the classroom, enabling them to do something new
with the language. Serious consideration should be given to who the students are, the
number of students in the classroom, their age, their level in English.
The lesson plan should be a working document used for guidance. This is why it should
be clear and easy to read. Layout, highlighting of key points, indications of clear staging
are very important. The statement of aims must be clear, specific and concrete; they
should refer exclusively to the lesson in hand. Against the statement of aims, the shape,
balance and pace of the lesson must be judged.
53
Here are some of the problems the teacher must have in view when preparing the lesson
and the material he has to teach:
-to decide clearly what he is going to teach
-to make sure he has the necessary material
-to prepare any textbook material he intends to use (establish its order, choose fit
exercises, find the words which need explanation)
-not to let the book dictate (he can change the order of the material presented, omit
particular items, supplement the book by providing additional practice)
-not to prepare too much or too rigidly (a plan for the lesson helps, but it should be just a
general framework, not an extensive plan)
-to prepare the aids
-not to ignore the practical difficulties (the teacher should be conscious of each and every
student as an individual)
-not to forget that a good lesson has a beginning, a middle part and an end (a short
introduction is needed, to remind students of what happened last time and say what he is
going to do; at the end of the lesson, a brief summary is needed, as well as a few words
about what will happen next time).
Variety and flexibility are the two principles which stand at the basis of a good lesson
planning. Variety means involving students in a number of different types of activities and
introducing them to a wide selection of materials; it also means planning so that learning
is interesting and not monotonous. Flexibility is to be noticed when dealing with the plan
in the classroom. For a number of reasons, what the teacher has planned may not be
appropriate for that class on that particular day; the flexible teacher will be able to change
the plan in such a situation.
The main components of a lesson plan are:
-the introductory part – including: the name of the teacher, the date, the class, the grade;
the textbook, the unit; the lesson
-information about the language to be used: vocabulary/grammar/communicative areas
-the aims and objectives -they will help the teacher choose useful activities, appropriate
techniques and the materials needed to achieve the objectives within the time available
(the number of objectives depends on the number of stages in the class; the objectives are
written in terms of skills and in terms of language)
Types of aims:
-topic aims: Students read/discuss about…
-grammar aims: Students practise/discuss the difference/similarity between…
-communication aims: Students talk about…; Students reply to letters written to each
other…
-vocabulary aims: Students match pictures of…with…; Students listen for all words
related to…
-function aims: Students learn how to…(greet, complain, apologize); Students learn how
to express…/show…
-skill aims: Students write…; Students listen to…and…
-pronunciation aims: Students identify the difference between…
-reviewing aims: Students revise the vocabulary about…; Students revise descriptions
of…
-group dynamic aims: Students discuss about…; Students share opinions about…;
Students reach consensus…
Types of objectives:
a)cognitive objectives:
-discriminate/articulate sounds in isolated words and in context
-understand and react adequately to simple/complex questions and statements
-produce questions and answers
-interpret meaning of text
-express themselves in free writing
-order information
-recognize/manipulate the script of the language
-understand/produce intonation patterns as used in different types of clauses
-understand/express conceptual meaning (quantity, comparison, time, location, cause,
reason, definiteness, indefiniteness)
-understand/express relations between parts of the text through lexical/grammatical
cohesion devices (reference, time and place indicators, connectors)
-become aware and show understanding of the forms; properties of language
-understand explicitly/implicitly stated information
-express information explicitly
-express opinions and suggestions
-understand socio-cultural elements of everyday life
-be aware of mentalities and attitudes typical for the cultural space
-understand specific images and symbols
-interpret a text
-integrate data in a text with own experience or knowledge of the world
-deduce the meaning of unfamiliar items through contextual clues
-use basic reference skills
-skim to obtain a general impression of the text
-scan to locate specifically required information
-transcode information in speech or writing tables, graphs, diagrams
-understand/express equivalence of meaning within the same style
-initiate in discourse (eliciting, informing)
-introduce a new topic or point of view
-respond in different situations (agreeing, disagreeing, accepting, refusing)
-correct what is wrong or false
-reformulate ideas expressed orally or in written form
-terminate a discourse
-read to confirm expectations
-study relevant words
-prepare a description of…; a report on…
-write a letter/report/advertisement/journal/diary page
-understand messages in non-standard language
55
-participate in debates and negociations
-present projects
b)affective objectives:
-making the students confident in the ability to use the language
-using English while playing
-having fun
-stimulating students‘ imagination and creativity
-creating interest in the topic of…
-to foster learner independence and cooperative learning
Much attention should be also given to the choice of the warm-up activities; whose
general aim is to help students learn better. Other specific aims are:
-to create expectations about language
-to offer learners a reason to listen/read/speak/write
-to get learners communicating about the topic
-to create a relaxed atmosphere, proper for studying
-to draw attention to something important which is going to be discussed
-to introduce learners to the topic, by giving background information
-to provide links between different stages of the lesson
These types of activities are often called “pre-skills “activities, because they prepare
-students for language skills work. Their choice is influenced by the type of task the
teacher is teaching. Some are short, others are longer; some are content-based, others are
language-based.
VI.2.Types of lesson plans
A
Teacher‘s name:
Date:
Class:
Level:
Class size:
Topic:
Approach:
Objectives:
Teaching aids:
Procedure:
Stage / T‘s activity&lg /Ss‘s activity &lg / Interaction / Skills / Time /Purpose
B.
Teacher‘s name:
Date:
Class:
No.of students:
Grade:
Textbook:
Unit:
Lesson:
===========================================================
Lesson aims: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Materials:
Activity 1
Aims:
Procedure: Interaction Timing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
Activity 2
Aim:
Procedure: Interaction Timing
1.
2.
3.
4.
Activity 3
…………………………..
Activity 4
…………………………..
Activity 5
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…………………………..
Homework:
Next lesson:
C.(offered by Jeremy Harmer15)
Description of the class – Level:

Recent work:
Objectives:
Contents:
Objective 1 Timing:
Context (what the students have to discuss about):
Activity (what the teacher and the students do):
Aids:
Language:
Possible problems:
Objective 2 Timing:
Context:
Activity:
Aids:
Language:
Possible problems
Objective 3
……………………………..
Objective 4
…………………………….
Objective 5
……………………………
Additional possibilities:
Task
Devise a lesson plan on a topic included into one of the new textbooks (no matter the
grade or level)
VII.CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Aims
1)to introduce trainees to the problems concerned with classroom management
2)to help trainees get familiar with the main aspects which make a class successful
Objectives
1)the trainees will be able to adapt to school conditions and raise awareness of teacher`s
role
2)trainees will be able to apply principles of group/pair/lockstep work
3)trainees will be able to deal with disruptive behaviour
4)trainees will be able to use English appropriately for social interaction and class
management
Contents
VII.1.Field of investigation
Task
VII.1. Field of investigation

Success in the teaching process is very much ensured by class management, that is the
teacher being able to organize all aspects of the classroom:
-organization of the classroom; lay-out (seating)
-lesson stages
-pacing of activities
-lesson cohesion
-transitions from activity to activity
-individual/pair/group or class work
-supporting materials
-discipline in the classroom
-exploitation of unexpected or unplanned occurrences
1.Organisation of the classroom

