Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Reapproved 2000)
The use of iron blast-furnace slag as a constituent of concrete, either as an Chapter 2—Storage, handling, and batching, p. 233R-5
aggregate or as a cementing material, or both, is well known. The use of 2.1—Storage
ground granulated blast-furnace (GGBF) slag in the production of blended
cements began in 1905 in the United States. Recent attention has been 2.2—Handling
given to the use of GGBF slag as a separate cementitious constituent of 2.3—Batching
concrete. This report primarily addresses the use of GGBF slag as a sepa-
rate cementitious material added along with portland cement in the pro- Chapter 3—Proportioning concrete containing GGBF
duction of concrete. Other slags derived from the smelting of materials
other than iron ores are not discussed in this report. The reader should be
slag, p. 233R-5
aware that the material characteristics described and the recommenda- 3.1—Proportioning with GGBF slag
tions for use pertain solely to ground granulated iron blast-furnace 3.2—Ternary systems
(GGBF) slag. 3.3—Use with chemical admixtures
233R-1
233R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag or an inti- Table 1.1—Range of chemical composition of blast-
mate and uniform blend of portland cement and fine granu- furnace slags in the United States and Canada
lated blast-furnace slag in which the amount of the slag Range of composition percent by
constituent is within specified limits. Chemical constituents (as oxides)* mass
Cement, slag—A hydraulic cement consisting mostly of SiO2 32-42
an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace Al2O3 7-16
slag and hydrated lime in which the slag constituent is more CaO 32-45
than a specified minimum percentage. MgO 5-15
1.3.2 ASTM definition S 0.7-2.2
Glass—ASTM C 162 defines glass as an inorganic prod- Fe2O3 0.1-1.5
uct of fusion which has cooled to a rigid condition without MnO 0.2-1.0
crystallization. * Except for sulfur.
1.4—Origin of blast-furnace slag temperature below the boiling point of water, producing par-
In the production of iron, the blast furnace is continuously ticles of highly glassy material (Fig. 1.1).
charged from the top with iron oxide (ore, pellets, sinter, Another process, sometimes referred to as air granulation,
etc.), fluxing stone (limestone and dolomite), and fuel involves use of the pelletizer (Cotsworth 1981). In this pro-
(coke). Two products are obtained from the furnace: molten cess, the molten slag passes over a vibrating feed plate,
iron that collects in the bottom of the furnace (hearth) and where it is expanded and cooled by water sprays. It then
liquid iron blast-furnace slag floating on the pool of iron.
passes onto a rotating, finned drum, which throws it into the
Both are periodically tapped from the furnace at a tempera-
air where it rapidly solidifies to spherical pellets. The result-
ture of about 1500 C.
ing product may also have high glass content and can be used
either as a cementitious material, or in the larger particle siz-
1.5—Chemical and physical properties
es, as a lightweight aggregate (Fig. 1.2). Other processes for
The composition of blast-furnace slag is determined by
combining slag with water which are used primarily for the
that of the ores, fluxing stone, and impurities in the coke
production of lightweight aggregates are also capable of pro-
charged into the blast furnace. Typically, silicon, calcium,
ducing a sufficiently glassy slag for successful cementitious
aluminum, magnesium, and oxygen constitute 95 percent or
use (Robertson 1979).
more of the blast-furnace slag. Table 1.1 indicates the chem-
ical analysis range for elements (reported as oxides) in blast- After the granulated blast-furnace slag is formed, it must
furnace slags produced in the United States and Canada in be dewatered, dried, and ground before it is used as a cemen-
1988. titious material. Magnets are often used before and after
The ranges in composition from source to source shown in grinding to remove residual metallic iron. Typically, the slag
Table 1.1 are much greater than those from an individual is ground to an air-permeability (Blaine) fineness exceeding
plant. Modern blast-furnace technology produces very low that of portland cement to obtain increased activity at early
variability in the compositions of both the iron and the slag ages. As with portland cement and pozzolans, the rate of re-
from a single source. action increases with the fineness.
To maximize hydraulic (cementitious) properties, the mol-
ten slag must be chilled rapidly as it leaves the blast furnace.
Rapid quenching or chilling minimizes crystallization and
converts the molten slag into fine-aggregate-sized particles
(generally smaller than a 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, composed
predominantly of glass. This product is referred to as granu-
lated iron blast-furnace slag. The cementitious action of a
granulated blast-furnace slag is dependent to a large extent
on the glass content, although other factors will also have
some influence. Slowly cooled slags are predominately crys-
talline and therefore do not possess significant cementitious
properties.
