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Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation
Organisation, the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority, and the Joint Aviation Authorities
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This book has been written and published to assist students enrolled in an approved JAA Air
Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course in preparation for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge
examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or
advice relating to practical flying.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this
book, neither Jeppesen nor Atlantic Flight Training gives any warranty as to its accuracy or
otherwise. Students preparing for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations should not
regard this book as a substitute for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training syllabus
published in the current edition of “JAR-FCL 1 Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)” (the Syllabus).
The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition of the subject matter to be studied in a
JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge training programme. No student should prepare for, or is
entitled to enter himself/herself for, the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations without
first being enrolled in a training school which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised
national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training.
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ii
PREFACE_______________________
As the world moves toward a single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have
adopted the syllabi and regulations of the “Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing"
(JAR-FCL), the licensing agency of the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA).
Though training and licensing requirements of individual national aviation authorities are similar in
content and scope to the JAA curriculum, individuals who wish to train for JAA licences need
access to study materials which have been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the
JAA licensing system. The volumes in this series aim to cover the subject matter tested in the
JAA ATPL ground examinations as set forth in the ATPL training syllabus, contained in the JAA
publication, “JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes)”.
The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a
flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA-authorised national
aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. While the formal responsibility to prepare you for
both the skill tests and the ground examinations lies with the FTO, these Jeppesen manuals will
provide a comprehensive and necessary background for your formal training.
Jeppesen is acknowledged as the world's leading supplier of flight information services, and
provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data,
computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, maintenance
information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base
all US airlines and the majority of international airlines worldwide. It also serves the large general
and business aviation markets. These manuals enable you to draw on Jeppesen’s vast
experience as an acknowledged expert in the development and publication of pilot training
materials.
We at Jeppesen wish you success in your flying and training, and we are confident that your
study of these manuals will be of great value in preparing for the JAA ATPL ground examinations.
The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.
iii
ATPL Series
Meteorology (JAR Ref 050)
• The Atmosphere • Air Masses and Fronts
• Wind • Pressure System
• Thermodynamics • Climatology
• Clouds and Fog • Flight Hazards
• Precipitation • Meteorological Information
iv
Instrumentation (JAR Ref 022)
• Flight Instruments
• Automatic Flight Control Systems
• Warning and Recording Equipment
• Powerplant and System Monitoring Instruments
v
Human Performance and
Limitations (JAR Ref 040)
• Human Factors
• Aviation Physiology and Health Maintenance
• Aviation Psychology
vi
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1
Abbreviations and Definitions
Section 1 - Common abbreviations used in the JAA Central Question Bank ................................................1-1
Section 2 - ICAO Definitions .........................................................................................................................1-6
CHAPTER 2
The History of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944
Background...................................................................................................................................................2-1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................2-1
Safety ..........................................................................................................................................................2-1
International Law...........................................................................................................................................2-1
Scheduled and Non Scheduled Air Services.................................................................................................2-2
1919 Aeronautical Commission of the Paris Peace Conference...................................................................2-2
Convention of the Unification of Certain Rules to International Carriage by Air (Warsaw 1929) ...................2-2
1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation (the Chicago Convention) ..................................................2-3
Part I – Air Navigation ...................................................................................................................................2-4
Part II - The International Civil Aviation Organisation....................................................................................2-8
The Organisation ..........................................................................................................................................2-8
The Assembly ...............................................................................................................................................2-9
Annexes to the Convention ...........................................................................................................................2-9
Other International Agreements made at Chicago ......................................................................................2-11
The International Air Transport Agreement and the International Air Services Transit Agreement .............2-11
Supplementary Freedoms...........................................................................................................................2-11
The Convention of Tokyo 1963 ...................................................................................................................2-12
The Hague Convention of 1970 ..................................................................................................................2-13
The Montreal Convention of 1971...............................................................................................................2-13
Addendum to Chapter 2 ..............................................................................................................................2-14
Chapter IX - The Council ............................................................................................................................2-17
Chapter X - The Air Navigation Commission...............................................................................................2-19
CHAPTER 3
Other International and European Organisations
CHAPTER 4
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)
CHAPTER 5
Registration of Aircraft and Aircraft Markings
CHAPTER 6
Airworthiness of Aircraft
CHAPTER 7
Rules of the Air
CHAPTER 8
Signals
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................8-1
Emergency Signals .......................................................................................................................................8-1
Aerodrome Signals .......................................................................................................................................8-2
Acknowledgement.........................................................................................................................................8-2
Visual Ground Signals ..................................................................................................................................8-3
Signals from the Pilot of an Aircraft to a Marshaller ......................................................................................8-8
CHAPTER 9
Altimeter Setting Procedures
CHAPTER 10
Instrument Procedures
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................10-1
Publications.................................................................................................................................................10-1
Obstacle Clearance ....................................................................................................................................10-2
Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................................10-2
Departure Procedures.................................................................................................................................10-2
The Instrument Departure Procedure .........................................................................................................10-3
Establishment of a Departure Procedure ....................................................................................................10-3
Standard Instrument Departures.................................................................................................................10-5
Contingency Procedures.............................................................................................................................10-6
Published Information .................................................................................................................................10-8
Airways Departure Routes (SID Charts) .....................................................................................................10-8
The Instrument Approach Procedure ........................................................................................................10-13
Obstacle Clearance ..................................................................................................................................10-15
Accuracy of Fixes......................................................................................................................................10-21
Descent Gradient ......................................................................................................................................10-24
Approach Segments .................................................................................................................................10-24
Standard Arrivals Routes (STARS)...........................................................................................................10-24
Missed Approach ......................................................................................................................................10-28
Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) VM(C)A in the Vicinity of the Aerodrome...................................................10-30
Published Information ...............................................................................................................................10-31
Holding Procedures ..................................................................................................................................10-36
Simultaneous Operations on Parallel or Near Parallel Instrument Runways ............................................10-42
CHAPTER 11
Aeronautical Information Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................11-1
Responsibilities and Function .....................................................................................................................11-1
The Integrated Aeronautical Information Package (IAIP) ............................................................................11-1
Prohibited, Restricted, and Danger Areas...................................................................................................11-2
NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) .........................................................................................................................11-3
Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control (AIRAC) .........................................................................11-6
Aeronautical Information Circulars (AIC).....................................................................................................11-7
Pre-Flight and Post Flight Information.........................................................................................................11-8
Aeronautical Information Publication (AlP)..................................................................................................11-8
Contents of Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) ..............................................................................11-9
Air Law ix
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 12
Air Traffic Services and Airspace
CHAPTER 13
Air Traffic Control Services
CHAPTER 14
Flight Information Service (FIS)
CHAPTER 15
Aerodrome Control Service
x Air Law
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 16
Approach Control Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................16-1
Departures ..................................................................................................................................................16-1
Arrivals ........................................................................................................................................................16-2
Approach Sequence (Stacking) ..................................................................................................................16-4
Information for Arriving Aircraft ...................................................................................................................16-6
CHAPTER 17
Area Control Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................17-1
Separation...................................................................................................................................................17-2
Vertical Separation......................................................................................................................................17-2
Horizontal Separation .................................................................................................................................17-3
Lateral Separation.......................................................................................................................................17-4
Longitudinal Separation ..............................................................................................................................17-6
Reduced Separation Minima.....................................................................................................................17-14
CHAPTER 18
Air Traffic Advisory Service
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................18-1
Objective and Basic Principles....................................................................................................................18-1
Operation ....................................................................................................................................................18-1
Aircraft Using the Air Traffic Advisory Service.............................................................................................18-2
Aircraft Not Using the Air Traffic Advisory Service ......................................................................................18-2
Air Traffic Services Units.............................................................................................................................18-2
CHAPTER 19
Radar in Air Traffic Control
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................19-1
Radar Coverage..........................................................................................................................................19-1
Identification of Aircraft ...............................................................................................................................19-3
SSR Identification Procedures ....................................................................................................................19-3
PSR Identification Procedures ....................................................................................................................19-3
Position Information ....................................................................................................................................19-4
Radar Vectoring ..........................................................................................................................................19-4
Use of Radar in the Air Traffic Control Service ...........................................................................................19-7
Radar Separation Minima ...........................................................................................................................19-7
Emergencies, Hazards, and Equipment Failures ........................................................................................19-9
Use of Radar in the Approach Control Service ...........................................................................................19-9
Radar Approaches ....................................................................................................................................19-11
Use of Radar in Aerodrome Control..........................................................................................................19-12
CHAPTER 20
Secondary Surveillance Radar
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................20-1
Operation of Transponders .........................................................................................................................20-2
Emergency Procedures ..............................................................................................................................20-3
Communication Failure Procedures............................................................................................................20-3
Unlawful Interference with Aircraft in Flight .................................................................................................20-3
Phraseology ................................................................................................................................................20-3
Air Law xi
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 21
The Alerting Service
CHAPTER 22
Search and Rescue
CHAPTER 23
Aerodromes
CHAPTER 24
Aviation Security
General .......................................................................................................................................................24-1
Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................................................................24-1
National Organisation .................................................................................................................................24-1
International Co-Operation..........................................................................................................................24-1
Preventative Security Measures .................................................................................................................24-2
Carriage of Legal Weapons ........................................................................................................................24-2
Pre-Flight Checks .......................................................................................................................................24-2
Measures Related to Passengers and their Cabin Baggage ......................................................................24-2
Missing Passengers ....................................................................................................................................24-2
Measures Relating to Access Control .........................................................................................................24-2
Management of Response to Acts of Unlawful Interference .......................................................................24-3
Flight Deck Door .........................................................................................................................................24-3
Training Programmes .................................................................................................................................24-3
Isolated Aircraft Parking Position ................................................................................................................24-3
CHAPTER 25
Aircraft Accident Investigation
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................25-1
Definitions ...................................................................................................................................................25-1
Objective of the Investigation ......................................................................................................................25-2
Protection of Evidence, Custody, and Removal of Aircraft..........................................................................25-2
Request from State of Registry or State of Operator ..................................................................................25-2
Request from State of Design or State of Manufacturer .............................................................................25-3
Notification for Accidents or Serious Incidents ............................................................................................25-3
Reports .......................................................................................................................................................25-4
CHAPTER 26
Facilitation
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................26-1
Entry and Departure of Aircraft ...................................................................................................................26-1
Entry and Departure of Persons and their Baggage ...................................................................................26-3
Departure Requirements and Procedures ..................................................................................................26-4
Inadmissible Passengers, Deportees and Persons in Custody...................................................................26-4
CHAPTER 27
National Law
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................27-1
The Law of the UK ......................................................................................................................................27-1
Major UK Differences ..................................................................................................................................27-1
Royal Flights ...............................................................................................................................................27-3
Military Aerodrome Traffic Zones (MATZ) ...................................................................................................27-3
A
A Ampere ALT Altitude
ABM Abeam ALTN Alternate
ABN Aerodrome beacon APCH Approach
AC Alternating current APT Airport
AC Altocumulus APU Auxiliary power unit
ACAS Airborne collision avoidance system ARR Arrival
ACFT Aircraft AS Altostratus
ACT Active ASDA Accelerate stop distance available
AD Aerodrome AMSL Above mean sea level
ADC Air data computer ATA Actual time of arrival
ADDN Additional ATC Air traffic control
ADF Automatic direction finding ATIS Automatic terminal information service
ADI Attitude director indicator ATO Actual time overhead
AEO All engines operating ATS Air traffic services
AFIS Aerodrome flight information service AUX Auxiliary
AFM Aircraft flight manual AVG Average
AGL Above ground level AWY Airway
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication AZM Azimuth
B
BKN Broken BRG Bearing
C
ºC Degrees Celsius CI Cirrus
CAS Calibrated air speed CL Lift coefficient
CAT Clear air turbulence Cm Centimetre
CB Cumulonimbus CO Communications
CC Cirrocumulus CP Critical point
CD Drag coefficient CRM Crew resource management
CDI Course direction indicator CS Cirrostratus
CDU Control display unit CTR Control zone
cg Centre of gravity CU Cumulus
CWY Clearway
D
DA Decision altitude DG Directional gyroscope
DC Direct current DH Decision height
DEG Degrees DIST Distance
DEP Departure DME Distance measuring equipment
DES Descent DP Dew point
DEST Destination DR Dead reckoning
DEV Deviation DVOR Doppler VOR
D/F Direction finding
E
E East EICAS Engine indicator and crew alerting
system
EAS Equivalent airspeed EOBT Estimated off blocks time
EAT Expected approach time EPR Engine pressure ratio
ECAM Engine condition aircraft monitoring EST Estimated
EFIS Electronic flight instrument system ETA Estimated time of arrival
EGT Exhaust gas temperature ETO Estimated time overhead
F
ºF Degrees Fahrenheit FL Flight level
FAF Final approach fix FLT Flight
FCST Forecast FMS Flight management system
FD Flight director FT Feet
FIS Flight information system FT/MIN Feet per minute
FIS Flight Information Service
G
G Gramme GP Glide path
GAL Gallons GPWS Ground proximity warning system
GND Ground GS Ground speed
H
HDG Heading HSI Horizontal situation indicator
HF High frequency HT Height
hPa Hectopascal Hz Hertz
HR Hours
I
IAS Indicated airspeed INT Intersection
ILS Instrument landing system ISA International standard atmosphere
IMC Instrument meteorological conditions ISOL Isolated
IMP GAL Imperial gallons ITCZ Inter-tropical convergence zone
INS Inertial navigation systems IVSI Instantaneous vertical speed indicator
J
J Joule
K
kg Kilogramme kt Knot
kHz Kilohertz kW Kilowatt
km Kilometre
L
LAT Latitude LMT Local mean time
LB Pounds LONG Longitude
LDG Landing LT Local time
LDP Landing decision point LTD Limited
LEN Length LVL Level
LLZ Localiser (Localizer) LYR Layer
LMC Last minute change
M
m Metre MLS Microwave landing system
M Mass MM Middle marker
M Mach Number MNM Minimum
MAC Mean aerodynamic chord MNPS Minimum navigation performance
specification
MAP Manifold pressure
MAPt Missed approach point MOCA Minimum obstruction clearance altitude
max Maximum MORA Minimum off route altitude
MDH Minimum descent height MPH Miles per hour
MDH/A Minimum descent height/altitude MPS, mps Metres per second
MEA Minimum enroute altitude MSA Minimum sector altitude
MET Meteorological MSL Mean sea level
MIN Minutes MSU Mode selector unit
N
N Newton NDB Non-directional beacon
NGT Night NM Nautical miles
N North NOTAM Notice to airmen
NAT North Atlantic track NS Nimbostratus
NAV Navigation
O
OAT Outside air temperature OM Operating mass
OBS Omni bearing selector OM Outer marker
OCA(H) Obstacle clearance altitude (height) OPS Operations
OCL Obstacle clearance limit O/R On request
OEI One engine inoperative OVC Overcast
P
P Pressure POS Position
PAX Passenger PSI Pounds per square inch
PET Point of equal time PSR Point of Safe Return
PIC Pilot in command PTS Polar track structure
PLN Flight plan PWR Power
PNR Point of no return
R
r Radius RNAV Area Navigation
RAC Rules of the air and air traffic services ROC Rate of climb
RAS Rectified airspeed ROD Rate of descent
REP Reporting point RVR Runway visual range
RMI Remote magnetic indicator RWY Runway
RMK Remark
S
S South SR Sunrise
SAR Search and rescue SS Sunset
SARPs Standards and Recommended Practices SSR Secondary surveillance radar
SC Stratocumulus ST Stratus
SCT Scattered STAR Standard arrival route
SDBY Standby STD Standard
SEC Seconds STN Station
SEV Severe STNR Stationary
SFC Surface STS Status
SID Standard instrument departure SVFR Special VFR
SIM Simulator SWY Stop way
SKC Sky clear
T
T Temperature THR Threshold
TA Transition altitude TL Transition level
TAS True airspeed T/O Take-off
TAT Total air temperature TOC Top of climb
TC Tropical cyclone TORA Take off run available
TCAS Traffic collision avoidance system TS Thunderstorm
TDP Take-off decision point TWY Taxiway
U
U/S Unserviceable UTC Co-ordinated universal time
US-GAL US gallons
V
V Volt VSI Vertical speed indicator
VAR Magnetic variation VV Vertical visibility
VDF VHF direction finding station VA Design manoeuvring speed
VG Vertical gyro VB Design speed for max gust intensity
VHF Very high frequency VC/MC Design cruise speed / Mach number
VIS Visibility VD Design dive speed
VLF Very low frequency VF Design flap speed
VMC Visual meteorological conditions VFE Flap extended speed
VOLMET Meteorological information for aircraft in VFO Flap operating speed
flight
VOR VHF omni directional range VLE Landing gear extended speed
vrb Variable VLO Maximum landing gear operating
speed
W
W Watt W/V Wind velocity
W West WPT Way point
WC Wind component WS Wind shear
WCA Wind correction angle WX Weather
X
X Cross XX Heavy
XTK Cross track
Y
YD Yard
Accident — An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft that takes place between
the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight, until such time as all such
persons have disembarked, in which a person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of:
except when the injuries are from natural causes, self-inflicted or inflicted by other persons, or
when the injuries are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally available to the passengers
and crew, or the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which:
except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to the engine, its cowlings or
accessories; or for damage limited to propellers, wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes, fairings, small
dents or puncture holes in the aircraft skin, or the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible.
