Chapter 48: Nervous Systems

March 12, 2008

• Often cooperate with endocrine and immune.

• Survival, reproduction depends on fast response to environment.

• Nucleus here means mass of neurons.

Contents
1 An Overview of the Nervous Systems 2
1.1 Nervous systems perform three overlapping functions of sensory
input, integration, and motor output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Networks of neurons with intricate connections form nervous sys-
tems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Neuron Structure and Synapses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 A Simple Nerve Circuitthe Reex Arc . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Types of Nerve Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.4 Supporting Cells (Glia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 The Nature of Nerve Signals 4

2.1 Every cell has a voltage, or membrane potential, across its plasma
membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.1 Measuring Membrane Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.2 How a Cell Maintains a Membrane Potential . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Changes in the membrane potential of a neuron give rise to nerve
impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1 Graded Potentials: Hyperpolarization adn Depolarization 5
2.2.2 The Action Potential: All or Nothing Depolarization . . . 5
2.3 Nerve impulses propagate themselves along an axon . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Chemical or electrical communication between cells occur at synapses 6
2.4.1 Electrical Synpases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.2 Chemical Synapses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Neural integration occurs at the cellular level . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.6 The same neurotransmitter can produce dierent eects on dif-
ferent types of cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6.1 Acetylcholine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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 2.6.2 Biogenic Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6.3 Other Chemical Neurotransmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6.4 Gaseous Signals of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Evolution and Diversity of Nervous Systems 8

3.1 The ability of cells to respond to the environment has evolved
over billions of years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Nervous systems show diverse patterns of organization . . . . . . 8

4 Vertebrate Nervous Systems 9

4.1 Vertebrate nervous system have central and peripheral components 9
4.2 The division of the peripheral nervous system interact in main-
taining homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Embryonic development of the vertebrate brain reects its evo-
lution from three anterior bulges of the neural tube . . . . . . . . 10
4.4 Evolutionarily older structures of the vertebrate brain regulate
essential autonomic and integrative functions . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4.1 The Brainstem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4.2 The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4.3 The Cerebellum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4.4 The Thalamus and Hypothalamus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.5 The cerebrum is the most highly evolved structure of the mam-
malian brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6 Regions of the cerebrum are specialized for dierent functions . . 12
4.6.1 Integrative Function of the Association Areas . . . . . . . 12
4.6.2 Lateralization of Brain Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6.3 Language and Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6.4 Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6.5 Memory and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6.6 Human Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.7 Research on neuron development and neural stem cells may lead
to new approaches for treating CNS injuries and diseases . . . . 14
4.7.1 Nerve Cell Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.7.2 Neural Stem Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1 An Overview of the Nervous Systems

1.1 Nervous systems perform three overlapping functions
of sensory input, integration, and motor output.
1. Detect outside and inside signals.

2. Integration: interpret, respond. Continuous.

(a) Central nervous system brain, spinal cord.

2
 Motor output → eector cells Peripheral
nervous system.
3. CNS (muscles, glands).

1.2 Networks of neurons with intricate connections form

nervous systems
1.2.1 Neuron Structure and Synapses
1. Cell body nucleus and organelles.

2. Dendrites receive.
short, branched,

3. Axons send.
long, Only one.

(a) Some > 1m (spinal cord → foot).

Axon hillock
(b) joins cell body; cone.

Synaptic terminals
(c) neurotransmitter.
relay via

Synapse
(d) contact other cell.

4. Presynaptic postsynaptic
: transmitter; : receiver.

1.2.2 A Simple Nerve Circuitthe Reex Arc

1. Automatic response.

2. Sensory neuron → motor neuron → eector cell.

3. Interneurons inhibit motor neurons to ensure reex success.

(a) Decision: can resist reex.

4. Gray matter: body. White matter: motor/sensory axons.

5. Ganglion cell bodies, similar in function. Called nuclei (not intracel-

lular!) in brains.

1.2.3 Types of Nerve Circuits

1. Signal diverges.

2. Signals converge: identify object: see, touch, hear.

3. Circular ow: memory.

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1.2.4 Supporting Cells (Glia)
1. Gk. glue.
2. Embryo: radial glia form tracks for neuron to grow.

3. Astrocytes structural, metabolic support.

(a) Blood-brain barrier.

4. Oligodendrocytes (central)/ Schwann cells (peripheral)  myelin sheath.

(a) Separate cells wrap axons.

(b) Lipid → insulate.