1.6—Processing
Quenching with water is the most common process for
granulating slags to be used as cementitious materials. Sim-
ple immersion of the molten slag in water was often used in
the past; more efficient modern granulation systems use
high-pressure water jets that impinge on the stream of mol-
ten slag at a water-slag ratio of about 10 to 1 by mass. The Fig. 1.1—Configuration of GGBF slag water granulator to
blast-furnace slag is quenched almost instantaneously to a include steam-condensing tower (Hogan and Meusel 1981)
233R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
1.9—Factors determining cementitious properties Fig. 1.3—Ternary diagram indicating composition of port-
The clarification of the basic principles of slag hydration land cement and blast-furnace slag in the system CaO-SiO2-
makes it possible to identify the primary factors that in prac- Al2O3 [based on Lea (1971) and Bakker (1983)]
tice will influence the effectiveness of the uses of GGBF slag
in hydraulic cement. These factors are:
a) chemical composition of the GGBF slag
b) alkali concentration of the reacting system
c) glass content of the GGBF slag
d) fineness of the GGBF slag and portland cement
e) temperature during the early phases of the hydration
process
Due to the complexity of the influencing factors, it is not
surprising that earlier attempts to relate the hydration of
GGBF slag to simplified chemical moduli failed to provide
adequate evaluation criteria for practice (Mather 1957, Fig. 1.4—Rate of heat liberation of cements with and with-
Hooton and Emery 1980). The complexity of the reacting out GGBF slag at 27 C (80 F) (Roy and Idorn 1982)
system suggests that direct performance evaluations of
workability, strength characteristics, and durability are the
most satisfactory measures of the effectiveness of GGBF as portland cement. The most commonly used items of
slag use. The ASTM C 989 slag-activity index is often used equipment are pneumatic pumps, screw conveyors, air
as a basic criterion for evaluating the relative cementitious slides, and bucket elevators. Unlike some other finely-divid-
potential of a GGBF slag. Furthermore, proportioning for ed materials that are extremely fluid when aerated, GGBF
particular performance requirements should be based on slags do not require special gates or feeders. Since GGBF
tests of concrete including the same materials intended to be slags are cementitious, periodic emptying and cleaning of
used in the work. the screws, air slides, weigh hoppers, and associated equip-
ment is advised.
CHAPTER 2—STORAGE, HANDLING, AND
BATCHING 2.3—Batching
GGBF slag should be batched by weight in accordance
2.1—Storage with the requirements of ACI 304R and ASTM C 94. When
As is the case with portland cement and most pozzolans, GGBF slag is batched cumulatively in the same weighing
GGBF slag must be stored in bins or silos to provide protec- apparatus with portland cement, the GGBF slag should fol-
tion from dampness and contamination. Color and fineness low the weighing of portland cement. When the GGBF slag
of GGBF slag can be similar to those of portland cement; is introduced into the mixer, it is preferable to introduce it
therefore, necessary precautions should be taken to clearly along with the other components of the concrete mixture.
mark handling and storage equipment. When compartment-
ed bins are used, periodic checks for leaks between adjacent CHAPTER 3—PROPORTIONING CONCRETE
bins should be conducted to avoid contamination of the CONTAINING GGBF SLAG
stored materials.
3.1—Proportioning with GGBF slag
2.2—Handling In most cases, GGBF slags have been used in proportions
GGBF slags are handled with the same kinds of equipment of 25 to 70 percent by mass of the total cementitious materi-
233R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
al. These proportions are in line with those established by portland cement (3.15). Concrete with GGBF slag typically
ASTM C 595 for the production of portland blast-furnace has greater placeability and ease of compaction, hence great-
slag cement. In South Africa, its use has been predominantly er volumes of coarse aggregate may be used to reduce water
at 50 percent replacement of cement due to convenience in demand. Often an increase in coarse aggregate is desirable,
proportioning (Wood 1981). since it often reduces the stickiness of concrete mixtures
The use of GGBF slag in alkali-activated systems where (Wood 1981; Fulton 1974). This is particularly true when
no portland cement is used has been found to provide special high cement contents are used. GGBF slags are usually sub-
properties in the CSIR and several European countries ac- stituted for portland cement on a one-to-one basis by mass
cording to Talling and Brandstetr (1989). and are always considered in the determination of the water-
Mary (1951) described the preparation of slag cement by cementitious material ratio.
the Trief wet process and its use in the Bort-les-Orgues Dam. Water demand for given slump may generally be 3 to 5
This was done after World War II when the supply of port- percent lower than that found with concrete without GGBF
land cement was limited. The dam involved 660,000 m3 slags (Meusel and Rose 1983). Exceptions can be found and
(863,000 yd3) of concrete. The slag was ground wet and should be accounted for in the trial mixture proportioning
charged into the mixer as a thick slurry. studies.
A sample of the Trief wet process cement was obtained by
the Corps of Engineers in December 1950 and tested at the 3.2—Ternary systems
Waterways Experiment Station (WES 1953). In the WES The use of GGBF slag in combination with portland ce-
tests the behavior of the ground slag from Europe was com- ment and pozzolans such as fly ash and silica fume is not un-
pared with slag ground in the laboratory from expanded slag common. Typically the use of a ternary system is for
from Birmingham, Alabama. Each slag was activated with economic reasons, but it may also be used for improving en-
1.5 percent sodium hydroxide and 1.5 percent sodium chlo- gineering properties.
ride by weight, with generally similar results. Such systems Combinations of GGBF slag, cement and silica fume were
are not in commercial use in the U.S.A. used in concrete mixtures in high-strength applications for
The proportion of GGBF slag should be dictated by the the Scotia Plaza in Toronto (Bickley et al. 1991) and Society
purposes for which the concrete is to be used, the curing tem- Tower (Engineering News Record 1991) in Cleveland, Ohio.
perature, the grade (activity) of GGBF slag, and the portland Combinations of GGBF slag, fly ash, and portland cement
cement or other activator. Where GGBF slags are blended have all been used as ballast for tunnel sections when low
with portland cement, the combination of cementitious ma- heat generation in mass concrete was desired. In addition,
terial will result in physical properties that are characteristic the combination of GGBF slag, fly ash, and portland cement
of the predominant material. For example, as the percentage appears to be the most appropriate binding material for the
of GGBF slag increases, a slower rate of strength gain should solidification and stabilization of low-level nuclear waste
be expected, particularly at early ages, unless the water con- forms (Langton 1989, Spence et al. 1989).