Note: An injury resulting in death within 30 days of the date of the accident is classified
as a fatal injury by ICAO.
Note: An aircraft is considered to be missing when the official search has been
terminated and the wreckage has not been located.
Advisory Airspace — Airspace of defined dimensions, or designated route, within which air
traffic advisory service is available.
Advisory Route — A designated route along which air traffic advisory service is available.
Aerodrome — A defined area of land or water (including any buildings, installations, and
equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure, and surface
movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome Beacon — Aeronautical beacon used to indicate the location of an aerodrome from
the air.
Aerodrome Control Service — Air traffic control service for aerodrome traffic.
Aerodrome Control Tower — A unit established to provide air traffic control service.
Aerodrome Elevation — The elevation of the highest point of the landing area.
¾ Take-off, expressed in terms of RVR and/or visibility and, if necessary, cloud conditions
¾ Landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility and/or
RVR and DA/DH, as appropriate to the category of the operation, and
¾ Landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility
and/or RVR, MDA/MDH and, if necessary, cloud conditions.
Aerodrome Reference Field Length — The minimum field length required for take-off at
maximum certificated take-off mass, sea level, standard atmospheric conditions, still air, and zero
runway slope, as shown in the appropriate aeroplane flight manual prescribed by the certificating
authority or equivalent data from the aeroplane manufacturer. Field length means balanced field
length for aeroplanes, if applicable, or take-off distance in other cases.
Aerodrome Taxi Circuit — The specified path of aircraft on the manoeuvring area during
specific wind conditions.
Aerodrome Traffic — All traffic on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome and all traffic flying in
the vicinity of an aerodrome.
Aeronautical Beacon — An aeronautical ground light visible at all azimuths, either continuously
or intermittently, to designate a particular point on the surface of the earth.
Aeronautical Ground Light — Any light specifically provided as an aid to air navigation, other
than a light displayed on an aircraft.
Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) — A notice containing information that does not qualify
for the origination of a NOTAM or for inclusion in the AlP, but which relates to flight safety, air
navigation, technical, administrative or legislative matters.
Aeronautical Mobile Service — A mobile service between aeronautical stations and aircraft
stations, or between aircraft stations, in which survival craft stations may participate; emergency
position-indicating radio beacon stations may also participate in this service on designated
distress and emergency frequencies.
Aeronautical Station — A land station in the aeronautical mobile service. In certain instances,
an aeronautical station may be located, for example, on board ship or on a platform at sea.
Aeroplane — A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
AIP Supplement — Temporary changes to the information contained in the AIP that are
published by means of special pages.
Air Report — A report from an aircraft in flight prepared in conformity with requirements for
position, and operational and/or meteorological reporting.
Air Traffic — All aircraft in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome.
Air Traffic Advisory Service — A service provided within advisory airspace to ensure
separation, in so far as practical between aircraft which are operating on IFR flight plans.
Air Traffic Control Clearance — Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under conditions
specified by an air traffic control unit.
Note: For convenience the term “Air Traffic Control Clearance” is frequently abbreviated
to “Clearance” when used in appropriate contexts.
Note: The abbreviated term “Clearance” may be prefixed by the words “Taxi”, “Take-off”,
“Departure”, “Enroute”, “Approach”, or "Landing” to indicate the particular portion of flight
to which the Air Traffic Control Clearance relates.
Air Traffic Control Instruction — Directives issued by ATC for the purpose of requiring a pilot to
take a specific action.
Air Traffic Control Service — A service provided for the purpose of:
Air Traffic Control Unit — A generic term meaning variously, area control centre, approach
control office, or aerodrome control tower.
Air Traffic Service — A generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting
service, air traffic advisory service, or air traffic control service (area control service, approach
control service, or aerodrome control service).
Air Traffic Services Reporting Office — A unit established for the purpose of receiving reports
concerning air traffic services and flight plans submitted before departure.
Note: An Air Traffic Services reporting office may be established as a separate unit or
combined with an existing unit, such as another Air Traffic Services Unit, or a unit of the
Aeronautical Information Service.
Air Traffic Services Unit — A generic term meaning variously, air traffic control unit, flight
information centre, or air traffic services reporting office.
Aircraft — Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface.
Aircraft Certified For Single-Pilot Operation — A type of aircraft that the State of Registry has
determined, during the certification process, can be operated safely with a minimum crew of one
pilot.
Aircraft Equipment — Articles, other than stores and spare parts of a removable nature, for use
on board an aircraft during flight, including first aid and survival equipment.
Aircraft Observation — The evaluation of one or more meteorological elements made from an
aircraft in flight.
Aircraft Proximity — A situation in which, in the opinion of a pilot or ATS personnel, the distance
between aircraft, as well as their relative positions and speed, have been such that the safety of
the aircraft involved may have been compromised. Aircraft proximity is classified as follows:
Risk Of Collision — The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which serious risk of
collision has existed.
Safety Not Assured — The risk classification of aircraft proximity, in which the safety of
the aircraft may have been compromised.
Risk Not Determined — The risk classification of aircraft proximity in which insufficient
information was available to determine the risk involved, or inconclusive or conflicting
evidence precluded such determination.
Aircraft Type — All aircraft of the same basic design, including all modifications thereto, except
those modifications which result in a change in handling or flight characteristics.
Airline — As provided in Article 96 of the Convention, any air transport enterprise offering or
operating a scheduled international air service.
AIRPROX — The code word used in an air traffic incident report to designate aircraft proximity.
Airway — A control area or portion thereof established in the form of a corridor equipped with
radio navigation aids.
Alert Phase — A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
occupants.
Alternate Aerodrome — An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes either
impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate
aerodromes include the following:
Take-off Alternate — An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land should this
become necessary shortly after take-off and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of
departure.
Note: The aerodrome from which a flight departs may also be an enroute or a
destination alternate aerodrome for that flight.
Altitude — The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point measured
from mean sea level (MSL).
Approach Control Office — A unit established to provide ATC service to controlled flights
arriving at, or departing from, one or more aerodromes.
Approach Control Service — ATC service for arriving or departing controlled flights.
Appropriate ATS Authority — The relevant authority designated by the state responsible for
providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned.
Appropriate Authority
¾ Regarding flight over the high seas — The relevant authority of the state of registry.
¾ Regarding flight other than over the high seas — The relevant authority of the state
having sovereignty over the territory being over flown.
Apron — A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft for the
purposes of loading or unloading passengers, mail, or cargo, fuelling, parking, or maintenance.
Apron Management Service — A service provided to regulate the activities and the movement
of aircraft and vehicles on an apron.
Area Control Centre — A unit established to provide Air Traffic Control Service to controlled
flights in control areas under its jurisdiction.
Area Control Service — Air Traffic Control Service for controlled flight in Control Areas.
Area Navigation (RNAV) — A method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any
desired flight path within the coverage of the station referenced navigation aids or within the limits
of the capability of self contained aids, or a combination of these.
Area Navigation Route — An ATS route established for the use of aircraft capable of employing
area navigation.
ATIS — The symbol used to designate automatic terminal information service.
ATS Route — A specified route designed for channelling the flow of traffic as necessary for the
provision of air traffic services.
Note: The term “ATS route” is used to mean variously, airway, advisory route, controlled
or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route, etc.
Barrette — Three or more aeronautical ground lights closely spaced in a traverse line so that
from a distance they appear as a short bar of light.
Base Turn — A turn executed by the aircraft during the initial approach between the end of the
outbound track and the beginning of the intermediate or final approach track. The tracks are not
reciprocal.
Note: Base turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or while
descending, according to the circumstances of each individual procedure.
Cargo — Any property carried on an aircraft other than mail, stores, and accompanied or
mishandled baggage.
Ceiling — The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below
6000 metres (20 000 ft) covering more than half the sky.
Certify as Airworthy (to) — To certify that an aircraft or parts thereof comply with current
airworthiness requirements after maintenance has been performed on the aircraft or parts
thereof.
Change-over Point — The point at which an aircraft navigating over an ATS route segment,
defined by reference to very high frequency omni directional radio ranges, is expected to transfer
its primary navigational reference from the facility behind the aircraft to the next facility ahead of
the aircraft.
Note: Change-over points are established to provide the optimum balance in respect of
signal strength and quality between facilities at all levels to be used and to ensure a
common source of azimuth guidance for all aircraft operating along the same portion of a
route segment.
Clearance Limit — The point to which an aircraft is granted an Air Traffic Control Clearance.
Clearway — A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the
appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make
a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
Code (SSR) — The number assigned to a particular multiple pulse reply signal transmitted by a
transponder in Mode A or Mode C.
Configuration (as applied to the aeroplane) — A particular combination of the positions of the
moveable elements, such as wing flaps, landing gear etc, which affect the aerodynamic
characteristics of the aeroplane.
Control Area — A controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit above the earth.
Note: The term “Controlled Aerodrome” indicates that Air Traffic Control Service is
provided to Aerodrome Traffic, but does not necessarily imply that a Control Zone exists.
Controlled Airspace — An airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service
is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification.
Note: Controlled airspace is a generic term which covers ATS airspace Class A, B, C, D,
and E.
Controlled Flight — Any flight which is subject to an Air Traffic Control Clearance.
Control Zone — A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a
specified upper limit.
Co-Pilot — A licensed pilot serving in any piloting capacity other than as PIC, but excluding a
pilot who is on board the aircraft for the sole purpose of receiving flight instruction.
Crew Member — A person assigned by an operator to duty on an aircraft during flight time.
Critical Power Unit(s) — The power unit(s) failure of which gives the most adverse effect on the
aircraft characteristics relative to the case under consideration.
Cruise Climb — An aeroplane cruising technique resulting in a net increase in altitude as the
aeroplane mass decreases.
Current Flight Plan — The flight plan, including changes, if any, brought about by subsequent
clearances.