The way in which the classroom itself is organized has a very important role. This starts
with the way in which it looks like: clean, neat and orderly in appearance. The way in
which the blackboard looks like is also of great importance, because it represents one of
the teacher‘s greatest allies; it offers students visual input and allows the teacher to
illustrate with words, pictures, graphs and charts.
Seating is also important. Generally, classrooms have fix desks, but whenever it has
movable chairs. It is better to be arranged in such a way that it should offer students the
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best possibilities of working in pairs, or groups thus creating a co-operative atmosphere
and maximizing student practice.
Before knowing how to introduce communicative activities, the teacher should know
hoe to create a productive learning environment. One important prerequisite for learning
is discipline and order. Besides these, conventions and routines are important factors in
creating a productive working environment; the students should be taught how to move
into different activities, how they should attract attention when they want to talk; they
should know the routines for collecting written work, etc.
2.The role of the teacher
In the classroom the teacher has to play many roles (according to J. Harmer16):
a) the teacher as organizer – this is considered to be the most important and difficult
role; when organizing any activity, the teacher should tell the students what exactly they
have to do: the tasks they have to perform, what they are going to talk or write about; his
instructions must be very clear and he should always check if students have understood
correctly what they have to do
Jeremy Harmer believes that the organization of an activity must include three stages:
-the lead-in - which is considered an introduction to the subject, meant to create
expectations about language, give students a reason to listen, read, speak or write and stirs
their interest in the new topic
-the instruction – the students are told exactly what they should do
-the initiation – the teacher initiates the activity after checking comprehension of
instructions
The teacher should also know how to provide links between different stages of a lesson
and how to organize the pairs or groups for different activities.
When organizing an activity, students should be told in advance how much time they are
allotted. The teacher should be flexible in forcing time limits.
Penny Ur17 offers some hints for lesson management:
- prepare more than you need (to have “reserve” activity ready in case of extra time)
-note in advance which components you will sacrifice if you find with too little time
-keep a watch/clock easily visible, to judge time
-do not leave the giving of homework to the last minute when generally, the learner`s
attention is low
-if you have papers to distribute and a large class, do not try to give every paper yourself
to every student; ask them to take one and pass the rest on
-if you are doing group work, give instructions and make sure these are understood before
proper work
b)the teacher as a controller

When having such a role, the teacher is in complete charge of the classroom; he controls
what his students do every minute; he controls when they speak and how much they do
that, what language they use, and so on. The whole class activity becomes a teacher-
centred activity, during which the teacher does a lot of talking.
c)the teacher as facilitator
This role may be considered as opposed to that of a controller. The teacher helps his
students to accomplish their tasks and manifest freely in all activities.
d)the teacher as assessor
The teacher assesses the students‘ work, their performance in language. Assessment can
be of two types: correction and feedback.
Feedback is the information that the teacher gives to his students about their spoken or
written performance; the teacher points out what they have done successfully and what
errors they made. It can be of two types: content feedback – which is “an assessment of
how well the students performed the activity as an activity rather than a language
exercise” and form feedback – which tells the students “How well they have performed
linguistically, how accurate they have been” (J. Harmer)
e)the teacher as prompter
During their activity, students need to be encouraged by the teacher. As a prompter, the
teacher gives them encouragement, and at the same time, he makes suggestions about how
students may continue one activity, whenever they are confused or they are at a loss.
f)the teacher as participant - during activities, the teacher can be a partner to his
students, on condition that he does not dominate but give his students freedom to express;
he just offers the students the chance to practise with someone speaking better than them
g)the teacher as a resource - the one who offers input to students; he should be always
ready to help them whenever the case is.
h)the teacher as tutor – offers guidance and advice, especially when students are
engaged in self-study or doing project work
3.Teaching space
Where teachers sit or stand during a lesson is very important; it increases or decreases
student involvement. A teacher who always sits is unlikely to have a successful teaching
or to create a pleasant atmosphere. Besides this, disruptive behaviour may be encouraged,
because students (especially those at the back of the classroom) feel free and try to do
something else.
A teacher who is not mobile, but prefers standing in front of the classroom, has to resort
to the technique of questioning, if he wants to keep everyone awake and busy. So, the
teacher should move around the classroom, but not to distraction (especially when
students need much concentration on their tasks). A teacher who is mobile and walks
around the classroom has more chances to have a successful lesson: he has greater control
on the class; he can help students with different tasks and thus students feel more
confident. Anyway, too much moving is not recommended. A teacher should feel and
learn from experience when to sit, to stand or walk, so that students can feel free,
confident and eager to communicate.
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4.Teacher talking time
“Good” teacher talk means little teacher talk, because too much talking time deprives
students of the opportunity to speak. Interest in teacher talk has shifted from a concern
with quantity towards a concern with quality: more emphasis is given to how effectively
the teacher is to facilitate learning and promote communicative interaction in the
classroom, through, for example, the kind of questions the teacher asks, the speech
modifications he makes when talking to students or the way he reacts to students errors.
Teacher talk is now generally recognized as a potentially valuable source of
comprehensible input for the students. Since this is essential for language acquisition,
getting teacher to reduce the amount of his talk would necessarily be in the interest of the
students.
5. Eye contact
It is very important for the teacher to know when to keep distant and not to invade his
students‘ intimacy and when to come close to them, offer his help and talk to them as if
they were his partners. The teacher should look into his students‘ eyes while he is
explaining something, when one student answers to his question, or when one student has
a disruptive behaviour. A fix and insistent look may sometimes make students lose
confidence and forget everything they learned and knew.
So, the teacher should look at his students and let them know that they are being
watched but never suffocated with his present and critical eye. His look must be
encouraging, supporting and friendly.
6.Body language
It is known that in face to face interaction the speaker can use a whole range of facial
expressions, gestures and general body language in order to convey the message. This
happens in the classroom, too. Apart from the words he uses, the teacher can vary his
intonation and stress, thus conveying his attitude to what students are saying; he can
indicate interest or lack of interest, approval, disapproval, appreciation, encouragement,
etc. Besides this, the teacher uses his body language; thus, arms can be used to indicate
the intonation patterns (rising or falling); a smile encourages students; a raised finger can
indicate “attention” and so on.
The teacher must also teach his students how to use the body language in order to express
their thoughts, feelings and attitudes. The simulation activities and role-play are efficient
activities that can be used.
7.The role of the student