tent is substantially reduced or accelerators are used or accel- As reported by Malhotra (1987), all of these systems can
erated curing is provided. provide concrete properties similar to those found with port-
There appears to be an optimum blend of GGBF slag that land cement with the exception that in freezing and thawing
produces the greatest strength at 28 days as tested by ASTM environments, a minimum of 200 kg/m3 (337 lb/yd3) of port-
C 109. This optimum is usually found to be 50 percent of the land cement and a low water-cementitious materials ratio are
total cementitious material, although this relationship varies desired to provide adequate resistance to freezing-and-thaw-
depending on the grade of GGBF slag (Hogan and Meusel ing environments.
1981, Fulton 1974). Other considerations that will determine Among the effects resulting from adding silica fume to ter-
the proportion of GGBF slag to be used will depend on the nary systems are increased strength and reduced permeabili-
requirements for temperature rise control, time of setting and ty. In addition, GGBF slag has been used in combination
finishing, sulfate resistance, and the control of expansion due with portland cement and ground quartz (silica flour) in au-
to the alkali-silica reaction. For example, where high sulfate- toclaved concrete masonry (Hooton and Emery 1980).
resistance is required, the GGBF slag content should be a
minimum of 50 percent of the total cementitious material, 3.3—Use with chemical admixtures
unless previous testing with a particular GGBF slag has in- Effects of chemical admixtures on the properties of con-
dicated that a lower percentage is adequate (Chojnacki 1981; crete containing GGBF slags are similar to those for con-
Hogan and Meusel 1981; Fulton 1984; Lea 1971; Hooton cretes made with portland cement as the only cementitious
and Emery 1983). materials. Information regarding the effect of admixtures on
The proportioning techniques for concretes incorporating the properties of concrete can be obtained from the report of
GGBF slags are similar to those used in proportioning con- ACI Committee 212. Small increases in the dosage rate of
cretes made with portland cement or blended cements. Meth- air-entraining admixtures are sometimes necessary, if the
ods for proportioning are given in ACI 211.1. However, due fineness of the GGBF slag is higher than that of the portland
to the high proportions of GGBF slag commonly used, al- cement. The amount of high-range water-reducing admix-
lowances should be made for changes in solid volume due to tures required to produce flowing concrete is usually 25 per-
the difference in specific gravity of slags (2.85 to 2.94) and cent less than that used in concretes not containing GGBF
GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG 233R-7
slag (Wu and Roy 1982). A given amount of retarder will on the particular index measured--an effect which is not re-
have a greater retarding effect as the proportion of GGBF lated to the compaction of concrete on the construction site.”
slag in the concrete is increased. Considering this, Fulton devised a test using the Vebe ap-
paratus, in which uncompacted concrete was molded by vi-
CHAPTER 4—EFFECTS ON PROPERTIES OF bration and differences in molding time of mixtures with and
FRESH CONCRETE without slag were compared. In all cases, the placeability of
the concrete containing 50 percent GGBF slag was superior
4.1—Workability to that of mixtures without GGBF slag. Meusel and Rose
Wood (1981) reported that the workability and placeabili- (1983) found that increased slump was obtained with all
GGBF slag blends tested when compared to concrete with-
ty of concrete containing GGBF slag yielded improved char-
out GGBF slag at the same water content (Fig. 4.2).
acteristics when compared with concrete not containing
Osborne (1989) showed test results of slump, Vebe, and
GGBF slag. He further stated that this result was due to the
compacting factor for concretes containing 0, 40 and 70 per-
surface characteristics of the GGBF slag, which created
cent GGBF slag. As the percentage of GGBF slag increased,
smooth slip planes in the paste. He also theorized that, due to
the ratio of water-cementitious materials had to be reduced
the smooth, dense surfaces of the GGBF slag particles, little
to maintain workability properties more or less similar to the
if any water was absorbed by the GGBF slag during initial
concrete mix with 0 percent GGBF slag. Wimpenny et al.
mixing, unlike portland cement. Fulton (1974) investigated
(1989) found, in concretes with constant water-cementitious
the phenomenon in greater detail and suggested that cemen- ratio and increasing GGBF replacement, that the slump in-
titious matrix containing GGBF slags exhibited greater creased significantly with increasing GGBF slag replace-
workability due to the increased paste content and increased ment.
cohesiveness of the paste. Wu and Roy (1982) found that
pastes containing GGBF slags exhibited different rheologi- 4.2—Time of setting
cal properties compared to paste of portland cements alone.