Danger Area — An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the flight
of aircraft may exist at specified times.
Decision Altitude (DA) or Decision Height (DH) — A specified altitude or height in the precision
approach at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to
continue the approach has not been established.
Note: The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the
approach area which should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to have
made an assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of position, in relation to
the desired flight path. In Category III operations with a DH the required visual reference
is that specified for the particular procedure and operation.
Declared Distances
Take-Off Run Available (TORA) — The length of runway declared available and
suitable for the ground run of an aircraft.
Take-Off Distance Available (TODA) — The length of the take-off run available, plus
the length of the clearway, if provided.
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) — The length of the take-off run available,
plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
Landing Distance Available (LDA) — The length of the runway that is declared
available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
Design Landing Mass — The maximum mass of the aircraft at which, for structural design
purposes, it is assumed that it will be planned to land.
Design Take-off Mass — The maximum mass at which the aircraft, for structural design
purposes, is assumed to be planned to be at the start of the take-off run.
Design Taxiing Mass — The maximum mass of the aircraft at which structural provision is made
for load liable to occur during use of the aircraft on the ground prior to the start of take-off.
Distress Phase — A situation wherein there is a reasonable certainty that an aircraft and its
occupants are threatened by grave and imminent danger or require immediate assistance.
DME Distance — The line of sight distance (slant range) from the source of a DME signal to the
receiving antenna.
Dual Instruction Time — Flight time, during which a person is receiving flight instruction from a
properly authorised pilot on board the aircraft.
Elevation — The vertical distance of a point on or affixed to the surface of the earth, measured
from mean sea level.
Emergency Phase — A generic term meaning, as the case may be, uncertainty phase, alert
phase, or distress phase.
Estimated Elapsed Time — The estimated time to fly from one significant point to another.
Estimated Off-Blocks Time — The estimated time at which the aircraft will commence
movement associated with departure.
Estimated Time of Arrival — For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will
arrive over the designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids, from which it is intended
that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if no navigation aid is associated
with the aerodrome, the time at which the aircraft will arrive over the aerodrome. For VFR flights,
the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will arrive over the aerodrome.
Expected Approach Time — The time at which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft, following a
delay, will leave the holding point to complete its approach for a landing.
Note: The actual time of leaving the holding point will depend upon the approach
clearance.
Filed Flight Plan — The flight plan, as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot or a designated
representative, without any subsequent changes.
Final Approach — That part of an instrument approach procedure which commences at the
specified final approach fix or point, or where such a fix or point is not specified:
¾ At the end of the last procedure turn, base turn or inbound turn of a racetrack procedure, if
specified, or
¾ At the point of interception of the last track specified in the approach procedure, and ends at
a point in the vicinity of an aerodrome from which:
Final Approach and Take-Off Area (FATO) — A defined area over which the final phase of the
approach manoeuvre to landing is completed and from which the take-off manoeuvre is
commenced.
Final Approach Segment — The segment of an instrument runway procedure in which
alignment and descent for landing are accomplished.
Fixed Light — A light having constant luminous intensity when observed from a fixed point.
Flight Crew Member — A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation
of an aircraft during flight time.
Flight Information Centre — A unit established to provide flight information service and alerting
service.
Flight Information Region — An airspace of defined dimensions within which flight information
service and alerting service are provided.
Flight Information Service — A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and
information useful to the safe and effective conduct of flights.
Note: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere:
Note: The terms “height” and “altitude” used in the above note, indicate altimetric rather
than geometric heights and altitudes.
Flight Plan — Specified information provided to Air Traffic Services Units, relative to an intended
flight or portion of a flight of an aircraft.
Flight Recorder — Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of complementing
accident/incident investigation.
Flight Time — The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for the
purpose of taking-off until the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight.
Note: Flight time as here defined is synonymous with the term “block to block” time or
“chock to chock” time in general usage which is measured from the time an aircraft
moves from the loading point until it stops at the unloading point.
Flight Manual — A manual associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containing limitations
within which the aircraft is to be considered airworthy, and instructions and information necessary
to the flight crew members for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Flight Visibility — The visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
Flow Control — Measures designed to adjust the flow of traffic into a given airspace, along a
given route, or bound for a given aerodrome, so as to ensure the most effective utilization of the
airspace.
Forecast — A statement of expected meteorological conditions for a specified time or period, and
for a specified area or portion of airspace.
Frangible Object — An object of low mass designed to break, distort, or yield on impact so as to
present the minimum hazard to aircraft.
Glide Path — A descent profile determined for vertical guidance during a final approach.
Ground Equipment — Articles of a specialised nature for use in the maintenance, repair, and
servicing of an aircraft on the ground, including testing equipment and cargo/passenger-handling
equipment.
Heading — The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is pointed, usually expressed
in degrees from North (true, magnetic, compass, or grid).
Heavier-than-air Aircraft — Any aircraft deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic forces.
Height — The vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point, measured
from a specified datum, other than mean sea level (MSL).
Holding Bay — A defined area where aircraft can be held, or bypassed, to facilitate efficient
surface movement of aircraft.
Holding Point — A specified location, identified by visual or other means, in the vicinity of which
the position of an aircraft in flight is maintained in accordance with ATC clearances.
Incident — An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft
that affects, or could affect, the safety of operation
Initial Approach Segment — That segment of an instrument approach procedure between the
initial approach fix and the intermediate approach fix or, where applicable, the final approach fix
or point,
Instrument Flight Time — Time during which a pilot is piloting an aircraft solely by reference to
instruments and without external reference points,
Instrument Ground Time — Time during which a pilot is practising, on the ground, simulated
instrument flight in a synthetic flight trainer approved by the licensing authority,
Note: The specified minima for VMC are contained within the Aviation Law Notes.
Instrument Runway — One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of
aircraft using instrument approach procedures:
CAT IIIA — Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 30 m
(100 ft), or no decision height and a runway visual range not less than 200 m.
CAT IIIB — Intended for operations with a decision height lower than 15 m
(50 ft), or no decision height and a runway visual range less than 200 m but not
less than 50 m (JAR-OPS: 75 m).
CAT IIIC — Intended for operations with no decision height and no runway visual
range limitations.
¾ The intermediate approach fix and the final approach fix or point, or
¾ Between the end of a reversal, racetrack or DR track procedure and the final approach fix or
point.
International Airport — Any airport designated by the Contracting State in whose territory it is
situated as an airport of entry and departure for international air traffic, where the formalities
incident to customs, immigration, public health, animal and plant quarantine, and similar
procedures are carried out.
International NOTAM Office — An office designated by a State for the exchange of NOTAM
internationally.
Investigation — A process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention that includes the
gathering and analysis of information for the drawing of conclusions, including the determination
of causes, and when appropriate, the making of safety recommendations.
Landing Area — That part of a movement area intended for the landing or take-off of aircraft.
Landing Direction Indicator — A device to indicate visually the direction currently designated
for landing and for take-off.
Landing Surface — That part of the surface of an aerodrome which the aerodrome authority has
declared available for the normal ground or water run of aircraft landing in a particular direction.
Level — A generic term relating to the vertical position of an aircraft in flight, and meaning
variously, height, altitude, or flight level.
Location Indicator — A four letter code group formulated in accordance with rules prescribed by
ICAO and assigned to the location of an aeronautical fixed station.
Maintenance — Tasks required ensuring the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including any
one or combination of: overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement, modification, or defect
rectification.
Manoeuvring Area — That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing
of aircraft, excluding aprons.
Marker — An object displayed above ground level in order to indicate an obstacle or delineate a
boundary.
Marking — A symbol or group of symbols displayed on the surface of the movement area in
order to convey aeronautical information.
Medical Assessment — The evidence issued by a Contracting State that the licence holder
meets specific requirements of medical fitness. It is issued following an evaluation by the
licensing authority of the report submitted by the designated medical examiner who conducted
the examination of the applicant for the licence.
Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or Minimum Descent Height (MDH) — A specified altitude
or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which descent must not be
made without the required visual reference.
Note: MDA is referenced to mean sea level and MDH is referenced to the aerodrome
elevation or to the threshold elevation if that is more than 2 m (7 ft) below the aerodrome
elevation. A MDH for a circling approach is referenced to the aerodrome elevation.
Note: The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the
approach area that should have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to make an
assessment of the aircraft position and rate of change of position, in relation to the
desired flight path. In the case of a circling approach the required visual reference is the
runway environment.
Minimum Sector Altitude — The lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a
minimum clearance of 300 m (1000 ft) above all objects located in an area contained within a
sector of a circle of 46 km (25 nm) radius centred on a radio aid to navigation.
Missed Approach Point (MAPt) — That point in an instrument approach procedure at or before
which the prescribed missed approach procedure must be initiated in order to ensure that the
minimum obstacle clearance is not infringed.
Mode (SSR) — The conventional identifier related to specific functions of the interrogation signals
transmitted by an SSR interrogator.
Movement Area — That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing, and taxiing of
aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring area and the aprons.
Non-Instrument Runway — A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.
Normal Operating Zone (NOZ) — Airspace of defined dimensions extending either side of an
ILS localizer course and/or MLS final approach track. Only the inner half of the normal operating
zone is taken into account in independent parallel approaches.
Obstacle — All fixed (whether temporary or permanent) and mobile objects, or parts thereof that
are located on an area intended for the surface movement of aircraft or that extend above a
defined surface intended to protect aircraft in flight.
Obstacle Assessment Surface (OAS) — A defined surface intended for the purpose of
determining those obstacles to be considered for the calculation of obstacle clearance
altitude/height for a specific ILS facility and procedure.
Obstacle Clearance Altitude (OCA) or Obstacle Clearance Height (OCH) — The lowest
altitude or the lowest height above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or the
aerodrome elevation as applicable, used in establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle
clearance criteria.
Note: OCA is referenced to mean sea level and OCH is referenced to the aerodrome
elevation or to the threshold elevation if that is more than 2 m (7 ft) below the aerodrome
elevation. An OCH for a circling approach is referenced to the aerodrome elevation.
Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ) — The airspace above the inner approach surface, inner transitional
surfaces, and balked landing surface and that portion of the strip bounded by these surfaces,
which is not penetrated by any fixed obstacle other than a low-mass and frangible mounted one
required for air navigation purposes.
Operational Control — The exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation, diversion, or
termination of a flight in the interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of
the flight.
Pilot (to) — To manipulate the flight controls of an aircraft during flight time.
Pilot in Command — The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during
flight.
Power Unit — A system of one or more engines and ancillary parts that are together necessary
to provide thrust, independently of the continued operation of any other power-unit(s), but not
including short period thrust producing devices.
Primary Area — A defined area symmetrically disposed about the nominal flight track in which
full obstacle clearance is provided.
Procedure Turn — A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away from a designated track followed
by a turn in the opposite direction to permit the aircraft to intercept and proceed along the
reciprocal of the designated track.
Note: Procedure turns are designated “left” or “right” according to the direction of the
initial turn.
Note: Procedure turns may be designated as being made either in level flight or while
descending, according to the circumstances of each individual procedure.
Prohibited Area — An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters
of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.
Racetrack Procedure — A procedure designed to enable the aircraft to reduce altitude during
the initial approach segment and/or establish the aircraft inbound when the entry into a reversal
procedure is not practical.
Radar Approach — An approach in which the final approach phase is executed under the
direction of a radar controller.
Radar Contact — The situation which exists when the radar position of a particular aircraft is
seen and identified on a radar display.
Radar Control — Term used to indicate that radar derived information is employed directly in the
provision of ATC service
Radio Direction Finding Station — A radio station intended to determine only the direction of
other stations by means of transmissions from the latter.
Radar Identification — The situation that exists when the radar position of a particular aircraft is
seen on a radar display and positively identified by the ATC controller.
Radar Monitoring — The use of radar for the purpose of providing aircraft with information and
advice relative to significant deviations from nominal flight path, including deviations from the
terms of their ATC clearances.
Radar Position Indication (RPI) — The visual indication, in non symbolic and/or symbolic form,
on a radar display, of the position of an aircraft obtained after automatic processing of positional
data derived from primary and/or SSR.
Radar Position Symbol (RIPS) — The visual indication, in symbolic form, on a radar display, of
the position of an aircraft obtained after automatic processing of positional data derived from
primary and/or SSR.
Radar Separation — The separation used when aircraft position information is derived from
radar sources.
Radar Service — The term used to indicate a service provided directly by means of radar.
Rating — An authorisation entered on or associated with a licence and forming part thereof
stating special conditions, privileges, or limitations pertaining to such a licence.
Repetitive Flight Plan — A flight plan related to a series of frequently recurring, regularly
operated individual flights with identical basic features, submitted by an operator for retention and
repetitive use by ATS units.
Restricted Area — An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters
of a state, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified
conditions.
Reversal Procedure — A procedure designed to enable aircraft to reverse direction during the
initial approach segment of an instrument approach procedure. The sequence may include
procedure turns or base turns.
Runway — A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take-off
of aircraft.
Runway End Safety Area (RESA) — An area symmetrical about the extended runway centre
line and adjacent to the end of the strip primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an
aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the aerodrome.
Runway Guard Lights — A light system intended to caution pilots or vehicle drivers that they are
about to enter an active runway.
Runway Strip — A defined area including the runway and stop way, if provided, intended:
¾ To reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off the runway, and
¾ To protect aircraft flying over it during take-off and landing operations.
Runway Visual Range (RVR) — The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line
of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line.
Secondary Area — A defined area on each side of the primary area located along the nominal
flight track in which decreasing obstacle clearance is provided.