The teacher must have in view that each student is a highly individual human being.
Each student has developed different strategies for learning; each may have a different
learning style, but all students come to lessons with expectations. Students learn in
different ways and at different rates. The teacher has to help students maintain their
positive motivation by making it possible for them to satisfy goals that they consider
important. He has to plan different types of activities (group-learning activities and for
individual instruction), for the shaping of students‘ behaviour towards the course
objectives.
8.Classroom interaction
Humanistic techniques concentrate on interaction, on the human factor in the classroom,
that is focus not on the objective of teaching, but on the process of achieving that
objective. The emphasis is on relaxation, encouragement and group dynamics within the
class. During the class activities there might be several types of interaction:
TT – teacher talk; there is no initiative on the part of the student who is silent
TS – teacher initiates; the student answers
ST – students initiates; the teacher answers
SS – full-class interaction; the students debate a topic or do a language task as a class; the
teacher may intervene occasionally to stimulate participation or to monitor
GW – group work; students work in small groups on tasks that entail interaction
PW – pair work; students work in pairs on tasks that entail interaction
IW – individual work; the teacher gives a task and student works on it independently; the
teacher walks around monitoring and assisting where necessary
Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching; it is the main way of
interacting with students. There can be distinct types of teacher questioning:
-closed-ended teacher questioning – only on “right” response gets approved
-open-ended teacher questioning – there are a number of possible “right” answers so that
more students answer each question
-referential questioning – the teacher asks the class something to which he does not know
the answer
-“display” questioning – the teacher simply checks if the student knows the answer;
checks comprehension
There can be distinguished several types of questions (Nuttall,C.)18:
-questions of literal comprehension – the answers are directly and explicitly available in
the text; they are essential preliminaries to work on the text
-questions involving reorganization or reinterpretation – require the students to obtain
literal information from various parts of the text and put it together, or to reinterpret
information; they help students consider the text as a whole
-questions of inference – they oblige the students to consider what is implied in the text,
but not explicitly stated
-questions of evaluation – they involve the students in making a considered judgement
about the text
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-questions of personal response – the answer to them depends on the reader of the text
Questioning has different reasons:
-to get students engaged with the language material actively through speech
-to find out something from students
-to check or test understanding, knowledge or skill
-to get students to be active in learning
-to stimulate thinking
-to encourage self-expression
-to direct attention to the topic under discussion
An effective questioning is the one which elicits fairly prompt, motivated, relevant and
full responses.
The teacher may vary activities and their technique; he can change speed, modality,
change order of activities, change the order of items in activities or the number of people
involved in activities. Some guidelines for ordering the components of a lesson could be:
-put the harder task first and more structured and controlled ones later
-have quieter activities before lively ones
-pull the class together at the beginning and the end
-end on a positive note
Group work organization includes:
-presentation – the teacher gives instructions; he describes the tasks assigned; the teacher,
having foreseen the language which is needed, has now a preliminary appropriate
grammar or vocabulary ; the teacher lets the students know the arrangements for stopping:
the time limit, the signal for stopping
-process – the teacher`s job is to go from group to group, monitor and gives help if
necessary
-ending – the activity should have either a time limit or stop while the students are still
enjoying it, or just beginning to flag
-feedback – has as its main objective the appreciation of the effort that has been invested
and its results; it usually takes place in the context of full-class interaction after the end of
the group work; may have different forms: giving the right solution; listening to an
evaluating suggestion; pooling ideas on the board; displaying the materials the groups
have produced.
9.Pacing of activities
Interaction assures that students are involved actively. It allows for different learning
styles and helps keeping students‘ attention by varying the pace of the lesson. Timing and
pacing activities should be one of the teachers‘ main concerns. In order to get the best of
it, a good selection of the material in terms of difficulty is important. When the material is
too difficult, the teacher should slow down a little, repeat the necessary part, so that
students understand the problems under discussion. When the material is too easy, he has
several choices: speed-up a little bit, skip some parts, have some supplementary material
for students. A varied lesson is interesting and pleasant.
10.Student groupings
One traditional situation in classroom activity is the lockstep. It is the class grouping
where all the students are working with the teacher, doing the same type of activity, in the
same rhythm and pace. The teacher controls everything: the content, the stages and the
pace of the lesson; he is the main source of information and knowledge. This is always
referred as the “transmission “ mode of education; this view of teaching is contrasted with
exploratory learning in which the emphasis is on the process by which students are able to
make ideas of their own. The activity has certain disadvantages; it leaves students little
chance to practise or to talk (the teacher initiates all the language exchange in the class);
the pace established by the teacher is usually too slow for the good students and too fast
for the weak ones, so it becomes boring for the first category, but frustrating for the
second one. Yet, the activity may have advantages: the whole class work together;
students concentrate on the activity and the teacher is sure that everyone works and can
hear his instructions clearly.
Another type of activity is the individual work. In such type of activity, the student
works at his/her own pace, develops the capacity of working independently of the teacher
and develops responsibility. Individual work can be provided in various ways:
-students can work on different tasks according to their level, needs and interest
-students can work at different aspects of the same task
-students can work on tasks that can be carried out at a variety of levels
Pair work increases the amount of student practice. The advantages are: it increases
student participation and language use, and encourages student cooperation, sharing of
ideas, analysing, synthesising and evaluating together.
Group work, just as pair work increases the amount of student talking time, gives
students opportunities to communicate with each other, share responsibility; if good and
weak students are put together in the same group, this means an advantage for the weak
ones, on condition that the other members of the group are supportive and create a
cooperative atmosphere.
Both pair and group work are dynamic activities, which lead to a pleasant and relaxed
atmosphere. Teachers often worry about noise and indiscipline when having these two
types of activities, especially when working with children and adolescents. They also
worry about too much use of mother tongue. The most important problems that teachers
must have in view when having such activities are:
-the selection of group members
-to make sure that all the students in groups know what is expected from them
-the size of the group
65
-to ensure supportive atmosphere
Managing pair and group work aims at students adjusting to such work; this means:
-starting and stopping when the teacher tells them to
-switching quickly from one activity to another
-working quietly
-listening carefully to instructions
During pair and group work, the teacher should move around the class, be ready to give
help whenever needed.
11.Dealing with large classes