Usually, an increase in time of setting can be expected
Their results indicate a better particle dispersion and higher
when GGBF slag is used as a replacement for part of the
fluidity of the pastes and mortars, both with and without wa- portland cement in concrete mixtures. The degree to which
ter-reducing admixtures. the time of setting is affected is dependent on the initial tem-
It also appears (Fig. 4.1) that concrete containing GGBF perature of the concrete, the proportion of the blend used, the
slag is normally consolidated under mechanical compaction water-cementitious materials ratio, and the characteristics of
more easily than concrete that does not contain GGBF slag. the portland cement (Fulton 1974). Typically, the time of ini-
Using conventional test procedures for workability, this phe- tial setting is extended one-half to one hour at temperatures
nomenon was never substantiated with any degree of confi- of 23 C (73 F); little if any change is found at temperatures
dence. Fulton (1974) states, “practically all standard work- above 29 C (85 F) (Hogan and Meusel 1981). Although sig-
ability tests involve a measure of the amount of work neces- nificant retardation has been observed at low temperatures,
sary to remold the concrete from a compacted state to anoth- the additions of conventional accelerators, such as calcium
er state. Cohesion is a valuable and important property of a chloride or other accelerating admixtures, can greatly reduce
fresh mix, but obviously in such tests, it has an adverse effect or eliminate this effect. Since the amount of portland cement
233R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
5.2—Modulus of elasticity
Most work in this area has been with blended cement con-
Fig. 5.3—Influence of GGBF slag replacement on mortar
taining GGBF slag. Klieger and Isberner (1967) found es- cube compressive strength (Hogan and Meusel 1981) (1 ksi
sentially the same modulus of elasticity in concretes = 6.89 MPa)
containing portland blast-furnace slag cement as compared
with Type I cement concrete. Stutterheim, as quoted by Ful-
ton (1974), also confirmed this, using concrete containing will reduce the shrinkage much the same as with portland ce-
equal amounts of GGBF slag and portland cement and con- ment (Hogan and Meusel 1981).
crete with portland cement only.
5.4—Influence of curing on the performance of GGBF
slag
5.3—Creep and shrinkage Regardless of the cement or the blends of cementitious
There are few data available on creep and shrinkage of materials used, concrete must be kept in a proper moisture
concrete containing GGBF slag, and the limited test data and temperature condition during its early stages if it is to
show conflicting results. For example, Klieger and Isberner fully develop its strength and durability potential. There has
(1962) found few differences when portland blast-furnace been considerable discussion regarding the effects of curing
slag cement was compared to portland cement. On the other on concrete containing portland blast-furnace slag cement
hand, Fulton (1974) reports generally greater creep and and concrete containing GGBF slag as a separate constitu-
shrinkage where various blends of GGBF slag were used. It ent. In Mather’s 1957 study comparing Type II cement with
is believed that the increased shrinkage may be due to the portland blast-furnace slag cement, he found that both ce-
greater volume of paste in the concrete when GGBF slag is ments suffered strength loss to the same degree when curing
substituted on an equal mass basis. An example of the effects was stopped at 3 days. Conversely, Fulton (1974) reports
of blends on shrinkage is seen in Fig. 5.6 (Hogan and Meusel that concrete containing GGBF slag is more susceptible to
1981). Other investigators indicate that where shrinkage is poor curing conditions than concrete without GGBF slag
found to be greater, the addition of gypsum to the GGBF slag where the GGBF slag is used in percentages higher than 30
233R-10 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
percent. He attributes this susceptibility to reduced forma- ther added separately or in blended cements, in that during
tion of hydrate at early ages leading to increased loss of the second to fourth days after casting, a blue-green colora-
moisture which would otherwise be available for hydration tion may appear, which then diminishes with age as oxida-
to continue. There is no doubt that, as with all cementitious tion takes place. This coloration is attributed to a complex
materials, the rate and degree of hydration is affected by the reaction of the sulfide sulfur in the GGBF slag with other
loss of moisture at an early age, with a decrease in strength compounds in the cement. The degree and extent of the col-
gain. To attain proper strength and durability, curing should oration depends on the rate of oxidation, the percentage of
follow the procedures prescribed in ACI 308. GGBF slag used, curing conditions, and porosity of the con-
crete surfaces. Where color is important, correctly timed ex-
5.5—Color posure to air, sunlight, or wetting and drying promotes
GGBF slag is considerably lighter in color than most port- oxidation of the concrete surface. Concrete containing
land cements and will produce a lighter color in concrete af- GGBF slag has been found to yield extended blue coloration
ter curing. In certain operations, up to 30 percent GGBF slag when continuously exposed to water or when sealers were
has been used to replace white portland cements without a applied at early ages. The interior of the concrete will retain
noticeable color change in the cured product. There is a a deep blue-green coloration for a considerable time, as ob-
unique characteristic of concrete containing GGBF slag, ei- served in normal compressive test specimens when broken.
GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG 233R-11
However, when these faces are exposed to the atmosphere, portland blast-furnace slag cement and as a separate cemen-
such as split-face concrete block, they will oxidize to a uni- titious constituent to reduce the temperature rise in mass
form color. concrete (Bamforth 1980; Fulton 1974; Mather 1951; Lea
1971). There are cases where mixtures with and without
5.6—Effects on temperature rise in mass concrete GGBF slag were tested using the heat of solution method
GGBF slags have been used commonly as an ingredient of (ASTM C 186) and the mixtures with GGBF slag produced
233R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Fig. 5.7—Comparison of heat generated in mass concrete with portland cement, portland
cement-fly ash, and portland cement-slag concrete mixtures (Bamforth 1980)
the greater cumulative heats (Bamforth 1980; Hogan and heat than the portland cement mixtures, even though the rate
Meusel 1981; Roy and Idorn 1982). It is important to note of heat rise was less. Where blends of highly active GGBF
that, although the heat-of-solution method indicates the total slags are used, proportions of at least 70 percent GGBF slag
heat release potential of cement, it does not indicate the rate may be needed to meet low heat of hydration requirements
of heat rise which is also important in mass concrete applica- when evaluated by heat-of-solution method (ASTM C 186).