Secondary Radar — A radar system wherein a radio signal transmitted from the radar station
initiates the transmission of a radio signal from another station.
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) — A surveillance radar system that uses a transmitter
receiver system of interrogators and transponders.
Note: The difference between an accident and a serious incident lies only in the result.
¾ Requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days from the date the
injury was received, or
¾ Results in a fracture of any bone (Not simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose), or
¾ Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage, or
¾ Involves injury to any internal organ, or
¾ Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of the body
surface, or
¾ Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
Signal Area — An area of an aerodrome used for the display of ground signals.
Significant Point — A specified geographical location used in defining an ATS route or the flight
path of an aircraft, and for other navigation and ATS purposes.
Slush — Water-saturated snow, which with a heel-and-toe slap down motion against the ground
will be displaced with a splatter; Specific Gravity: 0.5 up to 0.8.
Dry Snow — Snow that can be blown if loose or, if compacted by hand, will fall apart
again upon release: Specific Gravity is up to but not including 0.35.
Wet Snow — Snow which, if compacted by hand, will stick together and tend to form a
snowball: Specific Gravity is 0.35 up to but not including 0.45.
Compacted Snow — Snow that has been compressed into a solid mass that resists
further compression and will hold together or break up into lumps if picked up: Specific
Gravity is 0.45 and over.
Special VFR Flight — A VFR flight cleared by air traffic control to operate within a control zone in
meteorological conditions below VMC.
Standard Instrument Arrival (STAR) — A designated IFR arrival route linking a significant point,
normally on an ATS route, with a point from which a published instrument approach procedure
can be commenced.
Standard Instrument Departure (SID) — A designated IFR departure route linking the
aerodrome or a specified runway of the aerodrome with a specified significant point, normally on
a designated ATS route, at which the enroute phase of a flight commences.
State of Design — The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the type
design.
State of Manufacture — The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the
final assembly of the aircraft.
State of Occurrence — The State in the territory of which an accident or incident occurs.
State of the Operator — The State in which the operator’s principal place of business is located
or, if there is no such place of business, the operator’s permanent residence.
Stopway — A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of TORA prepared as a suitable
area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off.
Synthetic Flight Trainer — Any one of the following three types of apparatus in which flight
conditions are simulated on the ground:
Flight Procedures Trainer — A flight procedures trainer, which provides a realistic flight
deck environment, and which simulates instrument responses, simple control functions of
mechanical and electrical systems, and the performance and flight characteristics of
aircraft of a particular class.
Basic Instrument Flight Trainer — A basic instrument flight trainer, which is equipped
with appropriate instruments, and which simulates the flight deck environment of an
aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions.
Take-off Surface — That part of the surface of an aerodrome which the aerodrome authority has
declared available for the normal ground or water run of aircraft taking off in a particular direction.
Taxi-Holding Position — A designated position at which taxiing aircraft and vehicles shall stop
and hold position, unless otherwise authorised by the aerodrome control tower.
Taxiing — The movement of an aircraft on the surface of an aerodrome under its own power,
excluding take-off and landing, but including, in the case of helicopters, operation over the
surface of an aerodrome within a height band associated with ground effect and at speeds
associated with taxiing (e.g. air-taxiing).
Taxiway — A defined path on a land aerodrome established for the taxiing of aircraft and
intended to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another, including:
Aircraft Stand Taxi Lane — A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended
to provide access to aircraft stands only.
Taxiway Strip — An area including taxiway intended to protect an aircraft operating on the
taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft accidentally running off the taxiway.
Terminal Control Area — A control area normally established at the confluence of ATS routes in
the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes.
Threshold (THR) — The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for landing.
Total Estimated Elapsed Time — For IFR flights, the estimated time required from take-off to
arrive over that designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids, from which it is
intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if no navigation aid is
associated with the destination aerodrome, to arrive over the destination aerodrome. For VFR
flights, the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over the destination aerodrome.
Touchdown — The point where the nominal glide path intercepts the runway.
Touchdown Zone — The portion of a runway, beyond the threshold, where it is intended landing
aeroplanes first contact the runway.
Track — The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an aircraft, the direction of which
path at any point is usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic, or grid).
Traffic Avoidance Advice — Advice provided by Air Traffic Services Unit specifying manoeuvres
to assist a pilot to avoid a collision.
Traffic Information — Information issued by an air traffic services unit to alert a pilot to other
known or observed air traffic, which may be in proximity to the position or intended route of flight,
and to help the pilot avoid a collision.
Transfer of Control Point — A defined point located along the flight path of an aircraft, at which
the responsibility for providing ATC service to the aircraft is transferred from one control unit or
control position to the next.
Transferring Unit — ATCU in the process of transferring the responsibility for providing ATC
service to an aircraft to the next ATCU along the route of flight.
Transition Altitude — The altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is
controlled by reference to altitudes.
Transition Layer — The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.
Transition Level — The lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude.
Uncertainty Phase — A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
occupants.
VFR Flight — A flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules.
Visual Approach — An approach by an IFR aircraft when either part or all of an instrument
approach procedure is not completed and the approach is executed in visual reference to terrain.
Visual Manoeuvring (Circling) Area — The area in which obstacle clearance should be taken
into consideration for aircraft carrying out a circling approach.
Way-Point — A specified geographical location used to define an area navigation route or the
flight path of an aircraft employing area navigation.
INTRODUCTION
For commercial aviation to operate, it is necessary for states to afford the airlines of other states
the right to fly into and across their territory for both traffic and non-traffic purposes. Agreements
are necessary to achieve this:
SAFETY
International air transport is not just about navigation. The competitive nature of the business
could create the obvious temptation to 'cut corners' and increase profit, so strict regulation is
required to maintain safety. Over the years, the philosophy of ‘a safe airline is a profitable airline'
has evolved. Both Authorities and Operators have embraced safety through a system of
international agreements, which have been translated into law in the contracting states.
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Just as no state has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of another state, no convention has
the right to impose rules and regulations. Only the legislative body of a state can make and
impose law in that state. So the agreements reached at international conventions have to be
translated into national law. If a state accepts the agreement without modification, or after agreed
modification, and it becomes national law, the process is known as 'ratification’. Because the text
of the agreement is accepted by all states that ratify the agreement, the agreement is then
'international' in nature, and the ensuing law is also 'international'. The principal sources of
International Air Law are treaties. They are the international agreements entered into between
states. Such treaties or conventions may be multilateral or bilateral.
This convention was amended and simplified by the 1955 Hague Protocol. The Montreal
Agreement of 1966 further amended the financial liability of operators. The convention lays down
uniform rules governing the air carrier's liabilities in respect of passengers and goods. The
Warsaw Convention deals only with rights and obligations of contracting carriers and applies to
the international carriage of persons, baggage, or cargo performed by aircraft for reward.
PASSENGER TICKET
A passenger ticket shall be issued for each flight containing:
The absence, irregularity, or loss of the passenger ticket does not affect the validity of the
contract of carriage, which shall be subject to the rules of the convention. If a carrier accepts a
passenger without a ticket, the carrier will not be able to fall back on the provisions of the
convention that limit liability. If a carrier issues an 'electronic' ticket, then the provisions of the
Warsaw Convention must be communicated by other means.
BAGGAGE CHECK
For luggage, other than small personal objects that the passengers take themselves, the carrier
must issue a luggage ticket. The luggage ticket is made out in duplicate, one for the passenger
and the other for the carrier.
The 'agreement' is in two parts. The first covers International Air Navigation, and the second
covers the organisation that administers the terms and conditions of the agreement. In common
with other international conferences, the agreement is laid out in article form, where each
individual article stands alone as a definitive statement. You are not required to recall the content
of articles by number, but to have a broad understanding of what the agreement contains.
Article 1 — Sovereignty
The Contracting States recognise that every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty over
the airspace above its territory.
Article 2 — Territory
For the purposes of this convention, the territory of a State shall be deemed to be the land areas
and territorial waters adjacent thereto under the sovereignty, suzerainty, protection, or mandate of
such a State.
Suzerainty
Is the acceptance by one state of the protection of another state. It has origins in feudal
relationships. In aviation, it relates to the acceptance by one state of the regulation of its
airspace by another state (e.g. the relationship between France and Monaco. Monaco
has no aerodromes and no ATC system and has asked France to administer the control
of air traffic over the territory of the State. French law is applied to Monegasque [Monaco]
airspace).
¾ Aircraft used in military, customs, and police services shall be deemed to be State
aircraft.
¾ No State aircraft of a Contracting State shall fly over the territory of another State or
land without authorization by special agreement or otherwise.
¾ The Contracting States undertake, when issuing regulations for their State aircraft,
that they will have due regard for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft.
Article 7 — Cabotage
Each Contracting State shall have the right to refuse permission to the aircraft of other
Contracting States to take on in its territory passengers, mail, and cargo carried for remuneration
or hire and destined for another point within its territory. Each Contracting State undertakes not to
enter into any arrangements that specifically grant any such privilege on an exclusive basis to any
other State or an airline of any other State, and not to obtain any such exclusive privilege from
any other State.
¾ Aircraft on a flight to, from, or across the territory of another Contracting State shall
be admitted temporarily free of duty, subject to the customs regulations of the State.
Fuel, lubricating oils, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft spares on board an
aircraft of a Contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another Contracting State
and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from
customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges. This
exemption shall not apply to any quantities or articles unloaded, except in
accordance with the customs regulations of the State, which may require that they
shall be kept under customs supervision.
¾ Spare parts and equipment imported into the territory of a Contracting State for
incorporation in or use on an aircraft of another Contracting State engaged in
international air navigation shall be admitted free of customs duty, subject to
compliance with the regulations of the State concerned, which may provide that the
articles shall be kept under customs supervision and control.
Each Contracting State reserves the right to refuse to recognize, for the purposes of flight above
its own territory, certificates of competency and licences granted to any of its nationals by other
Contracting States.
To this end the ICAO shall adopt and amend, as may be necessary, international standards and
recommended practices and procedures dealing with:
and other such matters concerned with the safety, regularity, and efficiency of air navigation as
may from time to time appear appropriate.
THE ORGANISATION
ASSEMBLY
All Contracting States one member one vote
COUNCIL
33 Contracting States elected by the Assembly
(President of the Council is elected by the Council)
Air Navigation Air Transport Legal Committee Committee on Joint Finance Committee Committee on
Commission Committee Support of Air Navigation Unlawful Interference
Services
Legal Committee
Finance Committee
Not more than 13 members, with not less than 9 members, appointed by the Council.
Objectives
The aims and objectives of the organization are to develop the principles and techniques of
international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air
transport so as to:
¾ Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world.
¾ Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes.
¾ Encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities for
international civil aviation.
¾ Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical
air transport.
¾ Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition.
¾ Ensure that the rights of Contracting States are fully respected and that every
Contracting State has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines.
¾ Avoid discrimination between Contracting States.
¾ Promote safety of flight in international air navigation.
¾ Promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil aeronautics.
THE ASSEMBLY
The Assembly shall meet not less than once every three years and shall be convened by the
Council at a suitable time and place. An extraordinary meeting of the Assembly may be held at
any time upon the call of the Council or at the request of not less than 1/5th of the total number of
Contracting States. All Contracting States shall have an equal right to be represented at the
meetings of the Assembly and each Contracting State shall be entitled to one vote. A majority of
the Contracting States is required to constitute a quorum for the meetings of the Assembly.
Unless otherwise provided in this Convention, decisions of the Assembly shall be taken by a
majority of the votes cast.
ICAO regulations are not automatically the law of a contracting state. All regulations have to be
enacted as part of the law of that state.
Standard
Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, material,
performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is
recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of International Navigation
and to which Contracting States will conform in accordance with the convention.
In the event of non-compliance then notification to the council is compulsory. The
word 'SHALL' defines a standard.
Recommended Practice
Any specification for physical characteristics, configuration, material,
performance, personnel or procedure, the uniform application of which is
recognized as desirable for the safety or regularity of International Navigation
and to which Contracting States will endeavour to conform in accordance with
the convention. In the event of non-compliance then notification to the council is
not compulsory. The word 'SHOULD' defines a recommended practice.
¾ New procedures, or those which are too complicated or detailed for inclusion in an
Annex.
¾ Operating procedures that have not attained a status for adoption as International
Standards and Recommended Practices.
Technical Manuals
These documents amplify the SARPs and PANS. They are designed to assist in the use of the
relevant document.
ICAO Circulars
Any information that is of specific interest to contracting states is transmitted by these documents.
One The freedom of innocent passage. The right to fly across the territory of a state
without landing.
Two Freedom of Facilities. The right to use (land in) foreign territory to refuel or carry
out maintenance. This does not give any traffic rights.
Three The right to carry revenue traffic(1) from the operator state (A) to a treaty partner
state (B).
Four The right to carry revenue traffic from a treaty partner state (B) to the operator
state (A).
Five The right to carry revenue traffic between any points of landing on flights
between 3 or more treaty partner nations (A to B to C). This is the most important
'freedom' as it effectively facilitates international traffic operations. The term 'a
fifth freedom flight' is used extensively.
(Do not get this freedom mixed up with Cabotage)
Freedoms one and two are known as technical freedoms, and freedoms three, four, and five are
the commercial freedoms.
SUPPLEMENTARY FREEDOMS
Since 1944, evolution of international air transport has led to situations not envisioned at Chicago.
These are now embodied in 'new' freedoms. (These are outside the learning objectives for 010 —
Air Law).
Six A combination of Freedoms 3 and 4. Revenue traffic flown between two treaty
partner states (A to C) through the carrier state (B).
