Training methods for specific objectives: preferences
of managers in private clubs
Keywords
Training, Training techniques,
Training needs, Hospitality industry
Abstract
Describes a study undertaken to
assess how private club managers
perceive the relative effectiveness
of alternative training methods to
attain specific types of training
objectives. Data were obtained
from 123 club managers who were
members of the Club Managers
Association of America.
Participants rated the
effectiveness of 16 alternate
training methods for potential use
in six different types of training
situations. Training methods
studied included case study,
video-tape, lecture, one-to-one,
role play, games, computer
simulations, paper and pencil,
audiotapes, self-assessment,
movies/films, multi-media, audio,
computer and video conferencing
and sensitivity training. Training
objectives studied were
knowledge acquisition, changing
attitudes, problem solving,
interpersonal skill development,
participant acceptance and
knowledge retention. Analysis of
data indicated that one-to-one
training is the preferred method to
attain all objectives except
interpersonal skill development.
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
14/3 [2002] 114±119
# MCB UP Limited
[ISSN 0959-6119]
[DOI 10.1108/09596110210424402]
[ 114 ]
Joe Perdue
Tourism & Convention Department, Harrah College of Hotel Administration,
University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA
Jack D. Ninemeier
School of Hospitality Business, Michigan State University, USA
Robert H. Woods
Hotel Management Department, Harrah College of Hotel Administration,
University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA
Background
Training employees to do their jobs
effectively is one of the most important tasks
undertaken by a hospitality manager.
However, very little has been written about
the training methods managers prefer to use
to attain different training objectives.
Others have called for improvements in the
manner in which the hospitality industry
utilizes training methods. For example,
Harris and Cannon (1994) suggested that the
industry stop relying on traditional training
methods and seek improvements in how
training is accomplished. Barrows (2000)
noted that club managers would like to see
their employee training improved, but found
time a major constraint to achieving this
goal.
In 1971, Carroll et al. conducted a study on
the relative effectiveness of different training
methods (Carroll et al., 1972). The Carroll et
al. study was designed to determine which
training methods were best suited for
different training objectives. The sample
used in the study was drawn from the
manufacturing industry. Therefore, the
results are not particularly pertinent to
hospitality and other service industries.
Results of the Carroll et al., study are
reported in virtually all major human
resources management texts in spite of the
fact that the study is now over 30 years old
and was limited to the manufacturing sector
(e.g. Mondy and Noe, 1996; Cascio, 1989;
Wexley and Latham, 1981; Forrest, 1990). The
Carroll et al. (1972) study has also been
heavily cited through the years. A recent
examination of the Social Science Citation
Index produced 287 citations of the study. It is
likely that several hundred additional
citations appear in business, hospitality,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
tourism and other journals not indexed by
the Social Science Citation Index (for
example, of all hospitality management
journals, only the Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly is
included in the Social Science Citation
Index.)
In 2000, two of the present researchers
replicated the Carroll et al. (1972) study
(Perdue and Woods, 2000). The sample for this
initial replication was drawn from members
of the National Association of College &
University Food Services. The current study
is a replication of the Carroll et al. (1972)
study applied to private clubs.
Current study
The current study was undertaken to assess
how private club managers perceive the
relative effectiveness of alternative training
methods to attain specific types of training
objectives. Data reported in this article were
collected from 123 club managers who were
members of the Club Managers Association
of America (CMAA). Of the total, 76
respondents held the Certified Club Manager
(CCM) designation; the remaining 47
participants were not CCMs.
The CMAA is the professional association
for managers of membership clubs. CMAA
has more than 5,000 members who manage
more than 3,000 country, city, athletic,
faculty, yacht, town and military clubs,
primarily in the USA. The objectives of the
CMAA are to promote and advance friendly
relations between and among persons
connected with the management of clubs and
other associations of similar character, to
encourage the education and advancement of
its members, assist club officers and
members, through their managers, and to
secure the utmost in efficient and successful
operations (CMAA, 2001).
To create the survey population, a random
sample of 442 names were drawn from the
Joe Perdue, Jack D. Ninemeier
and Robert H. Woods
Training methods for specific
objectives: preferences of
managers in private clubs
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
14/3 [2002] 114±119
Table I
Alternative training objectives and definitions
Acquiring knowledge
Changing attitudes
Improves problem-solving skills
Improves interpersonal skills
Participant acceptance
Knowledge retention
CMAA membership list. Surveys were
mailed to each of those on the randomized
list. The 123 responses represent a return
rate of 28 percent. Compared to a study of
mean response rates in other hospitality
journals 1987-1997, five journals (Cornell
Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly, Journal of Hospitality and
Tourism Education, Journal of Hospitality
and Tourism Research, FIU Hospitality
Review, and International Journal of
Hospitality Management), this is slightly
lower than the average response rate
(Johanson and Woods, 1999).
Each participant was asked to rate the
effectiveness of 16 alternate training methods
for potential use in six different types of
training situations, along with providing
information about themselves and their
clubs. The survey was, therefore, relatively
time consuming to complete. (We estimate
that it took approximately 25-30 minutes to
complete the 107 information items on the
survey.)
The 1972 study by Carroll et al. asked
participants to rank the use of training
methods judged most appropriate to attain
specific types of objectives. Since our study
included 16 training methods rather than the
nine used in the original study, we chose to
ask participants to rate the methods on a
seven-point semantic differential scale
(1 = not useful for attaining the objective;
7 = extremely useful for attaining the
objective.) This rating rather than ranking
method was selected to make survey
completion easier and to generate more
complete information that would be useful