2 The Nature of Nerve Signals

1. Galvani: frog muscles electric;

2. Hermann von Helmholtz: electricity between nerves carry signals.

2.1 Every cell has a voltage, or membrane potential, across

its plasma membrane
2.1.1 Measuring Membrane Potentials
Resting potential
1. −70 unstimulated; mV.

2. Invertebrates have huge neurons (squid). Research.

2.1.2 How a Cell Maintains a Membrane Potential

+ − 2− 3−
1. Inside: K and A (proteins, AAs, SO4 , PO4 ).

+ −
2. Outside: Na , Cl .

+
3. More K channels.

−
4. A cannot diuse.

[K+ ] gradient competes with electrochemical. Membrane potential is equi-

librium.
5.

+
(a) K wants to exit → Cell −.
+
(b) Cell −→ K enters.

(c) Simplest case, −85mV equilibrium.

+
6. Na favored to enter cell (both [] and electro.).

+
+
(a) K exit because charge too high (−75
+
mV ).

(b) Na /K pump prevent.

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2.2 Changes in the membrane potential of a neuron give
rise to nerve impulses
1. Excitable cells ∆
generate large . (Neuron, muscle).

2. Gated ion channels open/close o stimuli. One channel, one stim., one
ion.

3. Chemically-gated voltage-gated.or

2.2.1 Graded Potentials: Hyperpolarization adn Depolarization

1. Hyperpolarization + voltage. Open K
+
channel; exit; more neg.

2. Depolarization reduce voltage: open Na

+
channel.

3. Graded because magnitude depend on stimulus.

2.2.2 The Action Potential: All or Nothing Depolarization

1. Threshold potential action potential.
activates Only axon.

(a) 50-55 mV. Only depolarize. Hyperpolarized inhibit.

2. Triggered by graded depolarization in dendrite/body. Spreads along mem-

brane.

+
3. K : one gate opens during depolarization slowly.
+

slowly
4. Na : fast activation gate during after depolarization; open inactivation
gate closes during depolarization.

5. K
+
trickle out; Na
+
gush in.

+ +
(a) After spike, K gush out (gates opened) and Na back to pre-spike
permeability.

(b) Hyperpolarize because K

+
gates slow.

(c) Refractory period: Na

+
activation gate remains closed (slow).
Can't respond.

(d) Intensity → frequency.

2.3 Nerve impulses propagate themselves along an axon

1. Action potential regenerated like graded depolarization.

+
2. Na inux meets threshold → new action potential.

3. One way due to refractory period: axon behind is recovering.

4. Rate factors:

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 (a) Larger diameter → faster transmission. Electrical resistance.

(b) Channels concentrated in nodes of Ranvier .

Saltatory conduction saltare Fasteronly action po-

tential at nodes.
(c) (L. leap).

+
(d) Na current ows inside to nodes.

2.4 Chemical or electrical communication between cells

occur at synapses
1. Neuron → neuron; sense receptor → sense neuron; neurons → gland.

2.4.1 Electrical Synpases

1. Spread action potential.

2. Gap junction fast.

3. Crustaceans, sh.

2.4.2 Chemical Synapses

1. Synaptic cleft narrow gap.

2. Synaptic vesicles neurotransmitters.

contain

3. Presynaptic membrane when depolarized causes Ca

2+
to enter neuron
(voltage-gated channels).

4. Stimulates synaptic vesicles to fuse with membrane; spill.

5. Postsynaptic membrane has receptor specic to transmitter, ion.

6. Depolarize or hyperpolarize.

7. Removed: enzymatic breakdown or takeup into adjacent cells.

8. Guaranteed one-way.
2.5 Neural integration occurs at the cellular level
1. Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) electrical charge caused
by neurotransmitter binding.

2. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) chemicals → depolariza-

tion.

− −
(a) Can inow Cl or outow K .

3. Both graded.

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 4. One EPSP insucient.

5. Summation: additive eect of PSPs.

(a) Temporal: PSPs very close together; one arrives before membrane
rests.

(b) Spatial: PSPs simultaneous.

(c) Both E/IPSP. Counterbalance too.

6. Axon hillock integration center. Average of polarization and depolariza-

tion.

7. Action potentials depend on quantitative information.

2.6 The same neurotransmitter can produce dierent ef-
fects on dierent types of cells
1. Some shortmillisecs.

2. Others long because use signal-transduction pathways in postsynaptic cell.

3. Some in brain active enough to spread to many synapses.

2.6.1 Acetylcholine
Most common; (in)vertebrates.

1. Vert. central: both excit./inhib.

2. Neuromuscular: motor neuron → depolarize muscle.

+
3. Heart: inhibit adenyl cyclase + open K in muscle → less able to generate
action potential → reduce strength/rate of pulse.