Seven Revenue traffic flown between two nations (A and B) by carrier of a third nation
(C) without the flight originating, terminating, or landing in state C.
Eight Cabotage (within the EEC) The right to carry revenue traffic between two
points within a treaty (EEC) nation by the carrier of another EEC nation, whilst
allowing the treaty organisation (EEC) to apply cabotage to non-treaty nations.
Nine Code Sharing. The combining of two or more scheduled flights under one
operation. This preserves the schedules but economises on aircraft and
effectively increases passenger loading. Technically, this is a breach of the
schedule agreement between states. However, reduced pollution, reduced noise
nuisance, increased profits, and reduced aerodrome loading all make code
sharing attractive to both aviation authorities and operators alike.
National Jurisdiction
The convention states that the State of Registry of an aircraft is responsible for exercising
jurisdiction over offences and acts committed on board, with the stipulation that the
authority of any other state does not apply (see Jurisdiction of Other States). The State of
Registry should take all legal steps necessary to ensure this.
¾ An offence has been committed on board in the territorial airspace of that state.
¾ An offence committed on board has an effect on the territory of the state.
¾ An offence has been committed on board against a national, or permanent resident,
of that state.
¾ An offence has been committed on board against the security of that state.
¾ The offence committed is a breach of the rules or regulations relating to the flight of
aircraft in that state.
¾ The exercise of jurisdiction is necessary to ensure the observance of any multi-
national agreements between states.
Pilot in Command
If a person commits, or is about to commit, an unlawful act on board an aircraft, the
aircraft commander may impose reasonable measures, including restraint, considered
necessary:
¾ To enable handing a person over to the competent authorities. This can include
removal of a passenger from an aircraft, or refusal of permission for a person to
board an aircraft.
To carry out his task the aircraft commander may require the assistance of other crew
members. Passengers may also be asked to assist, if necessary.
¾ Commit acts of violence on board aircraft that endanger people and property and the
safety of the aircraft.
¾ Destroy an aircraft in service or cause damage which renders the aircraft incapable of
flight or which is likely to endanger the safety of flight.
¾ Place a device on board an aircraft that is likely to destroy the aircraft, damage it, or
render it unfit for flight.
¾ Destroy or damage any navigation facility or interference with its correct operation.
¾ Interfere with aircraft communications or transmit information known to be false that
endangers the safety of an aeroplane in flight.
Note: In this context, a protocol is a diplomatic method whereby the content of an agreement can
be amended without the need to re-convene the entire convention.
ADDENDUM TO CHAPTER 2
The LOs for 010 Air Law require the student to have knowledge of defined parts of the Chicago
Convention. For completeness, the remaining Articles of the Convention (those not covered in the
body of Chapter 2) are reproduced below.
¾ Each Contracting State may, for reasons of military necessity or public safety, restrict
or prohibit the aircraft of other States from flying over certain areas of its territory.
This is provided that no distinction in this respect is made between the aircraft of the
State whose territory is involved. Prohibited areas shall be of reasonable extent and
location so as not to interfere unnecessarily with air navigation. Descriptions of
prohibited areas in the territory of a Contracting State, as well as any subsequent
alterations, shall be communicated as soon as possible to other Contracting States
and to the ICAO.
¾ Each Contracting State reserves the right, in exceptional circumstances or during a
period of emergency, or in the interests of public safety, and with immediate effect, to
restrict or prohibit flying over the whole or any part of its territory temporarily. Such a
restriction or prohibition shall be applicable without distinction of nationality to aircraft
of all other States.
¾ Each Contracting State, under any regulations as it may prescribe may require any
aircraft entering the areas in the paragraphs above to effect a landing as soon as
practicable thereafter at a designated airport within its territory.
¾ Provide, in its territory, airports, radio services, meteorological services and other air
navigation facilities to facilitate international air navigation, in accordance with the
standards and practices recommended or established by the Convention.
¾ Adopt and put into operation the appropriate standard systems of communications
procedures, codes, markings, signals, lighting and other operational practices and
rules which may be recommended or established by the Convention.
¾ Collaborate in international measures to secure the publication of aeronautical maps
and charts in accordance with standards that may be recommended or established
by the Convention.
¾ A certificate of registration
¾ A certificate of airworthiness
¾ The appropriate licences for each member of the crew
¾ A journey log book
¾ If equipped with radio apparatus, the aircraft radio station licence
¾ If passengers are carried, a list of their names and places of embarkation and
destination
¾ If cargo is carried, a manifest and detailed declarations of the cargo
¾ Aircraft of a Contracting State may, in or over the territory of other Contracting States,
carry radio-transmitting apparatus if a licence to install and operate the radio has
been issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in which the aircraft is
registered. The use of radio transmitting apparatus in the territory of the Contracting
State whose territory is flown over shall be in accordance with the regulations
prescribed by that State.
¾ Radio transmitting apparatus can only be used by members of the flight crew who are
provided with a radio licence issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in
which the aircraft is registered.
Each Contracting State reserves the right, for reasons of public order and safety, to regulate or
prohibit the carriage in or above its territory of articles other than those listed in the paragraph
above, provided that:
¾ Any aircraft or part thereof with respect to which there exists an international
standard of airworthiness or performance, and which failed in any respect to satisfy
the standard at the time of its certification, shall have endorsed on or attached to its
airworthiness certificate a complete list of the details in respect of which it failed.
¾ Any person holding a licence who does not satisfy in full the conditions laid down in
the international standard relating to the class of licence or certificate which he holds
shall have endorsed on or attached to his licence the details of the particulars in
which he does not satisfy such conditions.
¾ Vote annual budgets and determine the financial arrangements of the organization, in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII
¾ Review expenditures and approve the accounts of the organization
¾ Refer, at its discretion, to the Council, to subsidiary commissions, or to any other
body any matter within its sphere of action
¾ Delegate to the Council the powers and authority necessary or desirable for the
discharge of the duties of the organization and revoke or modify the delegations of
authority at any time
¾ Carry out the appropriate provisions of Chapter XIII
¾ Consider proposals for the modification or amendment of the provisions of this
Convention and, if it approves of the proposals, recommend them to the Contracting
States in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XXI
¾ Deal with any matter within the sphere of action of the Organization not specifically
assigned to the Council
¾ Convene meetings of
¾ The Council
¾ The Air Transport Committee
¾ The Air Navigation Commission
¾ Serve as representative of the Council
¾ Carry out on behalf of the Council the functions which the Council assigns to him
Air Law 2-17
Chapter 2 The History of Aviation Law and the Chicago Convention 1944
¾ Consider and recommend to the Council for adoption, modifications of the Annexes
to this Convention
¾ Establish technical sub-commissions on which any Contracting State may be
represented, if it so desires
¾ Advise the Council concerning the collection and communication to the Contracting
States of all information which it considers necessary and useful for the advancement
of air navigation
Wet lease-in
A JAA operator shall not wet lease-in an aeroplane from a body other than a JAA
operator without the approval of the Authority. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with
regard to aeroplanes that are wet leased-in:
¾ The safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation are
equivalent to the JAR regulations
¾ The lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State which is a signatory
to the Chicago Convention
¾ The aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance
with ICAO Annex 8. Standard Certificates of Airworthiness issued by a JAA
Member State other than the State responsible for issue the AOC will be
accepted without further showing when issued in accordance with JAR, and
¾ Any JAA requirements are complied with by the lessee's Authority.
Dry lease-out
A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air
transportation to any operator of a State which is signatory to the Chicago Convention. In
this case, the JAA Authority will exempt the JAA operator from the relevant provisions of
JAR-OPS Part 1. Further, after the foreign regulatory authority has accepted
responsibility in writing for surveillance of the maintenance and operation of the
aeroplane(s), the aeroplane(s) will be removed from the JAA operator's AOC. Part of the
leasing agreement is that the aeroplane(s) will be maintained according to an approved
maintenance programme.
Wet lease-out
A JAA operator providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another entity and retaining
all the prescribed functions and responsibilities shall remain the operator of the
aeroplane.
ECAC OBJECTIVES
ECAC membership, which includes all EC countries, needed to institute procedures consistent
with those resulting from the EC treaty and the Single European Act. The recommendations
made by the European Parliament and the Council of Europe needed a co-ordinated approach to
ensure air safety within Europe. In 1970, some European civil aviation authorities started to co-
operate with a view to producing common Joint Airworthiness Requirements so as to facilitate
certification of products built jointly in Europe. This led to the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
Board becoming an associated body to ECAC in 1989. The JAA Board oversees arrangements
between a number of ECAC states providing for co-operation in developing and implementing
common safety standards and procedures.
¾ To ensure through co-operation common high levels of safety within the member
states.
¾ Through the application of uniform safety standards, to contribute to fair and equal
competition within the member states.
¾ To aim for cost effective safety and minimum regulatory burden so as to contribute to
the European industries’ international competitiveness.
The JAA operates in a manner that is as close as possible to a single authority, without yet
formally or legally becoming a single international body where each individual state gives up its
ultimate responsibilities. JAA membership is open to the civil aviation authorities of the ECAC
member States. Each National Aviation Authority (NAA) continues to exist and carry out specific
delegated roles within the JAA. The NAA issues licences and regulates the operators of that
state.
FUNCTIONS OF JAA
The authorities use the JAA to perform the following functions:
¾ To develop, adopt, and publish Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs) for the use of the
Authorities in the field of design, manufacture, maintenance and operations, and the
licensing of aviation personnel.
¾ To develop administrative and technical procedures for the implementation of JARs.
¾ To implement JARs and related administrative and technical procedures in a co-
ordinated and uniform manner.
¾ To adopt measures to ensure, whenever possible, that pursuance of the JAA safety
objective does not unreasonably distort competition between the aviation industries
of member states or place companies of member states at a competitive
disadvantage with those of non-member states.
¾ To provide the principal centre of professional expertise in Europe on the
harmonisation of aviation safety regulations.
¾ To establish procedures for joint certification of products and services and where it is
considered appropriate to perform joint certification.
¾ To co-operate on the harmonisation of requirements and procedures with other
safety regulatory authorities, especially the US Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA).
¾ Where feasible, to co-operate with foreign safety regulatory authorities, especially the
FAA, on the certification of products and services.
JAA Board
JAA Committee
Executive Board
Foundation Board
Secretary General
JAA/FAA HARMONISATION
The two major aircraft producers in the world are the United States and Europe. In the USA the
FAA regulates the industry, whereas in Europe the disparate national authorities were
uncoordinated. In order to overcome this, the JAA acts as the regulatory body to bring the
European procedures into line with the FAA. The effect of this has been to make European
products acceptable to the North American market and also to give European manufacturers a
market in Europe for spares for aircraft made in North America. It is no coincidence that the
regulations concerning large aeroplanes are contained in JAR 25, whereas the FAA equivalent is
FAR 25. Likewise, commuter category aircraft regulations are contained in JAR 23 and FAR 23.
INTENTION
It is the intention to eventually form the European Aviation Authority. This is in keeping with the
aims of the EU and the Council of Europe. Once established, the EAA will be the regulatory body
responsible for civil aviation in Europe. Until then, the NAAs will provide the regulatory framework
and the necessary manpower.
EUROCONTROL
Eurocontrol was formed in 1965, and its membership encompasses most of Europe and some
non-European adjacent states. The stated objectives of Eurocontrol are:
From its origins as the Maastricht (Holland) ACC, providing a centralised ATC service for the
Benelux countries and Northern Germany, Eurocontrol now provides ATC services for most
European flight information regions (FIRs). It actually controls operations in the upper airspace
from two ATCC (Maastricht and Vienna) and has R&D facilities in Luxembourg, Maastricht, and
Bretigny near Paris. Eurocontrol also provides a very efficient centralised enroute charge
recovery service on behalf of the states, which even non-Eurocontrol states use.
FLOW MANAGEMENT
Since 1988, Eurocontrol has provided the centralised flow management unit (CFMU) for
European airspace. Virtually all flights within Europe are subject to flow management and the
process is expanding to cover 'gate to gate' operations, including operations on the ground at
airports. The R&D operations of Eurocontrol are involved in the use of PRNAV to eliminate
airways and also the elimination of voice communications by the use of data link systems.
ATC HARMONISATION
Eurocontrol is also at the heart of the ATC harmonisation process in Europe and the surrounding
states, which will lead to the development of a data processing and handling system capable of
taking inputs from any ATC system in the world. The first link in this network is the new ATCC at
Swanwick, near Southampton, providing area control for the London FIR and UIR.
As these notes are intended only to provide the references to pass the examinations, they must
not be used as a reference for matters relating to your licence. In such cases, consult JAR FCL or
your national Civil Aviation Authority. In the U.K., the U.K. CAA publishes LASORS as guidance.
JAR-FCL
JAR-FCL is published in four parts:
¾ JAR-FCL 1 Aeroplanes
¾ JAR-FCL 2 Helicopters
¾ JAR-FCL 3 Medical Requirements
¾ JAR-FCL 4 Flight Engineers
In addition to the general requirements, JAR-FCL 1 contains JARs for the licensing of:
¾ Student pilots
¾ Private Pilots - PPL(A)
¾ Commercial pilots - CPL(A)
¾ Instrument Rating (Aeroplane) - IR(A)
¾ Class and Type Rating (Aeroplane)
¾ Airline Transport Pilot Licence (Aeroplane) - ATPL (A)
¾ Instructor ratings
¾ Examiners
¾ Theoretical knowledge requirements for examinations (1)
Note 1: Because knowledge of the requirements for examinations is required by the LOs for
010 Air Law, the JAA FCL Committee have determined that the knowledge requirements for
all subjects are examinable under subject 010 Air Law. For this reason, there are questions in
the Air Law exam relating to Met, Mass and Balance, Communications etc.