for analysis and discussion.
Table I identifies the six training objectives
addressed by the survey. Each had been
utilized in the Carroll et al. (1972) study.
Table I is replicated from the survey
instructions which provided definitions
which participants were to use as they rated
each training method.
The participants were asked to rate 16
different training methods relative to their
usefulness in achieving the six objectives
identified above. For example, the survey
Helps trainees acquire new skills or information
Useful in changing employee attitudes
Useful in teaching trainees how to solve problems
at work
Helps trainees learn to interact better with others
How likely trainees are to enjoy this method of
training
Trainees more likely to remember what they learn
participants were asked: ``If you wanted to
attain a specific training objective, how
useful would each of the alternative training
methods be?'' The 16 methods (see Table II)
include all nine methods used in the Carroll
et al. (1972) study (see Table III), along with
other methods which were not available and/
or in common use 30 years ago.
The original Carroll et al. (1972) study
included only nine training methods. These
are presented in Table III.
An example of the survey form illustrating
potential responses for the use of case studies
in training is shown in Table IV.
Results of the study
Since participants were asked to rate the
effectiveness of training methods to attain six
different objectives, it became possible to
determine both the effectiveness of each
method and its rank among other methods
when used to attain the same objective. For
example, 3.5 is the mid-point on our seven-
point scale. Therefore, we can assume that
items rated below this number were
considered less effective than those methods
rated above 3.5. Table V shows the results of
the ratings.
We tested the two response groups. One
was made up of certified club managers
(CCM), and the other non-CCM. We found
differences significant at the 0.05 level in only
two cases: using one-to-one instruction to
improve problem-solving skills; and second,
using multi-media to acquire knowledge.
This suggests, then, that respondents with
differing years of experience and education
(which are among the factors which
certification addresses) have similar beliefs
about the use of alternative training
methods.
Another way to review the results is by
ranking the methods considered most
effective for each objective. (This is how the
Carroll et al. (1972) study presented results.)
Training methods were ranked in order from
lowest to highest mean score. These data are
presented in Table VI. As this ranking shows,
one-to-one training is the preferred training
method to attain all objectives except that
which emphasizes interpersonal skill
development. (For this objective, sensitivity
training is the highest ranked method; one-
to-one training is rated second.) For one
other objective (problem solving), one-to-one
training was tied with case study as the
preferred method.
We previously noted that there were fewer
training methods used in the Carroll et al.
(1972) study. This is likely to be a major
[ 115 ]
Joe Perdue, Jack D. Ninemeier reason for the considerable differences We note several major differences noted in
and Robert H. Woods between the rankings that club managers in Table VII. For instance:
Training methods for specific . The most popular training method in the
objectives: preferences of the present study gave to training methods
managers in private clubs and those found in the Carroll et al. (1972) present study (one-to-one; most popular
International Journal of study. Those differences are readily visible in for four objectives, tied for most popular
Contemporary Hospitality for a fifth objective and ranked second for
Management Table VII, which compares the ranking of
the last objective) was the most popular
14/3 [2002] 114±119 training method choices for different
method to attain only one training
objectives between the two studies.
objective in the Carroll et al. (1972) study
(participant acceptance). With that
Table II
exception it was a much less popular
Training methods and definitions
choice to attain the remaining five
Method Definition objectives.
1. Case study Solving problems identified in scenarios
. Paper and pencil programmed instruction
2. Instructional videotapes Video tapes describing training (the most popular method for two
3. Lecture Presentations to groups objectives in the Carroll study) was
4. One-to-one training A discussion with small group or individual ranked as the least useful method for all
(conference) objectives in our present study.
5. Role play Acting out the roles of participants in problems . Sensitivity training was the method that
6. Games Computerized or person-to-person interactions was most commonly popular between the
7. Computer simulations Computer-generated scenarios two studies. It was the most useful method
8. Paper and pencil programmed Trainees learning at their own pace using for interpersonal skill development in
instruction workbooks, etc. both the Carroll et al. (1972) and present
9. Audiotapes Instructional audio tapes study. Also, it was the preferred method
10. Self-assessments Determination of own skills and goals for changing attitudes in the Carroll et al.
11. Movies/films Commercial and non-commercial films and movies (1972) study. (The method was the second
with instructional examples choice for changing attitudes in the
12. Multi-media presentations Use of several (computer, video, internet, etc.) present study.) Sensitivity training was
methods in combination also the third most popular choice of
13. Audio conferences Audio (only) teleconferencing training methods for knowledge retention
14. Computer-assisted Trainees learning at their own pace using in both studies.
programmed instruction computers, etc. . Case study methodology should also be
15. Video conferences Video (and audio) teleconferencing noted. It was a ``top three'' choice to attain
16. Sensitivity training Confrontation and direct feedback by others four training objectives in both studies.
(usually peers) in small group setting
Table VIII identifies the most useful training
methods identified by the private club
managers. The highest rated (one-to-one) is
Table III listed first, followed by the next four
Training methods preferred methods in descending order. As
Case study noted earlier, one-to-one training is
One-to-one conferences considered the most useful overall method
Lecture (and the preferred for all objectives except
Games interpersonal skill development); the use of
Role play videotapes is considered the fifth best overall
Movies/films training method.
Programmed instruction The least useful training methods overall
Sensitivity training identified by the club managers were audio
Televised lectures (now called video conferences) conferencing, paper and pencil methods,
programmed instruction, audio-tapes,
Source: Carroll et al. (1972) computer conferencing, and self-assessment.