2.6.2 Biogenic Amines

From amino acids.

1. Catecholamines from tyrosine epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine.

:

2. Tryptophan → serotonin.
3. Usually central.

(a) Norepinephrine autonomic.

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2.6.3 Other Chemical Neurotransmitters
GABA, glycine, glutamate, aspartate.
1. Amino acids: GABA most
common inhibitor.

Neuropeptides
2. short AA chains. Use signal-transduction.

Substance P
Endorphins
(a) pain.

(b) analgesics. Decrease urine, depress respiration, eu-

phoria.

3. Overlap between nervous and endocrine.

2.6.4 Gaseous Signals of the Nervous System

1. Sexual arousal: NOin penis → erection.

2. NO relaxes muscle → dialate blood vessel.

3. Synthesized on demand.

3 Evolution and Diversity of Nervous Systems

3.1 The ability of cells to respond to the environment has
evolved over billions of years
1. Prokaryote sense improve survival/reproduction.

2. Cambrian explosion, nervous nearly modern.

3.2 Nervous systems show diverse patterns of organiza-

tion
1. Neurons same; network dier.

2. Porifera lack nerves.

3. Cnidarians have nerve net around radial gastrovascular.

(a) Component of complex nervous systems.

4. Cephalization cluster sensory neurons, interneurons near anterior (brain)

in bilateral.

5. Nerve cord longitudinal. First CNS.

6. Advanced: ventral nerve cord with ganglia, complex brain.

7. Chordate: nerve cord dorsal.

8. Correspond with role: sessile little cephalization and sense. Motile (squid)
very responsive, smart.

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4 Vertebrate Nervous Systems
4.1 Vertebrate nervous system have central and periph-
eral components
1. Spinal cord reex.

2. CNS from hollow nerve cord of embryo.

3. Central canal ventricles

and of brains lled with cerebrospinal uid.
(a) Formed in brain: ltered blood.

(b) Shock absorber for brain.

(c) Meningesconnective tissue to protect brain, spinal.

4. Gray matter ; dendrites, bodies.

4.2 The division of the peripheral nervous system interact

in maintaining homeostasis
1. Cranial nerves orginiate in brain. Organs in head.

2. Spinal nerves in spinal. Rest of body.

3. Most sensory and motor neurons.

4. Sensory (aerent):

(a) External

(b) Internal

5. Motor (eerent):

(a) Autonomic: involuntary internal control

i. Parasympathetic: claming (paralyze). Acetylcholine.

ii. Sympathetic: exciting. Norepinephrine.

(b) Somatic: voluntary skeletal muscles; external.

6. Cooperate for homeostasis: autonomic constrict blood vessel; somatic

shiver.

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4.3 Embryonic development of the vertebrate brain re-
ects its evolution from three anterior bulges of the
neural tube
1. Forebrain

(a) Telencephalon Cerebrum fanciest.

i. Cereberal cortex convulted gray matter.

(b) Diencephalonthalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus

i. Earliest vertebrate evolution.

2. Midbrain

(a) Mesencephalonpart of brainstem.

3. Hindbrain (mostly brainstem)

(a) Metencephalonpons, cerebellum.

(b) Myelencophalonmedulla oblongata.

4.4 Evolutionarily older structures of the vertebrate brain

regulate essential autonomic and integrative functions
4.4.1 The Brainstem
Homeostasis, coordinate movement, conduct to higher brain.

The Medulla and Pons.

1. Axons to cereberal cortex, cerebellum.

2. Medulla pons visceral f (n)

and  : breathe, cardiovascular, digestive.

3. Higher sensory pass through.

4. Right/left brain crossover here.

The Midbrain.
1. Receive, integrate sense.

2. Relay sensory to specic forebrain regions.

3. Inferior cullicoli: hearing;

4. Superior cullicoli: vision. Only vision center in nonmammals; reexes in

mammal.

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4.4.2 The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep
1. Arousal awareness. Cmp. sleep .

2. Reticular formation 90 nuclei in core.

(a) Reticular activating system (RAS) lters input to cerebral cortex.

(b) More input → more aroused.

(c) Can lter specic noise (like Herman talking ( probably not really . . . )).

3. Electroencephalogram EEG ( ) record electrical brain activity.

(a) Less activity → more synchronous waves (α).

(b) Fast β for thinking.

(c) θ early sleep (irregular).