Annex 1
Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) have been established for licensing the
following personnel:
ICAO
To be valid, the licence must have been issued by the State of Registry of that aircraft or by
any other contracting state and rendered valid by the State of Registry.
JAR-FCL
A person shall not act as a flight-crew member of a civil aeroplane registered in a JAA
Member State unless that person holds a valid licence and rating complying with the
requirements of JAR-FCL. The licence shall have been issued by:
Validity of Licence
In order to exercise the privileges of the licence, the licence must remain valid by maintaining
competency; maintaining necessary ratings; meeting recent experience requirements, and
holding a valid medical assessment.
JAR-FCL
A licence holder shall not exercise the privileges granted by any licence or rating issued by a
JAA Member State unless the holder maintains competency by meeting the relevant
requirements of JAR-FCL. The validity of the licence is determined by the validity of the
ratings contained therein and the medical certificate. The licence will be issued for a
maximum period of 5 years. Within this period of 5 years the licence may be re-issued by the
authority:
The licence holder must apply for the re-issue of the licence. This application must include all
necessary documentation. Valid ratings will be transferred to a new licence document by the
authority.
Normal Residency
Normal residency means the place where a person usually lives for at least 185 days in each
calendar year because of personal and occupational ties or, in the case of a person with no
occupational ties, because of personal ties which show close links between that person and the
place where they are living.
Medical Fitness
Class 1 or Class 2
¾ Helicopter
¾ Microlight helicopters
¾ Gyroplanes
¾ Microlights with fixed wings and moveable aerodynamic control surfaces
Flight Instruction
The applicant for a PPL(A) must have completed 25 hours dual instruction and 10 hours
supervised solo, including 5 hours of cross-country flight time. One cross-country flight must be of
at least 150 nm, and include full stop landings at two aerodromes different from the original
departure aerodrome. Where previous credit for PIC time is granted the dual instruction may be
reduced to not less than 20 hours.
ATPL(A) EXPERIENCE
An applicant for an ATPL(A) shall have completed as a pilot of aeroplanes at least 1500 hours of
flight time. A maximum of 100 hours flight simulator time may be included in this figure. Specific
qualifications required within the 1500 hours flight time are:
CPL(A) EXPERIENCE
Integrated Course 150 hours of flight time
Co-Pilot
¾ Credited in full with all co-pilot time towards the total flight time required for a higher
grade of pilot licence;
¾ The holder of a pilot licence when acting as co-pilot performing under the supervision of
the PIC the functions and duties of a PIC shall be entitled to be credited in full with this
flight time required for a higher grade of licence. The method of supervision must be
approved by the authority.
INSTRUCTOR RATINGS
An instructor rating is valid for 3 years. To be allowed to begin a Flight Instructor (FI(A)) course
the pilot must have 200 hours of flight time of which 100 hours must be PIC if the pilot is the
holder of an ATPL(A) or CPL(A); 150 hours PIC if the holder of a PPL(A) and be the holder of the
knowledge requirements for CPL(A).
EXAMINERS (AEROPLANE)
The following examiner roles are recognised:
Qualification
An applicant for authorisation as an examiner is to hold a licence and rating at least equal to the
licence or rating for which they are applying to be authorised to examine.
Validity of Authorisation
An examiner’s authorisation is valid for a period of not more than 3 years. Examiner’s
authorisation is renewed at the discretion of the Authority.
FE(A)
An FE(A) is permitted to conduct skill tests and proficiency checks for the issue of PPL(A) and
CPL(A) licences provided he/she has not less than 2000 hours (1000 hours for PPL(A) only) flight
experience including not less than 250 hours flight instruction.
Type rating requires attendance at and successful completion of an approved type rating course.
To successfully complete a TR course the candidate must pass an aircraft specific practical
knowledge test that can be written, oral, or a combination of both. The flying practice element of a
TR course may be flown in the specific type of aircraft or an approved flight simulator. Class and
type ratings are valid for one year (JAR-FCL). ICAO does not set a validation period but leaves
this to the individual contracting state to determine.
CLASS RATINGS
Class ratings are established for single pilot aeroplanes not requiring a type rating as follows:
ICAO:
¾ Single engine land
¾ Single engine sea
¾ Multi engine land
¾ Multi engine sea
JAR-FCL:
¾ All single engine piston aeroplanes (land and sea)
¾ All touring motor gliders
¾ Each manufacturer of single engined turbo-prop aeroplanes (land and sea)
¾ All multi engined piston aeroplanes (land and sea)
TYPE RATINGS
Other than those aeroplanes included in the class ratings above, the following aeroplanes require
type ratings:
ICAO
Annex 6 (Operation of Aircraft) requires a pilot to demonstrate competency at two skill tests
during any 12 month period with the proviso that the period between the tests is not less than
4 months.
JAR-FCL
Requires the pilot to pass a proficiency check once in every period of 12 months. The
revalidation check taken is not more than 3 months before the expiry of the current rating.
The new period of validation begins at the date of expiry of the old period. JAR-FCL also
requires the pilot fly at least 10 sectors as pilot of the relevant type of aircraft, or one sector
as pilot of the relevant type of aircraft with an examiner, during the period of the rating.
Note: It is usual to revalidate the type rating at the same time as the renewal of the IR(A).
Privileges
To pilot a multi- or single-engined aeroplane under IFR to a minimum decision height of 200 ft.
Experience
The pilot must hold a PPL(A) with a night qualification or a CPL(A) and have completed at least
50 hours of cross country flight time as PIC in aeroplanes or helicopters of which at least 10
hours shall be in aeroplanes.
Application to ATPL(A)
An instrument rating is an integral part of an ATPL (A), and a separate rating added to a CPL(A)
to give the holder a CPL/IR. Without a valid IR the holder of an ATPL(A) is only permitted to
exercise the privileges of a CPL licence.
RECENT EXPERIENCE
A pilot shall not operate an aeroplane carrying passengers as the pilot in command or co-pilot
unless he has carried out:
¾ At least 3 take-offs and 3 landings as pilot flying in the same type/class or flight simulator
in the preceding 90 days, and
¾ If the flight is at night, and the holder does not hold a valid Instrument Rating, one of the
take-offs and one of the landings must be carried out at night.
Operators who apply more stringent requirements may apply limiting criteria to pilots (in terms of
Decision Height and prevailing RVR) who nevertheless meet the general recent experience
criteria.
Age 60 – 64
The holder of a pilot licence who has reached the age of 60 years shall not act as a pilot of an
aeroplane engaged in commercial air transport operations except:
Age 65
The holder of a pilot licence who has reached the age of 65 years shall not act as a pilot of an
aeroplane engaged in commercial air transport operations.
Note: Age 60 means the first day of the pilot’s 61st year of life. In other words, the day
after he/she is 59 years and 364 days old. Generally, a pilot may exercise the privileges
of an ATPL(A) licence throughout the inclusive ages of 21 – 59.
MEDICAL REQUIREMENTS
Fitness
The holder of a medical certificate shall be mentally and physically fit to exercise safely the
privileges of the applicable licence.
Medical Fitness
An applicant for a licence must hold a medical assessment applicable for the type of licence
being applied for. An initial issue medical assessment in accordance with Annex 1 pt 6 or JAR-
FCL 3 is required for flight-crew members. Re-validation of assessment is achieved by periodic
examination accordance with Annex 1 part 6 or JAR-FCL 3, which is generally less demanding
than the initial assessment. Only an approved aeromedical examiner (AME) may issue a medical
assessment. Flight-crew members shall not exercise the privileges of their licence unless their
medical assessment is in date.
ICAO
Each contracting state designates medical examiners that are authorized to issue the medical
assessment. ICAO has established 3 classes of medical assessment (Classes 1, 2, and 3). The
class 3 medical is applicable to Air Traffic Controllers only.
JAR-FCL
In order to apply for or to exercise the privileges of a licence, the applicant or holder shall hold a
medical certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of JAR-FCL Part 3 (Medical) and
appropriate to the privileges of the licence. The JAA has established 2 classes of medical
assessment (Classes 1 and 2).
ATPL(A)
A class 1 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certificate is
12 months. This reduces to 6 months after the licence holder passes their 40th birthday.
CPL(A)
A class 1 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment certificate is
12 months. This reduces (JAR-FCL) to 6 months (is recommended to reduce to
6 months - ICAO) after the licence holder passes their 40th birthday.
PPL(A)
A minimum of class 2 medical assessment is required. The validity of the assessment
certificate is 24 months. ICAO recommends that this is reduced to 12 months after the
licence holder has reached their 40th birthday.
Deferment
ICAO permits the deferment of the required medical examination to revalidate a medical
assessment under certain circumstances. JAR-FCL does not. According to ICAO, a licence
holder engaged in commercial operations in a remote area where an aeromedical examiner is not
resident, may, upon receipt of a favourable report by a physician, extend the period of validity of
the medical assessment for two consecutive periods of three months. The report of the physician
is to be sent to the authority issuing the licence.
4-10 Air Law
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes) Chapter 4
Notification
Every holder of a medical certificate issued in accordance with JAR-FCL Part 3 (Medical) who is
aware of any significant personal injury involving incapacity to function as a member of a flight
crew, or any illness involving incapacity to function as a member of a flight crew throughout a
period of 21 days or more, or being pregnant, is to inform the authority in writing immediately of
injury or pregnancy, and as soon as the period of 21 days has elapsed in the case of illness.
Suspension of Certificate
After notification, the medical certificate shall be suspended and in the case of injury or illness,
the suspension will be lifted after the holder has been subsequently medically examined and
pronounced fit to function as a member of the flight crew, or the authority lifts the suspension. In
the case of pregnancy, the suspension may be lifted by the authority after the pregnancy has
ended and the licence holder pronounced fit to resume her functions as a member of the flight
crew. The suspension may be temporarily lifted during the initial pregnancy period until the pilot is
unable to continue her duties.
Any candidate who has failed to obtain a pass in the ATPL(A) examinations within the permitted
sittings, attempts or time limits, will be required to complete the minimum approved theoretical
knowledge training specified below, prior to re-entering the examinations. For the integrated or
modular ATPL theory course, this is a minimum of 60 hours theoretical knowledge instruction.
7 Year Rule (JAR-FCL 1.495b) Having attained an IR(A) as above, the pass in the theoretical
knowledge examinations will remain valid for a period of 7 years from the last validity date of the
IR(A).
Composition
Apart from Switzerland and Liechtenstein where the national symbols of the States are part of the
markings, the nationality and registration marks consist of a group of characters (Letters or letters
and numbers).
Common Mark
In order to meet the requirements of an international organisation, aircraft operated by such an
organisation may be required to be registered in more than one state. As no aircraft is permitted
to display nationality markings of more than one state, a common marking is used instead of the
nationality mark. ICAO maintains the list of aircraft registered under any common mark, but
allocates responsibility to a contracting state (usually a state involved in the operation) to act as
the State of Registration for the purpose of determining the airworthiness of the aircraft
concerned. The common mark is assigned by ICAO (the Common Mark Agency) from an
available list produced by the International Telecommunications Agency.
Nationality Mark
The nationality mark is selected from the nationality symbols included in the radio call signs
allocated to the State of Registry by the International Telecommunication Union.
Combination
The nationality or common mark precedes the registration mark. When the first character of the
registration mark is a letter it is preceded by a hyphen.
G - ABCD
Nationality Registration
Mark Mark
Hyphen
Acceptable Combinations
The normal combination is one character for the nationality mark and four characters for the
registration mark. Where the nationality mark consists of two characters (i.e. Eire - EI) the
registration mark consists of only 3 characters (i.e. EI – ABC). Where the nationality mark
consists of three characters (i.e. Oman – A4O) the registration mark consists of only two
characters (i.e. A4O – AB).
Prohibited Combinations
When letters are used for the registration mark, combinations containing (in sequence) the
following are not used:
¾ The five letter combinations used in the International Code of Signals (1) ;and
¾ The three letter combinations beginning with Q used in the Q code (ie QUG – ‘I am
ditching’); and
¾ SOS, XXX, PAN and TTT (2)
Note 1: These are the arrangement of signal flags, each of which indicates a particular
letter or number, used at sea to pass messages visually. Certain arrangements of 5 flags
(hence 5 letters) indicate specific meanings.
Note 2: SOS = distress; XXX and PAN = urgency; TTT = safety (a third level of
emergency communication alert now only used in maritime operations).
HEAVIER-THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT
Wings
On heavier-than-air aircraft the marks shall appear once on the lower surface of the wing
and shall be at least 50 cm in normally viewed vertical size.
REGISTRATION OF AIRCRAFT
CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
The certificate of registration shall be carried in the aircraft at all times. The certificate of
registration, in wording and arrangement, shall be a replica of the form shown below.
Registration Certificate
State or
Common Mark Registering Authority
Ministry
Department or Service
CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION
1. Nationality or Common 2. Manufacture and 3. Aircraft Serial No
Mark and Registration Mark Manufacturer’s Designation
of Aircraft
IDENTIFICATION PLATE
All aircraft must carry an identification plate, secured to the aircraft in a prominent position near
the main entrance plate, made of fireproof metal, or fireproof material inscribed with:
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT
Lighter-than-air Heavier-than-air
Gyroplane Helicopter
Spherical free Spherical captive Rigid airship Landplane Land gyroplane Land helicopter Land ornithopter
balloon balloon Semi-rigid airship Seaplane Sea gyroplane Sea helicopter Sea ornithopter
Non spherical Non spherical Non-rigid airship Amphibian Amphibian Amphibian Amphibian
free balloon captive balloon gyroplanes helicopter ornithopter
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS (C OF A)
The C of A for an aircraft is issued by the State of Registration (or approved representatives). A
state can withhold a C of A if the aircraft is known, or suspected, to have dangerous features not
specifically covered by the airworthiness requirements. An aircraft is not permitted to fly without a
valid C of A. For the initial C of A to be issued the following are required:
¾ An approved design to show that the aircraft complies with the airworthiness
requirements;
¾ Records kept to establish the identification of the aircraft with its approved design;
¾ An inspection of the aircraft during the course of construction to determine that it
conforms to the approved design;
¾ An inspection of the aircraft to establish that its construction and assembly are
satisfactory;
¾ Flight tests as deemed necessary to show compliance with the airworthiness
requirements.