Table IV
Example of survey construction ± training method: case study (life-like scenarios)
Training objectives
Extent that
Extent that trainees retain
To acquire To change To improve To improve inter- trainees accept knowledge by this
knowledge attitudes problem solving personal skills method method
1234567 1234567 1234567 1234567 1234567 1234567
Note: Includes only 1 of 16 training methods

[ 116 ]
Joe Perdue, Jack D. Ninemeier Table V
and Robert H. Woods Effectiveness of training methods by training objectives
Training methods for specific
objectives: preferences of Training objectives
managers in private clubs
Interpersonal
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Knowledge Changing Problem skill Participant Knowledge
Management Training method acquisition attitudes solving development acceptance retention
14/3 [2002] 114±119
Case study 5.17 4.89 5.81 5.19 5.30 5.54
Videotape 5.03 4.30 4.06 3.86 5.07 4.29
Lecture 4.57 4.23 4.00 3.68 4.21 4.00
One-to-one 6.07 5.88 5.81 5.64 5.83 5.92
Role play 4.79 5.15 5.14 5.53 4.88 5.23
Games 4.41 4.63 4.86 4.82 4.96 4.76
Computer simulations 4.93 3.41 4.46 3.13 4.28 4.33
Paper and pencil
programmed instruction 4.25 3.14 3.96 2.80 3.62 3.70
Audiotapes 4.01 3.51 3.43 2.99 3.66 3.59
Self-assessment 3.84 4.15 3.73 3.78 3.90 4.12
Movies/films 4.62 4.40 4.00 3.86 4.91 4.26
Multi-media 4.61 4.16 4.00 3.82 4.52 4.22
Audio conferencing 3.68 3.28 3.52 3.36 3.41 3.42
Computer conferencing 4.07 3.47 3.92 3.38 3.83 3.85
Video conferencing 4.27 4.05 4.01 3.86 4.17 4.13
Sensitivity training 5.01 5.71 5.33 5.84 5.00 5.43
Notes: Scores refer to perceived usefulness on a 1-7 scale (7 = best method, 1 = worst method), the higher the
score the more useful the method is perceived to attain the training objectives

Table VI
Ranking of effectiveness of training methods for each objective
Training objectives
Interpersonal
Knowledge Changing Problem skill Participant Knowledge
Training method acquisition attitudes solving development acceptance retention
Case study 2 4 1 4 2 2
Video tape 3 7 7 6 3 7
Lecture 9 8 9 11 10 12
One-to-one 1 1 1 2 1 1
Role play 6 3 4 3 7 4
Games 10 5 5 5 5 5
Computer simulations 5 14 6 14 9 6
Paper and pencil
programmed instruction 12 16 12 16 15 14
Audiotapes 14 12 15 15 14 15
Self-assessment 15 10 14 10 12 11
Movies/films 7 6 9 6 6 8
Multi-media 8 9 9 9 8 9
Audio conferencing 16 15 15 13 16 16
Computer conferencing 13 13 13 12 13 13
Video conferencing 11 11 8 6 11 10
Sensitivity training 4 2 3 1 4 3