(d) δ deep sleep synchronized waves.

4.4.3 The Cerebellum

1. Coordination, error-checking during motor, perception, cognition.

2. Learn, remember motor sequence (muscle memory).

3. Hand-eye coordination example.

4.4.4 The Thalamus and Hypothalamus

1. Epithalamus capillaries for cerebrospinal uid.

pineal gland
(a) Endocrine .

2. Thalamus I/O for cerebrum.

(a) Specialized neurons for senses.

(b) Sent to appropriate higher-brain center.

(c) Emotion and arousal input.

3. Thalamus homeostasis .

(a) Posterior pituitary → anterior pituitary.

(b) Thermostat, hunger, thirst, survival instincts.

(c) Sexual behavior, ight-or-ight, pleasure.

(d) Pure pleasures (even at expense of eating and drinking)

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The Hypothalamus and Circadian Rhythms.
biological clock.
1. Strongly internal

2.Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) produce proteins in response to light/dark

cycle.

3. Light important: calibrate internal to external. Biological not quite 24hrs.

4.5 The cerebrum is the most highly evolved structure of

the mammalian brain
1. Cereberal hemispheres covered with gray matter; cortex white.

2. Basal nuclei deep in white matter.

3. Neocortex mammalian-unique. Outer layer of neurons tangential to

brain surface.

4. Convulations increase S.A.

5. Corpus callosum band of bers (white matter) communicate between

two hemispheres.

6. Cognition: process of knowing, awareness and judgment. No deep meta-

physical discussion in this book, darn.

4.6 Regions of the cerebrum are specialized for dierent

functions
Lobes:

1. Frontalsmell after going through primitive.

(a) Motor cortexcommand skeleton.

2. Temporalhearing.

(a) Somatosensory cortextouch. Proportion of motor/soma. devoted

to part of body correlated with relative importance.

3. Occipitalvision.

4. Parietaltaste inside.

4.6.1 Integrative Function of the Association Areas

1. From thalamus → appropriate sensory area within lobe.

2. Association regions in frontal lobe → response plan → move skeletal.

3. Early damage → functions shift elsewhere.

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4.6.2 Lateralization of Brain Function
1. Competing f (n) segregate into hemispheres.

2. Left: detailed perception; speed, linear.

3. Right: perception of relationships/context.

4.6.3 Language and Speech
1. Frontal (Broca's area): generate.

2. Posterior temporal (Wernicke's area) comprehend.

New stimuli use lots of resources and brain activity. Familiar → less brain
activity.
3.

4.6.4 Emotions
→ limbic system.
1. Hippocampus + olfactory cortex + some lobes + parts of (hypo)thalamus

2. Feeling to survival instinct.

3. Foundation for later development.

4. Primates born with caretaker emotionsrecognize face, express fear, anger,

distress. . .

(a) Learn what works to get food.

(b) Distinguish morality (from external cues?)

face emo-
tional memory.
5. Amygdalanucleus in temporal lobe recognize emotion in and

(a) Emotional memory earlier than explicit.

(b) Emotions integrated with neocortex. Emotional responses learned.

4.6.5 Memory and Learning

1. Short-term in frontal.

2. Long-term memory require hippocampus.

3. Memory accession enhanced by:

(a) Reheasal (practice → perfect);

(b) Emotional state;

(c) Association of new data with old.

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 4. Memorization of facts: rapid change in strength on existing nerve connec-
tion.

5. Learning of skills: grow new connections.

(a) Skill memories not consciously recalled.

6. Dicult to unlearn.

7. Long-term depression decreased response in postsynaptic cell.

8. Long-term potentiation increased  . . . 

(a) Bombarded with actin potentials → postsynaptic membrane strongly

depolarized.

(b) New action potential much greater eect.

9. This is what happens where learning?

4.6.6 Human Consciousness

1. Consciousness is emergent property that recruits cortex activity.

2. Scanning mechanisms unite into unied consciousness. . .

4.7 Research on neuron development and neural stem cells

may lead to new approaches for treating CNS injuries
and diseases
CNS cannot repair.

4.7.1 Nerve Cell Development

1. How neurons grow w/o tangling?

2. Axons follow molecular signposts.

3. Growth cone responsive region at growing edge of axon.

(a) Repond attract or repel signal molecules.

(b) Cell adhesion molecules bond to complements on surrounding cells.

4.7.2 Neural Stem Cells

1. Produced in hippocampus.

2. Must be from stem b/c mature cells can't divide.

3. Hey, I wrote a paper on the rest of this crap!

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