Flight Crew
The minimum number of flight crew personnel necessary to operate the aeroplane should be
listed on the C of A.
Transfer of Registration
When an aircraft which has a valid C of A is entered on the register of another state, the new
State of Registry may accept the C of A as satisfactory evidence that the aircraft is airworthy.
Damage To Aircraft
When an aircraft has sustained damage, the State of Registry shall judge whether the
damage renders the aircraft un-airworthy. If the damage is sustained when the aircraft is
in another state, the authorities of that state have the right to prevent the aircraft from
flying. That state is to inform the State of Registry immediately.
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS
* *
State of Registry
Issuing Authority
CERTIFICATE OF AIRWORTHINESS
1. Nationality or Common 2. Manufacture and 3. Aircraft Serial No
Mark and Registration Mark Manufacturer’s Designation
of Aircraft
4. Categories ………………………………………………………………….
This Certificate of Airworthiness is issued pursuant to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation dated 7th December 1944 and …………………….. in respect of the above-mentioned
aircraft which is considered to be airworthy when maintained and operated in accordance with
the foregoing and the pertinent operating limitations.
Note: ‘PIC’ should not be confused with ‘Commander’. The JAA recently revised the
definitions of PIC and Commander to cover the situation where a ‘cruise crew’ is
employed on long haul operations. PIC is the pilot who, for the time being, is responsible
for piloting the aeroplane. The Commander is the pilot (he/she must be a pilot)
responsible for the conduct of the flight. It could be that the Commander is absent from
the flight deck resting, whilst another designated pilot is the PIC. ICAO Annex 1 retains
the original definition of Commander which is synonymous with PIC.
Pre-Flight Action
The PIC of an aircraft must plan the flight after having pre-briefed himself with all available
information appropriate to the flight. Flights away from the vicinity of an aerodrome, and all IFR
flights shall include a meteorological brief; a consideration of the fuel requirements and alternative
actions if the flight cannot be completed as planned.
GENERAL RULES
NEGLIGENT OR RECKLESS OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT
An aircraft shall not be operated in a manner so as to endanger life or property of others.
MINIMUM HEIGHTS
An aircraft is not to be flown over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements, or over an
open air assembly of persons, unless at a height that will permit, in the event of an emergency
(the failure of the critical power unit), a landing to be made without undue hazard to persons or
property on the surface. Exceptions to this rule are during take-off and landing, or with specific
permission from the appropriate authority. Minimum heights for VFR and IFR flights are covered
in the later sections.
CRUISING LEVELS
When established in the cruise, flights are conducted at flight levels (FLs) for flights above the
lowest useable FL or where applicable, above the Transition Altitude; or at an altitude for flights
below the lowest usable FL, or where applicable, at or below the Transition Altitude.
AVOIDANCE OF COLLISIONS
Always maintain a good look-out to detect potential collisions, regardless of the type of flight, the
flight conditions or the class of airspace in which the aircraft is operating, and while operating on
the movement area of an aerodrome.
Note: The movement area of an aerodrome includes the apron and the manoeuvring
area.
Proximity
An aircraft is not to be operated so close to another aircraft so as to create a collision hazard.
Right of Way
Right of way means the right to proceed without alteration of course. The aircraft that has the
right of way is required to maintain its heading and speed, and observe the other aircraft whilst
the collision risk exists.
Nothing in these rules relieves the PIC of an aircraft that has the right of way, from the
responsibility of taking such action where necessary, including collision avoidance manoeuvres
based on resolution advisories provided by ACAS equipment.
Giving Way
Any aircraft that is obliged to keep out of the way of another aircraft (give way), must not pass
over, under, or in front of that aircraft, unless it is well clear and takes into account the effect of
wake turbulence.
Approaching Head-On
When two aircraft are approaching head-on, or approximately so (+/- 10° of aircraft heading), and
there is a danger of collision, both are required to alter heading to the right. There is no priority of
aircraft type in this case. (“Turn the RIGHT way”. Why to the right? Because it is the RIGHT thing
to do!)
Approaching Head-On
Converging
When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft that has the other
on its right shall give way.
Converging
Converging Exceptions
The following exceptions apply to the general rule for converging aircraft:
Overtaking
An aircraft that is being overtaken has the right of way and the overtaking aircraft, whether
climbing, descending, or in horizontal flight, shall keep out of the way by altering its heading to the
right. No change in the relative positions of the two aircraft absolves the overtaking aircraft from
this obligation until it is entirely past and clear. An overtaking aircraft is an aircraft that
approaches from the rear on a line forming an angle of less than 70º. The pilot of an aircraft is to
be alert at all times to the possibility of being overtaken, therefore before commencing a turn, a
good visual scan is to be made to starboard and port as far as the view from the flight deck
window will allow.
Overtaking
Note: The overtaking aircraft is in a position where it is unable to see either the
aircraft’s left (red light) or right (green light) navigation lights.
Landing
An aircraft in flight, or operating on the ground, shall give way to aircraft landing or in the final
stages of an approach to land.
Approaching to land
When two or more heavier-than-air aircraft are approaching an aerodrome to land (straight in
approach or final to land), aircraft at the higher level shall give way to aircraft at the lower level.
No aircraft shall take advantage of this rule by cutting in front of another aircraft that is on its final
approach. Power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft shall give way to gliders.
Emergency Landing
An aircraft that is aware that another aircraft is compelled to land shall give way to that aircraft.
Taking-off
An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome shall give way to aircraft taking-off
or about to take-off.
Head-On
Where two aircraft are approaching head-on, or approximately so, each shall stop, or
where practicable, alter its course to the right so as to keep well clear.
Converging
When two aircraft are on a converging course, the one that has the other on its right shall
give way.
Overtaking
An aircraft that is being overtaken by another aircraft shall have the right of way. The
overtaking aircraft shall keep well clear of the other aircraft.
Stopping
An aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area shall stop and hold at all taxi-holding
positions unless authorized by the aerodrome control tower to continue. This includes
lighted stop bars. When the stop bar lights are switched off the aircraft may proceed.
Note 1: Lights such as landing lights and airframe floodlights may be used in addition to the
anti collision light to enhance aircraft conspicuity.
Note 2: Red anti collision lights may meet the requirements above provided that they do not
subject observers to harmful dazzle.
Failure of Lights
When a pilot is aware that a navigation light has failed, ATC is to be informed and the aircraft is to
land and have the light repaired before continuing the flight.
Anti-Collision Lights
All aircraft, in flight or operating on the movement area of an aerodrome, that are fitted with anti-
collision lights, shall display these lights at all times. If an anti-collision light fails in flight, the light
is to be repaired prior to the next flight.
FLIGHT PLANS
In this section, the term ‘Flight Plan’ refers to an ATC flight plan (FPL). An ATC FPL is the method
by which the authority is notified of the intention of a pilot to make a flight where that flight is to be
provided with an ATC service, or is to be conducted in airspace where the authority has
determined that a FPL is to be submitted. The process of submitting a FPL is called ‘filing’ a FPL.
ATC authorities provide approved formats for the information required in filing a full FPL. The UK
CAA format is the form CA48 that follows the ICAO standard FPL filing form. The student should
note that a FPL is what the pilot intends to do, not the form upon which the plan is filed. Indeed, in
some circumstances it is not practical to use a form, and the pilot’s intention (his/her flight plan)
may be communicated by radio to the ATC unit. FPLs are required to be filed before:
Note: Flight across a Flight Information Region (FIR) boundary does not necessarily
require the filing of a FPL. For instance, a flight across the English/Scottish border
crosses the FIR boundary but does not cross an international boundary.
60 minutes
For a flight to be provided with an ATC service or advisory ATC, the FPL is to be filed at
least 60 minutes before departure.
10 minutes
For the filing of a FPL in flight, the FPL is to be filed at least 10 minutes before the aircraft
is estimated to reach:
¾ The intended point of entry into an area where ATC or advisory ATC is to be
provided; or
¾ The point of crossing an airway or advisory route.
Note: ‘Departure’ is not defined. It is generally accepted to be the time at which the flight
is intended to begin.
Changing a FPL
If it becomes necessary to change an IFR FPL, or a VFR FPL for a controlled VFR flight,
communicate the necessary changes to the ATCU as soon as practicable. For other VFR flights,
only significant changes need to be reported.
Closing a FPL
Until a FPL is closed, it remains active and subject to ATC action, including overdue action and
costly SAR operations. At the completion of a flight for which a FPL is filed, the pilot is to make a
report to the ATCU at the arrival aerodrome in person, by radio, or by data link. At an uncontrolled
aerodrome, make the report to the nearest ATCU. If the facilities at the destination aerodrome are
inadequate and no other procedures are in force, the pilot is to make a report shortly before
landing by RTF to the appropriate ATCU providing the ATC service. Such a report is to contain:
¾ Aircraft identification;
¾ Departure aerodrome;
¾ Destination aerodrome in the case of a diversion to an alternate aerodrome;
¾ Arrival aerodrome;
¾ Time of arrival.
Time
In all communications, time is to be expressed as Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) utilising the
24 hour clock. A time check is to be obtained before operating a controlled flight.
ATC Clearances
Commencement of a controlled flight may only be commenced after the receipt of an ATC
clearance. An initial ATC clearance includes the words ‘clear to….’ It also includes ATC
instructions to be complied with by the pilot. If an ATC clearance received is not satisfactory or
cannot be complied with, the PIC may request an amended clearance. Before taxiing at a
controlled aerodrome a taxi clearance is to be obtained.
Inadvertent Changes
If a controlled flight deviates from the CPL, the following action is to be taken:
Position Reports
Unless specifically exempted by the ATC authority, a pilot of a controlled flight is to make position
reports at the designated reporting points. If no reporting points are specified for a route, position
reports are to be made at intervals determined by the ATC authority. Such reports are to be made
30 minutes after commencement of the flight, then at hourly intervals. A position report includes:
aircraft identification, position, time at that position, and altitude or FL. Where automatic altitude
reporting has been confirmed, omit the altitude report. Additional information may be requested
by the ATC authority. For an airways report, the next position and ETA should be included and
optionally the ensuing position. An example of a full airways position report is:
Termination of Control
When a controlled flight leaves controlled airspace (CAS), the pilot reports that the aircraft is
‘clear of CAS’ at which point the provision of an ATC service ceases.
COMMUNICATIONS
A controlled flight is required to maintain two way RTF communications with the controlling
ATCU. Where approved a SELCAL watch is an acceptable alternative. If Controller/Pilot Data
Link Communication (CPDLC) has been established, the requirement to maintain voice RTF
remains.
Communication Failure(1)
If an aircraft is unable to communicate (receive and acknowledge ATC instructions and indicate a
state of emergency), in addition to squawking Mode A/7600 and maintaining a visual watch for
signals, if flying in VMC, maintain VMC and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome. ATC is to be
informed as soon as possible once the aircraft lands. If flying in IMC (2):
¾ Maintain the last assigned speed and/or level, for a period of 20 minutes after the
failure to report over the last compulsory reporting point(3) ; then;
¾ Proceed in accordance with the FPL to the navigation facility serving the destination
aerodrome and hold on that facility; and
¾ Descend from the facility at the last received and acknowledged Expected Approach
Time (EAT), or where no EAT has been issued, at the ETA from the FPL (4); then
¾ Fly a normal instrument approach; and
¾ Land within 30 minutes of the ETA.
Note 1: An aircraft may have many different systems for communication. These may
include VHF, HF, Data Link, SATCOM, satellite telephone, cell phones, and SSR. ATC
can also transmit voice RTF on the localiser channel of ILS. Total communications failure
in a modern aircraft is a remote possibility.
Note 2: Clearly, at any time during the procedure for failure in IMC, if the pilot finds VMC
then the aircraft should attempt to land whilst maintaining VMC.
Note 3: This would be the time when it can be assumed safely that the ATC authority is
now aware of the communications failure situation.
Interception
Each State has the right to protect its territory and to satisfy itself that any aircraft applying the
freedoms of the air is bona-fide. If the authority of a state has suspicions that a flight is not what is
supposed to be, or has entered the airspace of a state without permission, it may invoke a
process of interception.
Interception Phraseology
It is usual for military interceptor aircraft to be used for this purpose, and there is a strong
likelihood that the military pilot may not speak English. ICAO has formulated standard
phraseology (reproduced below) and signals to be used in this situation.
Phrases for use by INTERCEPTING Aircraft Phrases for use by INTERCEPTED Aircraft
Phrase Pronunciation Meaning Phrase Pronunciation Meaning
What is your call
CALL SIGN KOL SA-IN CALL SIGN KOL SA-IN My call sign is
sign?