Each training method received the lowest
rankings for at least one of the different
training objectives.
Discussion
One important finding of this research is the
reliance that private club managers place on
the effectiveness of certain training methods.
For instance, as seen in Tables VI and VIII,
the respondents rated one-to-one training as
an extremely useful method to attain all of
the types of training objectives analyzed.
Also obvious from this research is that
private club managers do not perceive some
methods to be useful for attaining any
[ 117 ]
Joe Perdue, Jack D. Ninemeier Table VII
and Robert H. Woods Ranking of training method choices for different training objectives for two studies
Training methods for specific
objectives: preferences of Top three training methods
managers in private clubs
Training objective Carroll et al. study Present study
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Knowledge acquisition Programmed instruction One-to-one
Management Case study Case study
14/3 [2002] 114±119
One-to-one Videotape
Changing attitudes Sensitivity training One-to-one
Role play Sensitivity training
One-to-one Role play
Problem solving Case study One-to-one
Games Case study
Role play Sensitivity training
Interpersonal skill development Sensitivity training Sensitivity training
Role play One-to-one
One-to-one Role play
Participant acceptance One-to-one One-to-one
Case study Case study
Games Videotapes
Knowledge retention Programmed instruction One-to-one
Case study Case study
Sensitivity training Sensitivity training

Table VIII
Most useful training methods
Training objectives
Interpersonal
Knowledge Changing Problem skill Participant Knowledge
Training method acquisition attitudes solving development acceptance retention
One-to-one 1 1 1 2 1 1
Case study 2 4 1 4 2 2
Sensitivity training 4 2 3 1 4 3
Role play 6 3 4 3 7 4
Videotapes 3 7 7 6 3 7

training objective. However, this finding
does not mean the methods are not widely
used in other industries. In fact, they are
included on this list because they may be
useful in other businesses.
There are other findings that are of
interest. For example, the two highest ranked
methods to attain each of the objectives
involve significant trainee participation/
interaction (one-to-one, sensitivity training
and case study). Also, the only instance in
which one-to-one instruction was not judged
the highest ranked method involves
changing attitudes (which is the purpose of
sensitivity training ± the first choice of
survey respondents).
The study also raises interesting questions
including:
. Were methods judged better because of the
high rate of trainee acceptance and
knowledge retention?
. Do a significant number of club managers
actually use sensitivity training? While
[ 118 ]
this method was rated highly for four of
six training objectives we could find no
previous research in which this training
method is mentioned.
. While paper-pencil instruction rated low
for each training objective, it is frequently
used in clubs (for manuals, handbooks,
orientation materials, etc.).
. About 85 percent of club managers do not
have difficulty finding training resources;
80 percent of club managers would do
more group training if materials were
available; are club-specific resources
needed?
Conclusion
The results of this study indicate that club
managers believe that some methods are
better for training for specific objectives than
others. In addition, it highlights the fact that
club managers perceive some training

Joe Perdue, Jack D. Ninemeier
and Robert H. Woods
Training methods for specific
objectives: preferences of
managers in private clubs
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
14/3 [2002] 114±119
methods that are widely used as relatively
non-productive.
Results of the study should help private
club managers to determine which training
methods are considered by their peers to be
most effective in attaining alternative
training objectives. For instance, a method
such as one-to-one training, which was rated
extremely useful for knowledge acquisition,
might be a good choice if that objective
(knowledge retention) is needed. On the other
hand, managers should know that their peers
perceive this method to be less useful if the
purpose of the training is to change attitudes
or to gain trainee acceptance.
Until now there has been no good guide
that private club managers could use to select
the type of training method which might be
most useful to accomplish different training
objectives. These results can help provide the
foundation that managers need to make
decisions about how to effectively train their
employees. While additional research is
needed to conclusively recommend one
method over another in all training
circumstances, information in this report
provides club managers with usable
guidelines to help them construct training
programs.
Future researchers on this subject may
want to consider assessing the viability of the
different training methods for additional
segments of the hospitality industry
(restaurants, hotels, timeshares, etc.). In
addition, future researchers may wish to
implement experiments to test the opinions
of club managers presented in this report.
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