tions. In all cases the incorporation of GGBF slag reduced
the early rate of heat generation; this reduction is directly 5.7—Permeability
proportional to the proportion of GGBF slag used. The re- The use of GGBF slag in hydraulic structures is well doc-
duction in peak temperature and rate of heat gain are seen in umented. The permeability of mature concrete containing
Fig. 5.7, where in-situ measurements were reported by Bam- GGBF slag is greatly reduced when compared with concrete
forth (1980) comparing concrete without GGBF slag to con- not containing GGBF slag (Hooton and Emery 1990; Roy
crete with 30 percent fly ash and concrete with 75 percent 1989; Rose 1987). As the GGBF slag content is increased,
GGBF slag. permeability decreases. It is found that the pore structure of
The heat of hydration is dependent on the portland cement the cementitious matrix is changed through the reaction of
used and the activity of the GGBF slag. Roy and Idorn GGBF slag with the calcium hydroxide and alkalies released
(1982) found a correlation of heat of hydration to strength during the portland cement hydration (Bakker 1980; Roy and
potential of various blends of GGBF slag and portland ce- Idorn 1982). Pores in concrete, normally containing calcium
ment. Reduced heat of hydration can be expected when hydroxide, are then, in part, filled with calcium silicate hy-
GGBF slags are used to replace equal amounts of cement. drates (Bakker 1980; Mehta 1980; Roy and Idorn 1982). As
Studies on heat generation of concrete containing GGBF pointed out by Mehta (1980), “the permeability of concrete
slab by Kokubu, Takahashi, and Anzai (1989) indicate that depends on its porosity and pore-size distribution.” Reduc-
blends of 35 to 55 percent GGBF slag produced greater total tion in pore size which GGBF slags impart is seen in Fig. 5.8,
GROUND GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG 233R-13
comparing paste with and without GGBF slags. Where sulfate resistance is not only dependent on the C3A content
GGBF slags are used, reduction in the pore size has been not- of portland cement alone, but also the alumina content of the
ed prior to 28 days after mixing (Bakker 1980; Mehta 1980; GGBF slag. Lea further reports from tests made by Locher
Roy and Idorn 1981). Another example of the reduced per- that where the alumina content of the GGBF slag is less than
meability is seen in Fig. 5.9 taken from Smolczyk (1977) 11 percent, increased sulfate resistance was found regardless
where concretes of varying water-cementitious materials ra- of the C3A content of the portland cement where blends be-
tio and GGBF slag proportions were evaluated for chloride tween 20 and 50 percent GGBF slag were used. 2) Through
diffusion, over a period of 2 years. the reduction of soluble calcium hydroxide in the formation
of calcium silicate hydrates, the environment for the forma-
5.8—Resistance to sulfate attack tion of calcium sulfoaluminate is reduced. 3) Investigations
Partial replacement of portland cement with GGBF slag is indicate that resistance to sulfate attack is greatly dependent
found to improve the sulfate resistance of concrete. High re- on the permeability of the concrete or cement paste (Bakker
sistance to sulfate attack has been demonstrated when the 1983; Mehta 1980; Roy and Idorn 1982). Again, the forma-
GGBF slag proportion exceeds 50 percent of the total ce- tion of calcium silicate hydrates in pore spaces, normally oc-
mentitious material where Type II cements were used (Hog- cupied by alkalies and calcium hydroxide, reduces the
an and Meusel 1981). Additional testing of GGBF slag in permeability of the paste and prevents the intrusion of the ag-
Canada showed that 50-percent blends of GGBF slag with gressive sulfates. Expansion of mortar bars due to sulfate at-
Type I portland cement containing up to 12 percent C3A tack is illustrated in Fig. 5.11 where bars made using GGBF
have sulfate resistance equivalent to that of Type V cements. slag blends are compared to bars made using Type II and
The GGBF slag was reported to have 7 percent Al2O3 Type V portland cements (Hogan and Meusel 1981).
(Chojnacki 1981). As reported by Hooton and Emery (1990), Buck (1985) reported results of tests by a procedure gen-
a minimum amount of GGBF slag is required to provide high erally similar to ASTM C 1012 using Type IS cements from
sulfate resisting properties to concrete. Their results, using Alabama, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, and two cements
ASTM C 1012, indicate that this minimum would be 50 per- containing GGBF slag made in Germany. The IS cements
cent or greater when used with Type I portland cement hav- contained about 25 percent GGBF slag. The committee be-
lieves the test results showed relatively poor sulfate resis-
ing a C3A content up to 12 percent as long as the Al2O3
tance due to too low a proportion of GGBF slag.
content of the GGBF slag was lower than 11 percent, Fig.
5.10.
5.9—Reduction of expansion due to alkali-silica reaction
Where GGBF slag is used in sufficient quantities, several
(ASR)
changes occur which improve resistance to sulfate attack.
Use of GGBF slag as a partial replacement for portland ce-
Those changes include: 1) The C3A content of the mixture is
proportionally reduced depending on the percentage of
GGBF slag used. However, Lea (1971) reports that increased
Fig. 5.10—Effect of various slag replacement levels on expansions in 50,000 mg/1 SO4
as Na2SO4 (slag Al2O3 = 8.4 percent)
Soles, Malhotra, and Chen (1989). After two years of obser- GGBF slags has no negative effect on the corrosion of steel
vation the GGBF slag blends were found to be effective in (Fulton 1974; Lea 1971; Hogan and Meusel 1981). It has
reducing expansion, but the reduction was less than that been found that a slight reduction in the pH of pore solution
found with the low-alkali cement. When used in combina- does not have a negative impact on the passivity of reinforc-
tion with high-alkali cement, blends of 40 percent GGBF ing steel, and that use of GGBF slag in good quality con-
slag appear to be effective in reducing the potential of alkali- crete, reduces concrete permeability, thus reducing the
carbonate reactions, and blends of 50 percent GGBF slag ap- penetration of chlorides and carbon dioxide which promote
pear to be effective in reducing the potential of alkali-silica corrosion of steel.
reactions.