Ideally, language classes should not have more than a dozen students or so: large
enough to provide diversity and student interaction and small enough to give students
plenty of opportunity to participate and to get individual attention.
Large classes are generally to be found at secondary level. Whenever dealing with such
classes there appear some problems that a teacher must have in view. Rob Nolasco and
Lois Arthur19 consider that some of these problems might include:
-coping with the noise
-persuading the class to use English as much as possible (especially when they work in
pairs or groups)
-managing the introduction and setting up activities
-monitoring the work of individuals within the class
-impossibility to provide the necessary duplicated materials
-the existence of mixed abilities
-individual student-teacher attention is minimized
-students opportunities to speak are lessened
In such cases, the task of the teacher is a little bit more difficult than usual; he could
cope with it if he gets to know his students very well (learning their names, learning about
their likes and dislikes, about their hobbies, interests, feelings, attitudes).He must create a
productive environment (an atmosphere of motivation and cooperation); try to make each
student feel important; increases students‘ responsibility and involvement; get students to
do as much interactive work as possible; optimize the use of pair and group work; use
peer feedback and evaluation in written work when appropriate; use clear instructions,
staged, brief and easy to follow.
Students do not learn a language at the same rate. This means that in large classes the
teacher has to cope with not only different levels of linguistic expertise but different levels
of intelligence and motivation as well. The problems that might appear in such mixed-
ability classes include:
-preventing bright students from getting bored or the weak students from being left behind
-avoidance of aiming at the average students to the exclusion of the others who also need
stimulus and help
-controlling students who disrupt the lesson
Managing such situations means:
-getting individualization by offering students work on different tasks according to their
level, needs and interest; making them work at different aspects of the same task; working
on tasks that can be carried out at a variety of levels
-adapting the system of questioning: allocating easy questions to the less able or
confident, and more difficult ones to better students
-adopting a good policy regarding the formation of groups: at times, putting good and
weak students in the same group; giving students different tasks in the same group
-motivating the students by the tasks and activities chosen
-building up of a series of tasks which can be given to students who finish earlier: games
and puzzles; lists of words to learn; comic strips; pages from other textbooks or
magazines
-using open-ended questions
-rethinking traditional activities: trying to set up an activity only for one group, while the
others work on something else
-introducing new approaches: a project work, for example
-organizing a good feedback: letting them know what they have done wrong and giving
them advice on improving their performance
There may be different ways of varying a lesson:
-tempo – activities may be brisk and fast-moving (as guessing games) or slow and
reflective (as reading literature and responding in writing
-organization – the learners may work on their own at individualized tasks, in
pairs/groups, or as a full class
-mode and skill – activities may be based on the written or the spoken language; within
these they may vary as to whether the learners are asked to produce (speak, write) or
receive (listen, read)
-difficulty – easy, non-demanding activities may alternate with difficult, requiring
concentration and effort ones
-topic – may change from activity to activity
-mood – light and fun-based activities may alternate with serious and profound ones
-activity – some activities may enliven and excite learners (debates) while others have the
effect of calming them down (dictations)
-active –passive – students may be activated in a way that encourages their own initiative
or they may only be required to do as they are told
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12.Dealing with disruptive students
There are moments in the classroom when the teacher is faces problems of discipline.
Among the reasons for discipline problems J. Harmer20 identifies: the teacher, the students
and the institution. In order to avoid such problems. He considers that the teacher
-should not go to the class unprepared
-should state clearly to students what his expectations regarding their behaviour in class
-should not be inconsistent
-should not issue threats
-should not raise his voice
-should not give boring classes
-should not be unfair
-should not have a negative attitude to learning
-should gain the respect of all students
He also considers that among the reasons why students behave badly are:
-the time of the day when they have that particular lesson
-their attitude regarding the class, the teacher and the subject to be studied
-the students‘ desire to be noticed
-two‘s company – the fact that they encourage each other in their disruptive behaviour
It is also very important that the institution should have a good recognized system for
dealing with problem classes and students. The personality of the teacher has much to say
as regards the ability to control a student or a group of students with disruptive behaviour.
The teacher should act immediately, and get them under control, by different procedures:
-trying to identify the source of the problem rather than treating symptoms
being firm but warm in dealing with variances to his expectations
-changing the student‘s seat
-giving the student/students extra responsibility
-changing the activity
-praising students after any positive behaviour and well accomplished task
13.Creating a positive classroom climate

In order to get a successful lesson, the teacher should create a positive classroom
climate: stimulating, energizing and supportive. This depends first on the rapport he
establishes with his students, a relationship built on trust and respect. A good rapport is
ensured by:
-interest shown in each student as a person
-feedback offered on each student‘ progress
-value on what students think and say
-balance between praise and criticism
-getting rid of stress in the classroom
-promoting learner autonomy
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14. Aids and materials
Attitude, motivation and interest of the learner are factors of crucial importance in
determining achievement in language learning. The teacher`s attitude towards the
students, the classroom itself and certain kinds of visual instructional material develop
and sustain motivation, producing at the same time, a positive attitude towards English.
Aids facilitate learning and make it more enjoyable. When using aids of any kind in the
classroom, the use of them, handling, clarity, size, audibility and suitability must be
considered in relation to the particular lesson and the learners being taught. Any aid
should become integral to the lesson; it becomes relevant and effective for the class and
objective only if its sequencing is logical, if the teacher showed imagination and creativity
in selection or devising of materials. Aids are generally used to support the teaching
points.
The teacher`s most widely used and most valuable tool in the classroom is the
blackboard. It can be used successfully when
-introducing a dialogue (the teacher sketches stick figures on the blackboard and points to
whoever is speaking)
-introducing expressions (for example, expressions connected with time can be introduced
by drawing a clock or listing hours appropriate to each greeting)
-drawing maps/diagrams/charts/tables
-drawing time lines
-testing grammar structures
-writing the new vocabulary
-writing questions/multiple choice items/matching expressions/summaries to ensure
comprehension
-writing model sentences in guided writing
besides the blackboard, the teacher can also use:
-realia
-charts/picture files – containing types of illustrations: pictures of persons and single
objects; pictures of people engaged in various activities (pictures can be arranged in
categories: furniture, people, means of transportation; animals; plants; fruit; vegetables,
etc.)
-the flannel board (a piece of low-cost flannel, pinned to, glued on or simply laid over, a
blackboard; on it, pictures/cutouts of various items can be stuck or pinned)
-the pocket chart (can be made by simply stapling four or five narrow strips of heavy
paper or cardboard to a large sheet so as to form pockets into which cards bearing
individual words and punctuation marks can be placed)
-the slip chart (the frame is made of heavy poster board, with the right edge left open to
receive the slip charts –that is, lightweight poster board on which are printed the
sentences, phrases and the key words to be used)
-mock-ups ( dummy telephones, clocks constructed out of playwood and endowed with
movable hands; menus made simple and easy to read)
-catalogues and magazines
-the OHP
-cassette recorder and cassettes
-tape recorder
-language films
No matter the aids and materials the teacher may use, certain basic rules must be
observed: the visual aid should be directly relevant to a specific teaching object; it should
be a convincing representation of the actual object; it should be of suitable size for
teaching, simple, graphic, and easy to use and manipulate.
15. Developing student autonomy