CHAPTER 6—USES OF GGBF SLAG IN
5.10—Resistance to freezing and thawing CONCRETE AND MORTAR
Many studies have been made where GGBF slags were
used in concrete as a portion of blended cement. Results of 6.1—Introduction
these studies generally indicate that when concrete made
Type IS blended cement is considered equivalent to Type
with portland blast-furnace slag cement was tested in com-
I portland cement. Therefore, Type IS is used in all concrete
parison with Type I and Type II cements, their resistances to
applications except where high early strengths are required
freezing and thawing in water were essentially the same
under normal curing conditions. As in its use in blended ce-
(Fulton 1974; Klieger and Isberner 1967; Mather 1957). As
ment, GGBF slag mixed with portland cement at the con-
with all hydraulic cement concrete, proper air content and
crete mixer may also be used in all applications and
bubble spacing are necessary for adequate protection in
processes. The flexibility of using different blends of GGBF
freezing-and-thawing environments.
slag depends upon the desired qualities of concrete which are
Most recently, air-entrained concrete containing GGBF
most important to the concrete designer and producer.
slag used as 50 percent of the total cementitious material was
found to be frost resistant even though a measurable differ-
ence in weight loss was found when compared to the con- 6.2—Ready-mixed concrete
crete made with Type II portland cement and tested using Most of the producers of ready-mixed concrete that use
ASTM C 666 (Hogan and Meusel 1981). Similar results GGBF slag do so in proportions of 50 percent of total cemen-
were found by Malhotra (1980) using various percentages of titious material when the weather is warm and the GGBF
GGBF slag with portland cement. This weight loss does not slag is highly active (Wood 1981). Not only is this blend
appear significant and is probably due to comparing con- convenient, but with a highly active GGBF slag this blend
cretes of unequal strengths. usually produces the greatest strength and most favorable
cost to benefit ratio. Proportions of GGBF slag as low as 20
5.11—Resistance to deicing chemicals to 30 percent have been used with less active GGBF slags or
Although some laboratory tests with Type IS cement indi- during periods of colder weather. In those jobs requiring spe-
cate less resistance to deicing salts, many researchers have cial qualities, such as sulfate resistance or low temperature
found, in field exposure, little difference when compared to rise, blends containing more than 50 percent GGBF slag are
concrete not containing slag (Klieger and Isberner 1967). recommended. On the other hand, when early strengths are
Similar results were reported using blends of 50 percent required to facilitate quick form removal or when thin sec-
GGBF slag and 50 percent portland cement, by Hogan and tions are placed at low temperatures, blends containing less
Meusel (1981). Most research indicates that scaling is usual- than 50 percent are recommended.
ly found when the concrete has a high water-cementitious Particular advantages in the use of GGBF slag as a sepa-
materials ratio and high percentages of GGBF slag are used. rate cementitious material in ready-mixed concrete are: a) in-
creased flexibility to meet individual job requirements; b)
5.12—Resistance to the corrosion of reinforcement reduced cost of cementitious material; c) improved work-
Many investigations have shown that reduced permeabili- ability; d) reduced strength loss in concrete subject to hot
ty of concrete containing GGBF slag significantly reduces weather application; and e) increased compressive and flex-
the penetration of chloride to all depths within the concrete ural strength with GGBF slag grade of 100 or better.
(Bakker 1980; Bakker 1983; Fulton 1974; Mehta 1980; Roy
1989; Rose 1987; Mehta 1980; Meusel and Hogan 1981). 6.3—Concrete products
The reduction in permeability and the resistance to chloride The use of GGBF slag in precast concrete products is usu-
intrusion increases as the level of GGBF slag increases in the ally restricted by the requirements for early strength (1 day)
concrete mixture of mortar. The use of GGBF slag is found and the curing cycle used. Under normal curing conditions,
to reduce the permeability of concrete by several orders of 1-day strength is usually lower in concrete containing GGBF
magnitude. slag, particularly when high percentages of GGBF slag are
During the early use of concrete containing portland blast- substituted for the portland cement. Therefore, reduced
furnace slag cement, there was considerable concern regard- blends of GGBF slag or the use of accelerating admixtures
ing the potential harmful effects of sulfur in GGBF slag. or both are required to achieve the desired stripping and han-
Since then, many investigations have shown that the use of dling strength.
233R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Where accelerated curing conditions are used, normal C 162 Definition of Terms Relating to Glass and Glass
GGBF slag blends of 40 to 60 percent of total cementitious Products
material are applicable in most concrete mixtures and curing C 186 Test Method for Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic
cycles. GGBF slags respond favorably to accelerated curing, Cement
and increased strength at 1 day may be obtained when Grade C 227 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Ce-
120 slags are used with curing temperatures exceeding 130 ment-Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Meth-
F (Hogan and Meusel 1981). The positive response, i.e., im- od)
proved early strength, of GGBF slag to accelerated curing is C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements
an important attribute in the manufacture of precast and pre- C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid
stressed components for marine exposure where high dura- Freezing and Thawing
bility is needed. C 989 Specification for Ground Iron Blast-Furnace Slag
Using GGBF slag is also beneficial in those products made for Use in Concrete and Mortars
from no-slump concrete mixtures. The increased workability C 1012 Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic-Ce-
found during mechanical compaction allows for a reduction ment Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution
in water demand, usually resulting in greater density and C 1073 Test Method for Hydraulic Activity of Ground Slag
strength (Fulton 1974). by Reaction with Alkali
Buck, Alan D., “Sulfate Resistance of Hydraulic Cements Lea, F. M., The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 3rd
Containing Blast-Furnace Slag,” USAEWES Miscellaneous edition, Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1971, pp. 454-
Paper SL-85-14, Vicksburg, MS, 1985, 15 pp. (Also CTIAC 489.
Report No. 72). Lewis, D. W., “History of Slag Cements,” Symposium on
Cesareni, D., and Frigione, G., “A Contribution to the Slag Cement, University of Alabama, Birmingham, 1981.
Study of the Physical Properties of Hardened Paste of Port- Malhotra, V. M., “Strength and Durability Characteristics
land Cements Containing Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag,” of Concrete Incorporating a Pelletized Blast Furnace Slag,”
Proceedings, 5th International Symposium on the Chemistry Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Other Mineral By-Products
of Cement, Cement Association of Japan, Tokyo, V. 4, 1968, in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra, ed., SP-79, V. 2, American
pp. 237-247. Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1980, pp. 891-922.
Chojnacki, B., “Sulfate Resistance of Blended (Slag) Ce- Malhotra, V. M., “Strength and Freeze-Thaw Characteris-
ment,” Report No. EM-52, Ministry of Transportation and tics of Concrete Incorporating Granulated Blast-Furnace
Communications, Downsview, Ontario, Canada, 1981. Slag,” CANMET, I.R. 79-38, Energy, Mines & Resources,
Cotsworth, R.P., “National Slag's Pelletizing Process,” Ottawa, Canada, 1980.
Symposium on Slag Cement, University of Alabama, Bir- Malhotra, V. M., Carette, G. G., and Bremner, T. W., “Du-
mingham, 1981. rability of Concrete Containing Supplementary Cementing
Engineering News Record, “Society Tower,” Concrete Materials in Marine Environment,” J. Scanlon, Ed., SP-100,
Today, May 6, 1991, p. C-72. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1987, pp. 1227-1258.
Forss, B., “F-Cement, A Low-Porosity Slag Cement for Mary, M., “Preparation du Cimeut di Latier par Voie Ho-
the Precast Industry,” International Conference on Slag and mide le Proced Trief et Son Aplication au Barrage de Bort-
Blended Cements, University of Alabama, Birmingham, les-orgues,” Annales de l'institute technique du Batiment et
1982, 12 pp. des travaux publiques, No. 200, July-Aug. 1951 (Translation
Fulton, F. S., “The Properties of Portland Cement Con- 52-4, Oct. 1952, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
taining Milled Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag,” Monograph, ment Station, Vicksburg, MS).
Portland Cement Institute, Johannesburg, 1974, pp. 4-46. Mather, Bryant, “Laboratory Tests of Portland Blast-Fur-
Hogan, F. J., and Meusel, J. W., “Evaluation for Durability nace Slag Cements,” ACI Journal, V. 54, No. 3, Sept. 1957,
and Strength Development of a Ground Granulated Blast- pp. 205-232.
Furnace Slag,” Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 3, No. Mehta, P. Kumar, “Durability of Concrete in Marine En-
1, Summer, 1981, pp. 40-52. vironment—A Review,” Performance of Concrete in Ma-
Hooton, R. D., and Emery, J. J., “Pelletized Slag Cement: rine Environment, SP-65, American Concrete Institute,
Autoclave Reactivity,” Proceedings, 7th International Con- Detroit, 1980, pp. 1-20.
gress on the Chemistry of Cement, Paris, 1980, V. II, pp. III- Mehta, P. Kumar, “Pozzolanic and Cementitious Byprod-
43-47. ucts as Mineral Admixtures for Concrete—A Critical Re-
Hooton, R. D., and Emery, J. J., “Sulfate Resistance of a view,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Other Mineral By-
Canadian Slag,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 87, No. 6, Nov.- Products in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra, Ed., SP-79, Ameri-
Dec. 1990, pp. 547-555. can Concrete Institute, V. 1, Detroit, 1983, pp. 1-46.
Hooton, R. D., and Emery J. J., “Glass Content Determi- Meusel, J. W., and Rose, J. H., “Production of Granulated
nation and Strength Development Predictions for Vitrified Blast Furnace Slag at Sparrows Point, and the Workability
Blast Furnace Slag,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Other and Strength Potential of Concrete Incorporating the Slag,”
Mineral By-Products in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra, Ed., V. Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Other Mineral By-Products
II, SP-79, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1983, pp. in Concrete, SP-79, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
943-962. 1983, pp. 867-890.