Recent studies show that learning is successful only when students take responsibility
for their own learning. The independent and autonomous learner is the one who wants to
learn, is aware of his needs and of what he wants to achieve through language learning.
The teacher should try and develop student autonomy, the feature which makes students
become active individuals in their own social context, without any help. The teacher can
do this by:
1)enhancing students` intrinsec motivation by:
-the syllabus which takes into consideration students` affective, cognitive, attitudinal
skills and characteristics
-using a variety of topics and tasks
-using such exercises as: info gap, opinion gap or personalization
-authenticity in task design and language that give students the feeling of reality and
usefulness
-using open-ended and freer tasks which are more stimulating by involving several
possible answers of different degrees of predictability
2)developing students` linguistic strategies:
-use of procedures such as; guessing meaning from the context, discovery techniques,
language awareness activities, in the area of vocabulary, grammar, functions, discourse
and translation
3)developing students` cultural and social strategies
-awareness (of self and others)raising activities
-personalization activities
-developing assertiveness and confidence
-developing personal responsible behaviour
-developing comparing, compensation and transfer strategies
-developing personal and family values
-developing artistic taste and creativity
4)developing students` cognitive strategies by:
-note-taking
-grouping
-analysing
-summarizing
-skimming/scanning
-matching
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-deducing
-selecting
-transferring
5)developing students` metacognitive strategies:
-developing ability to plan, perform, organize and evaluate activities
-helping students acquire research skills
-helping students self-evaluate and plan their self-study
-helping students develop the faculty of critical thinking
(adapted from The Methodology of Pathway to English, OUP, 2000)
Task
1)Outline some of the advantages of using visual support materials
2)What are some of the basic principles behind pair-work activities?
3)Write 5 reasons for asking questions in the language class
VIII.EVALUATION AND TESTING
Aims
1)to develop trainees` ability to evaluate students` performance
2)to help trainees adapt and design teaching and testing materials appropriate to their
students` needs and teaching contexts
Objectives
1)the trainees will be able to use appropriate techniques to evaluate and assess student
performer
2)the trainees will be able to self-evaluate through critical reflection
3)the trainees will be able to design tests appropriate to the teaching contexts
Contents
VIII.1.Evaluation
VIII.2.Testing
VIII.3.Error correction
Task
VIII.1. Evaluation
Evaluation means gathering information about a class or an individual in order to form
a judgement; its main functions are considered to be:
-offering the students a clear picture of their progress in language
the students‘ stimulation to improve their activity
-the orderly classification of students according to their performance
-the formation and the development of students‘ capacity to appreciate and to self-
appreciate objectively
Evaluation can be cumulative and formative/continuous. The first type compares students‘
performances; it has in view either one important part of the course, or the whole, and it is
made at the end of the semester, or at the end of the school year. It aims at ranking of
students according to their results. The second type consists in comparing the obtained
results of one student with the established objectives; it consists in the feedback given for
the students and the teacher. A good evaluation has some characteristics or criteria:
-the criterion of feedback – any evaluation must be an immediate feedback
-the criterion of information – the results of evaluation offer good information for the
students, the teacher and the students‘ parents
-the criterion of validity – the results must be valid
-the criterion of frequency
When evaluating, different errors may appear; they are strictly connected with three
factors: the evaluator, the one who is evaluated and the instrument of evaluation. The
problem of evaluation is one important field of research in psychology, because it is
connected with different personalities in different situations. One of the major problems
of evaluation is the fact that it is relative; this happens because evaluation is always
related either to a norm, or to objectives. The classical methods of evaluation include
daily observation, verbal appreciation, written papers, practical papers, appreciation with
marks and tests.
The verbal appreciation consists in the teacher‘s use of some expressions of the type:
“Good”/”Good work”/ “ All right”/ “ Good answer”/ “There can be noticed much
progress/ improvement in your work”/ “I do appreciate your progress in English”, etc. It
is used when the students‘ works are checked, when students work to build up skills,
when students are helped to fix their knowledge, or whenever changes are noticed in their
work, behaviour and attitude towards the learning process.
Evaluation with marks must have in view certain criteria:
73
-the marks should be objective
-they must reflect the students‘ exact level of knowledge
-when giving marks, the teacher should not be influenced by the marks obtained at other
subjects
-after giving a mark, the teacher should explain to the student why he/she has got it (the
student has to know exactly what it was expected from him, what he knew and what he
did not, as well as what he has to do in order to get better results)
The appreciation must have as a result the growing of the students‘ trust in their
possibilities.
VIII.2.Testing
Testing and teaching are closely interrelated. Tests are devices used to reinforce
learning and motivate the student; they are also means of assessing the students`
performance in the language. A test gives a score that is assumed to define the level of
knowledge of the one who takes it. Language testing has four fundamental aspects:
-the evaluative aspect – a good test is supposed to measure accurately and consistently
what has or has not been learned; this is what is meant by reliability; a good test is by
definition reliable; the results should be compared with the results obtained from any
other similar test, even though the tests in question were taken by different groups at
different times
-the practical aspect – a good test is expected to provide as much information as is
required with the minimum expenditure of time, effort and resources; it must be given in a
pleasant environment
-the instructional aspect – concerned with the relationship of the test to the course; an
important feature of this relationship is how testing influences the mode of teaching by
providing insights into the learning process
Each test has a format and a content and it is based on procedures and activities.
Among the functions of tests, there can be mentioned:
-assessment of attainment, for purposes of awarding a qualification or for selection and
placement
-prediction of future progress
-measurement of the value of teaching methods and procedures
-diagnosis of individual or group[ difficulties
-measurement of aptitude
So, according to their function tests may be:
-class progress tests – designed to measure the exact extent to which the students have
mastered the material taught in the classroom; they represent teaching devices and if they
are well designed, they encourage students to perform well, gain additional confidence,
stimulate learning and reinforce what has been taught
-achievement tests – assessing what has been learned of a known syllabus; they assess
knowledge and skills learned over a short period of time and taught directly in school;
they are established by the teacher and include tasks which require students to recall
information they were expected to commit to memory; these tests may be standardized or
teacher-made (most annual school examinations take the form of achievement tests)
-proficiency tests – assessing what has been learned of a known or unknown syllabus;
they tell the teacher whether or not an individual is proficient enough in language, in order
to perform certain tasks; they are not concerned with measuring not general attainment
but specific skills; they may include dictation, error recognition tasks or sentence
completion tasks; all proficiency tests have in common the fact that they are not based on
courses that candidates may have previously taken
-aptitude tests – assessing proficiency in language for language use; they predict probable
success or failure in certain kinds of language study; they predict the student`s probable
strength and weakness in learning a foreign language (assesses aptitude for language
learning)
-diagnostic tests – pointing out the area in which a student requires more concentrated
teaching and study; they discover the learning difficulties; they are rather carried out for
groups of students rather than for individuals: if several students in the group make a
certain error, the teacher will note it and then plan appropriate remedial teaching
A good test should have two characteristics: to be valid and to be reliable. Validity
means that the test measures accurately what it is meant/intended to measure; reliability
means that the test is fit to be trusted or relied on (has dependable score);reliability is the
consistency with which a test measures something; under similar conditions, with a
similar group of test-takers, a reliable test will give the same results each time it is used.
There are different kinds of validity:
-content validity – a test has content validity if its content is a representative sample of the
language skills, structures, etc. with which it is meant to be concerned (a grammar test, for
example, must be made up of items testing knowledge or control grammar); no test is able
to encompass everything a student has learned; a test is necessarily a sample of that
content
-criterion-related validity – to be noticed if a test agrees with an independent assessment
of the test-taker`s ability; thus, if a teacher opinion independently corroborates test results,
such a test would have criterion-related validity
-construct validity – if it can be demonstrated that the test measures just the ability which
it is supposed to measure
-face validity – if it looks as if it measures what it is supposed to measure
In order to increase reliability of a test, the following must be taken in view: have
enough test items; write unambiguous items; provide clear and explicit instructions;
insure that tests are well laid out and legible; provide uniform and non-distracting
conditions for administration; try to use items which permit objective scoring; provide a
detailed scoring key for the test; preserve candidates anonymity; use multiple,
independent scoring.
A test should also be objective; an objective test is the one which will be scored the
same by any grader.
The term backwash denotes the effect of testing on teaching and learning; it has been
observed that a test may influence teaching/learning; what/how teachers teach; what/how
learners learn; the attitude to the content and method of teaching/learning as well as the
degree and depth of teaching and learning.
A great variety of activities and tests can be used, for example to check vocabulary:
-finding the odd word in a series of related words
-multiple choice exercise
75
-cloze tests
When checking grammar, the following exercises are usually chosen:
-multiple choice activities
-gap filling
-transformations (from affirmative into negative or interrogative; from active into passive;
from direct into indirect speech)
-finish the structures exercises
-rephrasing (students may be given the word(s) with which to begin the new sentence, or
be given no support at all
-matching
VIII.3.Error correction
Error correction in the process of learning a foreign language has concerned language
teachers and methodologists for many years. The attitude towards the learner‘s error has
been reconsidered under the influence of the latest studies concerning language learning
and acquisition.
In the field of methodology there have been two major schools of thought concerning
error correction. On the one hand there has been established that “ the occurrence of errors
is merely a sign of the present inadequacy of our teaching techniques” (Corder21). On the
other hand there can be mentioned the theory supported by the representatives of the
Communicative Approach, who view learners‘ errors as being natural and inevitable in
the process of learning. Errors should be treated as a way of learning the language; as a
consequence, teachers should concentrate more on techniques for dealing with errors.
Chudron22 , on representative of such a theory, considers that learners making mistakes
should be viewed as positive; language mistakes must be interpreted as signs that learners
are learning something. Edge23 considers language errors as “learning steps” that we can
learn from; learners are trying things out, testing out their knowledge and skills in
learning the language; making mistakes is nothing but a part of their language-learning
development. Teachers should not view mistakes as negative. Consequently, helping
learners by correcting them can be a way “of giving information, or feedback, to your
students, just when it will support their learning”
Some linguists differentiate between an error and a mistake. Longman Dictionary of
Applied Linguistics offers the following definitions:
1)error : (in the speech or writing of a second or foreign language learner), the use of a
linguistic item (a word, a grammatical item, a speech act, etc) in a way which a fluent or
native speaker of the language regards as showing faulty or incomplete learning.
Errors are classified according to:
-vocabulary (lexical error)
-pronunciation (phonological error)
-grammar (syntactic error)
-misunderstanding of a speaker‘s intention or meaning (interpretative error)
-production of the wrong communicative effect (pragmatic error)
Seen from another point of view, errors can be: developmental, interlingual or
intralingual; they can also be global or local.
2)mistake: (made by the learner when writing or speaking) – caused by lack of attention,
fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspect of performance.
As a conclusion, an error results from incomplete knowledge; the learner does not know
the correct form and cannot produce it at that particular stage of learning. Learners can be
applying rules, either from their mother tongue or from what they know of English; errors
can show evidence of learning even though at that stage they are getting something
wrong. In the case of a mistake, the learner knows the correct form but he has
temporarily forgotten it; the learner can probably correct it. Edge distinguishes between:
-slips of the tongue/pen – which a learner can self-correct
-errors – which a student cannot correct by himself, but where it is clear which form the
student wanted to use, and the class is familiar with that form
-attempts – where students have no idea how to structure what they want to mean, or
where intended meaning and structure are not clear to the teacher
Errors can have different causes:
1)L1 interference:
She is busy, isn‘t it?* (from a mother tongue which has a fix question-tag form)
Lots of people were wounded* in the car crash. (for the language which has the same item
for injure and wound)
Correction: contrastive re-examination of the grammar problem in the two languages and
more exercises to practise it in English
2)False analogy:
My uncle is a fisher.* (analogy with other words, such as teacher, worker, which are
agent nouns formed by adding -er to the simple form of the verb)
Correction: new explanation of the problem ; checking the dictionary
3)Overgeneralization:
I am seeing* the plane in the sky. (overgeneralization that present continuous is always
used when reference is made to a continuous action in the present)
Correction: insistence on the exceptions from the rule, on the categories of verbs which
cannot be used in progressive form
I‘m going to that shop for buying* a new blouse. (overgeneralization of the rule: for+-ing
as in: It‘s for cutting bread; It‘s for mowing the lawn.)
Correction: explanation of the structure to be used when showing purpose
77
4)Overlearning of the rule:
She has gone* there this morning. (overlearning of the rule that present perfect is used for
recent past)
He is hearing* the noise, I‘m sure. (overlearning of present continuous, as a result of
intense drilling)
Correction: insistence on the cases in which the rule does not apply
5)Ignorance of the rule:

When I will arrive *at the railway station, I‘ll call you.(ignorance of the rule governing
the time clauses with future reference in English)
If he knew *it, he would have told it to me. (ignorance of the sequence of tenses in
conditional clauses)
Correction: new explanation of the rules, if needed, as well as more practice
6)Incomplete learning:
Will you borrow* me your dictionary? (incomplete learning – the fact that in English
there exist two verbs: to borrow and to lend)
Correction: more examples which are based on the use of the verbs to lend and to borrow
She make *a cake every weekend. (incomplete learning of the form of the present tense
IIIrd person singular)
Correction: new presentation of the rule, followed by more practice which contrasts the
IIIrd person singular to all the other persons
7)Failure to discriminate between forms:

They leave* in a new house.(failure to discriminate between the ling and the short sound:
i:/I
They were to* noisy. (failure to realize the difference between too/to)
Correction: more pronunciation exercises which might help them discriminate between
sounds
8)Confusion between items:

A man has robbed* my bike. (confusion from learning both items at the same time)
Correction: discrimination by examples and practice between the two verbs which create
confusion.
There are several techniques of error correction: teacher‘s correction, self-correction,
peer-correction, drawing the student‘s attention by questioning, the teacher ‘s facial
expressions or the teacher making different gestures. Students will benefit most if they
can be guided towards a process of correcting themselves. Where errors are slips of the
tongue or lapses , students will be able to supply the correct form. If they are not simple
slips, errors can provide a learning opportunity. Whenever the student is unable to self-
correct, the teacher can call another student to provide the correction, or the teacher can
offer the correct version.
Task
Design a test in order to assess your students` knowledge of a particular grammar problem
GLOSSARY
accuracy – the ability to produce language in a grammatically correct way
activity- a short task which is part of a lesson, perhaps lasting 15-20 minutes
affective – influencing or influenced by emotions
aims – the behavioural objectives of a lesson
authentic materials – texts from real-life sources (magazine articles, original cassette
recordings)
backwash – the effect of testing on teaching and learning
body language – non-verbal communication (eye contact, facial expression, gestures,
postures
brainstorm – to collect together knowledge/information/ideas on a topic
buzz groups – a form of group activity in which groups of students have a brief discussion
to generate ideas, answer specific questions, etc.
case study – a group activity which uses the data offered by a real “case” or typical
situation
class work – any form of learning activity in which the whole class works together
classroom management – the way a teacher organizes his classroom and learners
content-based – focusing on a content area
computer assisted learning – a method of learning which involves the use of specially
designed computer programmes; abbreviate: CAL
cross-over groups – a form of group activity in which the class is divided into groups
which have a discussion; after some time, one/more members of each group move over
and join one of the other groups, thus sharing ides
EFL – acronym for English as a Foreign Language; the role of in a country where English
is not a language of communication
elicitation – a technique using different questions and answers, by means of which the
teacher gets information/ideas/opinions from learners
evaluation – gathering information about a class or an individual in order to form a
judgement
79
facilitator – an assistant or a guide for a group, who helps the group to find their own
answers, rather than providing them with “right” answers
feedback – information that is given to learners about their spoken or written performance
fluency – the ability to produce language easily, to communicate quickly but not
necessarily with grammatical correctness
gist – the main idea or message of an oral or written text
group dynamics – the way a group of people interacts with each other
group work – any form of learning activity which is done by groups of learners working
together
humanistic activities – teaching techniques which emphasize the whole person and
acceptance of his/her individual values and emotions
inference – a guess about something from a text, reading between the lines
information gap – an activity in which a learner knows something that another learner
does not know, so he has to communicate to “close the gap” information
transfer activity – an activity where a learner has to move information from one place to
another (example: to complete a table according to information on a map)
input – language which learners experience in a lesson, from which they can learn
integrated skills – all of the language skills (listening, reading, speaking, writing) together
interaction – patterns of communication (verbal and non-verbal) between people
jigsaw reading - an activity which involves re-ordering a mixed text to find its correct
order; it helps learners to see the connections between parts of a written text
language acquisition – “picking up” a language; not learning it consciously, but by being
exposed to it in natural situations; often contrasted with language learning, which involves
a conscious knowledge of the language (example: grammatical rules)
learner-based activity – an activity in which learners supply personally relevant
information or help create materials
learner-centred teaching – learning situations where information and ideas are brought
together to the class by learners and used as learn ing material and which are
concerned with the interests, needs, learning styles, feeling, lives and/or values of the
learners
learner talking time – the amount a learner talks during a lesson
learning strategy – a process or technique which a learner uses to help himself to learn a
language ( looking at a photograph above a newspaper article before reading it, is a
reading strategy)
learning style –the way a particular learner learns something (by watching, by doing)
lesson pace – rhythm of the lesson
method – the procedures and techniques characteristic of teaching
micro-teaching –a teaching situation which has been reduced in some way; often used in a
training situation to concentrate on one particular aspect of a trainee‘s teaching. Usually
one trainee teaches a short activity to his/her classmates.
mind map – a diagram which supposedly represents the brain or the mind; topics are
clustered on the page together as they are believed to be collected in the brain
mixed-ability class – a group of learners whose proficiency levels span a range (high-
beginning, low intermediate, high-intermediate)
monitoring – learners are considered to monitor their language when they are consciously
following the spoken or written language they are producing
observation – gathering information together by watching a class, in order to describe
what is happening
open-ended questioning – technique of questioning where the answer is not automatically
predicted (the answer expresses the student‘s opinions, suggestions, feelings)
perceptual language learning – a learning style related to the senses (auditory learning
style; visual learning style)
pictogram – a drawing of a word which represents that word
pie chart – a circular graph, divided into sections like pie slices, useful for displaying the
relationship of parts to each other and to the whole
pre-teach – to prepare learners for an activity, by introducing new language or topic
problem-solving activity – an activity where learners have to solve a problem; the students
may all start from the same point, but they offer different solutions productive skills –
learners are required to produce the language by speaking and writing
project work – a kind of task-based activity which involves extended amount of
independent work (often outside class time) either by an individual student or a group of
students, and followed by oral/written presentation to their peers
pyramid group – a form of group activity in which the class is divided into groups; after
some time, pairs of groups are joined together and continue the discussion; the procedure
is repeated until there is only one group, comprising the whole class. Sometimes called a
snowball group.
realia – things from real life which are used for learning classroom furniture, pictures,
household objects, etc.)
receptive skills – learners are receiving language and processing it, without producing it;
refers to listening and reading
role-play – a communicative activity in which learners talk to each other in different