Klieger, Paul, and Isberner, Albert W., “Laboratory Stud- NSA Report 188-1, “Slag, The All Purpose Construction
ies of Blended Cement—Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Ce- Aggregate,” National Slag Association, Washington, 1988.
ments,” Journal, PCA Research and Development Depart- Osborne, G. J., “Carbonation and Permeability of Blast-
ment Laboratories, V. 9, No. 3, Sept. 1967, pp. 2-22. Furnace Slag Cement Concretes from Field Structures,” Fly
Kokubu, K., Takahashi, S., and Anzai, H., “Effect of Cur- Ash, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, V. M. Mal-
ing Temperatures on the Hydration and Adiabatic Tempera- hotra, Ed., SP-114, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
ture Characteristics of Portland Cement-Blast Furnace Slag 1989, pp. 1209-1237.
Concrete,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Poz- Regourd, M., “Structure and Behavior of Slag Portland
zolans in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra, Ed., SP-114, American Cement Hydrates,” Proceedings, 7th International Congress
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989, pp. 1366-1371. on the Chemistry of Cements (Paris), Editions Septima, Par-
Langton, C. A., “Slag Based Materials for Toxic Based is, V. 1, III-2, 1980, pp. 10-18.
Metal and Radioactive Waste Stabilization,” Fly Ash, Silica Regourd, M., “Characterization of Thermal Activation of
Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, V. M. Mal- Slag Cements,” Proceedings, 7th International Congress on
hotra, Ed., SP-114, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, the Chemistry of Cements (Paris), Editions Septima, Paris,
1989, pp. 1697-1706. V. 2, III-3, 1980, pp. 105-111.
233R-18 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Regourd, M., “Microanalytical Studies (X-Ray Photo Alkali-Activated Slag Concrete,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag
Electron Spectrometry) of Surface Hydration Reactions of and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra, Ed.,
Cement Compounds,” Philosophical Transactions (Lon- SP-114, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989, pp.
don), Series A., V. 310 (No. 1511) R.S., 1980, pp. 85-91. 1519-1545.
Regourd, M., “Slags and Slag Cements,” Ch. 3, Cement Thomas, Anwar, “Metallurgical and Slag Cements, the In-
Replacement Materials, R. N. Swamy, Ed., Surrey Universi- dispensable Energy Savers,” General Practices, IEEE Ce-
ty Press, 1987, pp. 73-99. ment Industry 21 Technical Conference, 1979, 108 pp.
Robertson, J. L., “At Submicron Fineness, Expanded Slag Vanden Bosch, V. D., “Performance of Mortar Specimens
is a Cement Replacement,” Rock Products, April 1982. in Chemical and Accelerated Marine Exposure,” Perfor-
Rose, J. H., “The Effects of Cementitious Blast-Furnace mance of Concrete in Marine Environment, SP-65, Ameri-
Slag on Chloride Permeability of Concrete,” Corrosion, can Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1980, pp. 487-507.
Concrete, and Chlorides, V. M. Malhotra, Ed., SP-102, Voinovitch, I., Raverdy, M., and Dron, R., “Ciment de
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1987, pp. 107-125. laitier granule sand Clinkers,” Proceedings, 7th Internation-
Roy, D. M., and Idorn, G. M., “Hydration, Structure, and al Congress on the Chemistry of Cement (Paris), Editions
Properties of Blast Furnace Slag Cements, Mortars, and Septima, Paris, V. 3, 1980, pp. 122-128.
Concrete,” Proceedings, ACI JOURNAL V. 79, No. 6, Nov.- Waterways Experiment Station, “Tests of Trief Cement
Dec. 1983, pp. 445-457. and Laboratory-Ground Water-Quenched, Blast-Furnace
Roy, D. M., and Parker, K. M., “Microstructures and Prop- Slag Cement,” Miscellaneous Paper No. 6-39, 1953, 12 pp.
erties of Granulated Slag-Portland Cement Blends at Normal Wimpenny, D. E., Ellis, C. M., and Higgins, D. D., “The
and Elevated Temperatures,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Development of Strength and Elastic Properties in Slag Ce-
Other Mineral By-Products in Concrete, SP-79, American ment under Low Temperature Curing Conditions,” Proceed-
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1983, pp. 397-414. ings, 3rd International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume,
Smolczyk, H. G., “The Use of Blast-Furnace Slag Cement Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra,
in Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete,” Proceedings, 6th Ed., SP-114, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, V. 2,
International Steelmaking Day, Paris, 1977. Trondheim, Norway, June 1989, p. 1288, 1296.
Wood, K., “Twenty Years of Experience with Slag Ce-
Smolczyk, H. G., “The Effect of the Chemistry of Slag on
ment,” Symposium on Slag Cement, University of Alabama,
the Strength of Blast-Furnace Cements,” Zement-Kalk-Gips
Birmingham, 1981.
(Wiesbaden), V. 31, No. 6, 1978, pp. 294-296.
Wood, S. L., “Evaluation of the Long-Term Properties of
Soles, J. A., Malhotra, V. M., and Chen, H., “Supplemen-
Concrete,” RD102, Portland Cement Association, 1992, pp.
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14-15.
Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, V. M. Malhotra,
Wu, X., and Roy, D. M., “Zeta Potential Investigation
Ed., SP-114, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989, pp.
During Hydration of Slag Cement,” Proceedings, M.R.S.
1632-1656.
Symposium, Boston, Research Society, 1982.
Solomon, C., “Slag-Iron and Steel”, Bureau of Mines, An-
nual Report, Washington, 1991.
ACI 233R-95 was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was approved in
Talling, B., and Brandstetr, J., “Present State and Future of accordance with ACI balloting procedures.