character roles; a form of simulation in which the participants adopt certain roles or parts
scanning – a technique in the development of reading skills where a text is read in order
to find specific information
simulation - a role-play where you play yourself in a given situation
skimming – a technique in the development of reading skills where a text is read in order
81
to find its general idea
task – another word for a short classroom activity
tapescript –the transcription of a tape-recorded text, dialogue, etc.
teacher talking time –the amount of time a teacher talks during the lesson
teaching space – the area that the teacher uses in the classroom while teaching
transcript – a written record of what happens in a classroom
transition – the way the teacher makes a link between two separate parts
of a lesson
visual aids – name given to any type of visual support to learners in the learning/ teaching
process, offered at any given stage of the lesson
warm-up/warmer – an activity done at the beginning of a lesson meant to warm up the
atmosphere
workshop – a kind of task-based group activity which involves the completion of certain
specified task; it is expected that all the members of the group will contribute something
to the completion of the task.
NOTES
1)Harmer, J.(1993): The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, p.15
2)Krashen,S.D.(1982): Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition,
Pergamon
3)Oxford, R.(1990): Language Learning Strategies:What Every teacher Should Know,
Newbury House
4)Littlewood,W. (1981): Communicative Language Teaching, CUP
5)Grice,H.(1975): Logique et conversation, Communication no.30
6)Goffman,E.(1974): Les rites d`interaction, Les Editions de Minuit, Paris
7)Aukerman,R.C.(1981): How Do I Teach Reading?, John Willy & Sons
8)Nuttall,C.(1982): Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language,Heineman
9)Doff, A.(1996): Teach English, CUP
10)Achim,A; Balan,R. & others (2000): The Methodology to Pathway to English, OUP,
p.6
11)Harmer (1993):op.cit.
12)Levitchi,L.(1970): Limba engleza contemporana. Lexicologie, Ed. Didactica so
pedagogica, Bucuresti
13)Levitchi,L.(1970): op. cit.
14)Fries, C.C.(1963): Linguistics and Reading, Rinehart & Winston, New York
15)Harmer, J. (1993): op.cit.
16)Harmer, J.(1993): op.cit.
17)Ur, P.(1996): A Course in Language Teaching, CUP
18)Nuttal,C.(1982): op.cit
19)Nolasco,R. & Arthur,L.(1988): Large Classes, ELTS, Macmillan, London
20)Harmer,J. (1993): op.cit.
21)Corder,S.P.(1967): The Significance of Learner`s Errors, in Richards (ed.), p.20
22)Chaudron, C.(1988): Second language Classroom, CUP, p.134
23)Edge, J.(1989): Mistakes and Correction, Longman
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Achim, A., Balan,R &others(2000): The Methodology of Pathway to English, OUP
Byrne, D.(1987): Techniques for Classroom Interaction, Longman
Collie, J.& Slater, S.(1987): Literature in the Language Classroom, Cambridge
Doff, A. (1988): Teach English, Cambridge University Press
Harmer, J,. (1983): The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman
Heaton, J. (1988): Classroom Testing, Longman
Krashen, S. (1982): Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition,
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986): Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching
Nunan, D.(1991): Language Teaching Methodology, Prentice Hall
Nuttal, C. (1982): Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language, Heinemann
Richards, J. (1986): Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, CUP
Tanner, R.& Green C. (1998): Tasks for Teacher Education, Addison Wesley Longman
Ltd, Edinburgh
Underwood, M.(1987): Effective Class Management, Cambridge University Press
Ur, P. (1988): Grammar Practice Activities, Cambridge University Press
Ur, P. (1996): A Course in Language Teaching
Ur, P. (1986): Teaching Listening Comprehension, Cambridge
Ur, P. (1981): Discussions that Work, Cambridge University Press
Wallace, C. (1992): Reading, Oxford University Press
Weir, C.(1990): Communicative Language Testing
White, R.(1988): Process Writing, Longman
Wright, T.(1987): Roles of Teachers and Learners, Oxford University Press
Appendix 1
Objectives for Learners
A)primary school
1)listening:
-identify sounds/words isolated and in context
-identify segments of utterances/intonational contours
-understand and react adequately to simple questions/statements
-global/selective understanding
2)speaking:
-produce specific sounds, words and utterances
-produce questions and answers
-make simple descriptions and reports
-participate in games and activities involving simple communication
3)reading:
-read short texts aloud or silently
-global and selective understanding
83
4)writing:
-copy words,sentences, short texts
-fill in short texts
-write short dictations
-guided writing
5)cross-cultural objectives:
-understand certain socio-cultural elements of everyday life (similarities and differences)
B)lower-secondary school
1)listening:
-understand speaker`s attitude and the relation between them
-deduce unknown elements from context
-order information
2)speaking:
-initiate and sustain a conversation
-make detailed oral descriptions and reports
-make simple narrations
-express opinions and suggestions
-make assumptions
3)reading:
-understand a text in detail
-deduce elements that are known or mentioned, from context (inference)
-be aware of the connections between sentences/paragraphs
4)writing:
-semiguided writing with/without audio-visual prompt/clues
-transformation of texts (summarize and develop)
-understand specific images and symbols
-use representative elements of the behaviour code accepted in the respective cultural
space
C)secondary school
1)listening:
-understand details
-understand messages in non-standard language
-information transfer
-grasp the specificity of a literary discourse
-understand the socio-communicative context of speech
2)speaking:
-adapt speech to context
-participate in debates and negotiations
-make speeches on certain subject-matter
-present projects
3)reading:
-identify author`s attitude and tone of text
-reading assisted by reference books
-interpret meaning of texts
-information transfer
4)writing:
-free writing
-take notes
-translate
-write functional texts
-be aware of mentalities and attitudes typical for the respective cultural space
(comparative approach)
-acquire information specific to the respective cultural space (intercultural perspective)
(1998, AGM, Constanta 28-31May)
Appendix 2
Activity Types and Procedures in the classroom
-analysing
-adapting
-adding/completing
-answering to side questions to a text
-brainstorming
-classifying
-comparing
-concept questions
-completing sentences
-completing charts/tables/diagrams
-cloze (gap-filling)
-comprehension questions
-creative writing
-defining
-detecting mistakes
-discovering word meaning from the context
-discriminating sounds/word-stress/sentence-stress
-describing pictures
-dialogue
85
-debate
-drills
-evaluating
-finding out (names/things/facts/attitudes/feelings)
-games
-introspecting/reflecting
-improving (giving suggestions about…)
-insert sentences/omit sentences in a text
-information transfer (text to text; picture to picture; text to charts/graphs)
-jumbled words/sentences/paragraphs
-jigsaw reading
-labelling pictures
-linking paragraphs by link words
-listening for gist/specific info/for details
-listening + taking notes
-listing
-matching words/pictures/paragraphs with titles; pictures with words
-making own questions/titles to paragraphs/text/lists/plans/tasks
-mediating techniques (finding the Romanian/English version of words)
-narrating
-ordering/reordering (chronologically/according to importance)
-paraphrasing
-producing sounds/word-stress/sentence-stress
-prediction (+ tick the truth)
-process writing
-problem solving
-project-work
-ranking
-rearranging
-rephrasing
-reporting dialogue
-raising awareness activities
-reproducing sounds/word-stress/sentence-stress
-role play
-reading + making notes
-reading for details/for gist
-selecting
-sorting into sets
-sentence completion
-story telling
-skimming/scanning a text
-sequencing
-self-evaluation
-true/false exercise
-transformation
-taking/giving interviews
-text interpretation/appreciation/translation
-word webs
-working with dictionary
-writing after a model
Appendix 3
Objectives of TP
1)to provide experience in classroom teaching
2)to apply instruction from theory courses
3)to provide opportunities to observe master teachers
4)to give feedback on teaching techniques
5)to develop awareness of personal teaching style
6)to develop lesson planning skills
7)to develop ability to select/adapt materials
8)to become familiar with specific methods
(from Richards and Crookes, 1988 ; The Practicum in TESOL, TESOL Quarterly 22/1,9-
27)
Appendix 4
Classroom observation
When doing classroom observation, the following are to be taken into account:
1)Personal qualities of the teacher:

-personality/presence/general style
-ability to establish/maintain rapport
-voice: audibility, speed, clarity of diction
-self-awareness: ability to pick up one`s own mistakes and correct them
-experience: flexibility and degree of confidence
2)Preparation and lesson plan

-clarity and appropriateness of aims/objectives
-balance and variety of activities
-clarity of procedures
-suitability of materials and methods for the class, the level and the particular students
timing
-anticipation of teaching difficulties
-anticipation of learners` difficulty
-preparation of materials
3)General class management

-organization of physical resources
-giving of instructions
-rearrangement of seating when necessary
-presentation and practice techniques: meaningful, motivating, contextualised
-indication of stages of the lesson
-questioning/elicitation: graded, directed, apppropriate
-handling change of activities
87
-pace of the lesson
-change of groupings
-use of aids
-checking understanding
-variety of techniques
-balance of class, group, pair, individual activities
-appropriate teacher movement
-skills development; integration of skills
-creativity
-ability to encourage learner autonomy
-body language, eye contact, facial expressions, gestures
-encouragement, praise, feedback
-class control: ability to maintain discipline/deal with problem students
-ability to adapt/improvise, in order to deal with the unexpected
-achievement of aims
-giving homework
4)Use of techniques
-use of appropriate techniques in order to introduce new material
-use of appropriate techniques to review material previously taught
-motivation and involvement of students
-giving of explanation
-relating material to one another
-sufficient variety in techniques
-appropriate sequencing of controlled and less controlled activities
-appropriate balancing of teacher-learner and learner-learner interaction
-preparation for communicative interaction
-balance between fluency and accuracy
-checking understanding
5)Questioning techniques
-grading of questions to suit the level of students
-appropriate distribution of questions among the students
-formulation of questions
-use of variety of questions
-encouraging students to answer and ask questions
-acceptance of answers
6)Skills
-ability to foster better listening, speaking, reading, writing
-ability to handle complex integration of the four skills
7)Sensitivity to students
-control of language to level of class
-responding appropriately to students` difficulties
-responding appropriately to factors which may affect students` motivation and learning
-encouragement of students
-involvement of and attention to individuals
8)Error correction
-awareness of students` errors
-appropriate treatment of students` errors
9)Using the board

-visibility
-clear layout
-new langauge highlighted effectively
-overuse/underuse of it
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Metodica Engleza

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INTRODUCTION

I. LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

I.2.Learning theories and approaches

I.4.Teaching approaches and methods

II.1.2. Classroom activities

Speaking is a productive skill. Teaching speaking involves developing oral

c)Post writing activities

II.4.3.Developing project work in the English classes

III.1. Teaching vocabulary in the context of language teaching

IV.1. Grammar in the context of teaching English

V.1. Literature and its place in the context of language teaching

VI. LESSON PLANNING

VI.1. General considerations

Success in teaching is directly proportional to the care of preparation of the lesson, of

VI.2.Types of lesson plans

C.(offered by Jeremy Harmer15)

Description of the class – Level:

VII.1. Field of investigation

1.Organisation of the classroom

b)the teacher as a controller

7.The role of the student

11.Dealing with large classes

13.Creating a positive classroom climate

15. Developing student autonomy

VIII.EVALUATION AND TESTING

5)Ignorance of the rule:

7)Failure to discriminate between forms:

8)Confusion between items:

1)Personal qualities of the teacher:

2)Preparation and lesson plan

3)General class management

9)Using the board

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