Understood, will
FOLLOW FOL-LO Follow me WILCO VILL-CO
comply
Descend for
DESCEND DEE-SEND CAN NOT KANN-NOTT Unable to comply
landing
Land at this Repeat your
YOU LAND YOU-LAND REPEAT REE-PEET
aerodrome instruction
You may
PROCEED PRO-SEED AM LOST AM LOSST Position unknown
proceed
MAYDAY MAYDAY I am in distress
I have been
HIJACK HI-JACK
hijacked
LAND I request to land at
LAAND
(Place name) (Place name)
DESCEND DEE-SEND I require descent
Unlawful Interference
An aircraft subject to unlawful interference is to attempt to communicate the fact to the ATC
authority together with details of any deviation from the CPL necessitated by the situation. The
SSR system should be set to A/7500 unless A/7700 is more appropriate. Further advice on the
management of situations of unlawful interference will be the subject of specific instruction by the
operator during airline indoctrination.
VMC Minima
VMC is determined by a required forward visibility from the flight deck (flight visibility) and
required vertical and horizontal distances from cloud. As the reference for this section of the LOs
is ICAO Annex 2, the VMC minima applicable to the RoA as defined in Annex 2 are stated in
Annex 2; Chapter 3; and paragraph 3.9. These are graphically illustrated in table 3-1 which is
reproduced below. The ICAO minima are different from those stated in JAR OPS-1 and those
applied by the UK CAA. The major difference is in the VMC minima specified for class B airspace.
Airspace A, B, C, D & E F G
Class (Note 3) Above 900 m (3000 ft) At and below 900 m
AMSL or above 300 m (3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m
(1000 ft) above terrain, (1000 ft) above terrain,
whichever is higher whichever is higher
Distance 1500 m horizontally Clear of cloud and
From Cloud 300 m (1000 ft) vertically in sight of the surface
Flight 8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL 5 km (Note 2)
Visibility 5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA (Note 1)
Notes:
1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, FL 100 should
be used in lieu of 10 000 ft.
2. When the ATS authority prescribe:
a. Lower flight visibilities to 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating:
1) At speeds that, in the prevailing visibility, give adequate opportunity to observe other
traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision, or
2) In circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic would normally
be low e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at low levels.
b. Helicopters may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibility, if manoeuvred at
a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to
avoid collision.
3. The inclusion of VMC minima for Class A airspace does not imply permitted VFR in Class A
airspace.
Night
ATS authorities may impose conditions, or proscribe VFR flights between sunset and sunrise.
Limits
Unless authorized by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights are not operated above FL200 or
at transonic and supersonic speeds.
Minimum Heights
Except when necessary for take-off and landing, or where permission has been granted from the
appropriate authority, a VFR flight shall not be flown:
¾ Over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements, or over an open air assembly of
persons, at a height less than 300 m (1000 ft) above the highest obstacle within a radius
of 600 m from the aircraft.
¾ Elsewhere, at a height less than 150 m (500 ft) above the ground or water.
ATC Clearances
VFR flights shall comply with the provisions laid out in ATC clearances when operated in Class B,
C and D airspace, when forming part of aerodrome traffic at a controlled aerodrome, or when
operated as special VFR flights.
Radio Watch
A VFR flight operating within ATS routes, or areas specified by the appropriate ATS authority,
shall maintain a continuous listening watch on the appropriate radio frequency. The aircraft must
report its position as necessary to the ATS unit providing the FIS.
Aircraft Equipment
All aircraft flying under IFR are required to be equipped with suitable instruments and navigation
equipment appropriate to the route to be flown. The exact requirements are detailed in JAR OPS-
1 and are covered in Operational Procedures.
Minimum Levels
Except when necessary for take-off and landing, or when specifically authorized by the
appropriate authority, an IFR flight is to be flown at a level which is not below the minimum flight
altitude established by the state whose territory is being over flown. If a minimum altitude has not
been established, an IFR flight shall be flown at a level which is at least 300 m (1000 ft) above the
highest obstacle within 8 km (5 nm) of the estimated position of the aircraft. In mountainous
terrain, this is increased to 600 m (2000 ft).
Note: Mountainous terrain is defined as terrain over which the prevailing wind of 37 kts
produces significant downdraughts.
“Coventry Approach this is Atlantic 123, cancel IFR, joining visually for runway….”
The reply must be “Atlantic 123 roger, IFR cancelled at time ….”
Note: It is the IFR flight that is cancelled, not the IFR flight plan.
Note: ‘Reasonable period’ is interpreted as about 1/3rd of the total expected flight time.
COMMUNICATIONS
All IFR flights operating outside controlled airspace but within or into areas, or along routes
designated by the appropriate ATS authority shall maintain a listening watch on the appropriate
radio frequency. Two-way communications must be established with the ATS unit providing the
FIS.
POSITION REPORTS
Position reports are to be made by all IFR flights operating outside controlled airspace, and by
aircraft which are required by the appropriate ATS authority to submit a flight plan, maintain a
listening watch on the appropriate frequency or establish two way communications with the
appropriate ATS authority.
Provision of SVFR
Where a pilot cannot, or has good reason not to, comply with IFR in a CTR he/she may request a
special VFR (SVFR) clearance to:
Procedure
The clearance given permits flight in meteorological conditions less than VMC providing the pilot
remains clear of cloud and in sight of the ground, and can navigate the aircraft by visual means.
In class A airspace, a SVFR clearance overrides the requirement for mandatory compliance with
IFR. A pilot must request SVFR. It will not be offered by ATC. SVFR is only applicable to CTRs.
The limit of the clearance is to or from the CTR boundary and does not extend beyond the CTR.
In busy CTRs, SVFR traffic lanes (SVFR corridors) are established as standard SVFR routes
beginning at specified points on the CTR boundary and terminating at the aerodrome served by
the route. Under certain circumstances, ATCOs will provide separation of IFR flights from SVFR
flights.
Take-off Conditions
According to ICAO a SVFR flight may take off from an aerodrome in a CTR providing the ground
visibility is not less than 1500 m. JAR OPS requires a ground visibility of not less than 3000 m.
Both references require a minimum flight visibility of 1500 m to continue a SVFR flight.
CRUISING LEVELS
Semi Circular Rule
The table of flight levels is based on VFR and IFR flight levels determined by reference to the
magnetic track flown. In areas where RVSM is applied, the table is modified. The basic rule is that
vertical separation between IFR FLs below FL290 is 1000 ft, as is the separation between VFR
FLs. Above FL290, the separation is increased to 2000 ft to allow for the inaccuracies in
barometric altimeters at altitudes where the barometric lapse rate is high (see Met notes).
FLs FLs
40 FLs 45 FLs
60 50 65 55
80 70 85 75
etc… 90 etc… 95
Even up to etc… Even up to etc…
FLs 280 up to FLs 285 up to
then 290 Odd +500ft then 275 Odd
310 then FLs 320 then FLs
350 330 360 300 +500ft
390 370 400 340
etc… 410 etc… 380
etc… etc…
In RVSM Airspace
Domestic Airspace
In the upper airspace where RVSM is applied, the RVSM levels are defined as FL300 – FL410
(implying that FL290 is not an RVSM level).
Oceanic Airspace
In the upper airspace of an OCA, from 24 Jan 2002 RVSM is applied between FL290 and FL410
inclusive (implying that FL290 is an RVSM level).
Requirements
To fly in airspace where RVSM is applied, an aircraft must be equipped with two independent
altitude measuring systems; an altitude alerting system (activated by deviation from the selected
altitude); an automatic altitude control system (height lock), and an SSR system with altitude
reporting (mode C) connected to the system used for the automatic altitude control system.
Additionally, the operator must be approved for RVSM operations.
FL 410
FL 400
FL 390
FL 380
FL 370
FL 360
FL 350
FL 340
FL 330
FL 320
FL 310
FL 300
FL 290
FL 280 (Outside of RVSM airspace)
In areas where Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) of 300 m (1000 ft) is applied
between FL 290 and FL 410 inclusive (1)
(2)
TRACK
(3) (3)
From 000º to 179º From 180º to 359º
IFR Flights VFR Flights IFR Flights VFR Flights
Altitude Altitude Altitude Altitude
FL Metres Feet FL Metres Feet FL Metres Feet FL Metres Feet
10 300 1000 20 600 2000
30 900 3000 35 1050 3500 40 1200 4000 45 1350 4500
50 1500 5000 55 1700 5500 60 1850 6000 65 2000 6500
70 2150 7000 75 2300 7500 80 2450 8000 85 2600 8500
90 2750 9000 95 2900 9500 100 3050 10 000 105 3200 10 500
110 3350 11 000 115 3500 11 500 120 3650 12 000 125 3800 12 500
130 3950 13 000 135 4100 13 500 140 4250 14 000 145 4400 14 500
150 4550 15 000 155 4700 15 500 160 4900 16 000 165 5050 16 500
170 5200 17 000 175 5350 17 500 180 5500 18 000 185 5650 18 500
190 5800 19 000 195 5950 19 500 200 6100 20 000 205 6250 20 500
210 6400 21 000 215 6550 21 500 220 6700 22 000 225 6850 22 500
230 7000 23 000 235 7150 23 500 240 7300 24 000 245 7450 24 500
250 7600 25 000 255 7750 25 500 260 7900 26 000 265 8100 26 500
270 8250 27 000 275 8400 27 500 280 8550 28 000 285 8700 28 500
290 8850 29 000 300 9150 30 000
Note 1: Except when, on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, a modified table of cruising levels
based on a nominal vertical separation minimum of 300 m (1000 ft) is prescribed for use, under specified
conditions, by aircraft operating above FL 410 within designated portions of the airspace
Note 2: Magnetic track, or Polar areas at a latitude higher than 70º and within such extensions to those
areas as may be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authorities, grid tracks as determined by a network of
lines parallel to the Greenwich Meridian superimposed as a Polar Stereographic chart in which the direction
towards the North Pole is employed as Grid North
Note 3: Except where, on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, from 090º to 269º and from 270º
to 089º is prescribed to accommodate predominant traffic directions and appropriate transition procedures to
be associated therewith are specified
In Other Areas
(1)
TRACK
(2) (2)
From 000º to 179º From 180º to 359º
IFR Flights VFR Flights IFR Flights VFR Flights
Altitude Altitude Altitude Altitude
FL Metres Feet FL Metres Feet FL Metres Feet FL Metres Feet
10 300 1000 20 600 2000
30 900 3000 35 1050 3500 40 1200 4000 45 1350 4500
50 1500 5000 55 1700 5500 60 1850 6000 65 2000 6500
70 2150 7000 75 2300 7500 80 2450 8000 85 2600 8500
90 2750 9000 95 2900 9500 100 3050 10 000 105 3200 10 500
110 3350 11 000 115 3500 11 500 120 3650 12 000 125 3800 12 500
130 3950 13 000 135 4100 13 500 140 4250 14 000 145 4400 14 500
150 4550 15 000 155 4700 15 500 160 4900 16 000 165 5050 16 500
170 5200 17 000 175 5350 17 500 180 5500 18 000 185 5650 18 500
190 5800 19 000 195 5950 19 500 200 6100 20 000 205 6250 20 500
210 6400 21 000 215 6550 21 500 220 6700 22 000 225 6850 22 500
230 7000 23 000 235 7150 23 500 240 7300 24 000 245 7450 24 500
250 7600 25 000 255 7750 25 500 260 7900 26 000 265 8100 26 500
270 8250 27 000 275 8400 27 500 280 8550 28 000 285 8700 28 500
290 8850 29 000 300 9150 30 000 310 9150 31 000 320 9750 32 000
330 10 050 33 000 340 10 350 34 000 350 10 650 35 000 360 10 950 36 000
370 11 300 37 000 380 11 600 38 000 390 11 900 39 000 400 12 200 40 000
410 12 500 41 000 420 12 800 42 000 430 13 100 43 000 440 13 400 44 000
450 13 700 45 000 460 14 000 46 000 470 14 350 47 000 480 14 650 48 000
490 14 950 49 000 500 15 250 50 000 510 15 550 51 000 520 15 850 52 000
etc etc etc etc etc etc etc etc etc etc etc etc
Note 1: Magnetic track, or Polar areas at a latitude higher than 70º and within such extensions to those
areas as may be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authorities, grid tracks as determined by a network of
lines parallel to the Greenwich Meridian superimposed as a Polar Stereographic chart in which the direction
towards the North Pole is employed as Grid North
Note 2: Except where, on the basis of regional air navigation agreements, from 090º to 269º and from 270º
to 089º is prescribed to accommodate predominant traffic directions and appropriate transition procedures to
be associated therewith are specified.
APPENDIX 1 TO CHAPTER 7
SIGNALS FOR USE IN THE EVENT OF INTERCEPTION
NOTE:
Meteorological conditions or
terrain may require the
intercepting aircraft to
reverse the positions and
directions of the turn above.
INTRODUCTION
When observing or receiving any of the following signals, the pilot of an aircraft shall take the
actions required by the signal. The signals are to be used only for the purposes indicated. No
other signals that are likely to be confused with the authorised signals shall be used.
EMERGENCY SIGNALS
Distress and Urgency Signals These signals are used to indicate that an aircraft (or other
vehicle) is in a state of emergency. However, an aircraft in distress may use any means at its
disposal to attract attention, make known its position, and obtain help.
Distress Signals
The state of DISTRESS means that an aircraft is in grave and imminent danger and requires
immediate assistance. The following signals may be used separately or together:
Urgency Signals
The state of URGENCY exists when an aircraft has an urgent message to transmit regarding the
safety of persons or property on board or within sight. The following signals may be used
separately, or together:
AERODROME SIGNALS
Signals for Aerodrome Traffic
Aircraft manoeuvring on or flying in the vicinity of an aerodrome are required to look out for and
comply with visual signals from the ground. If an aerodrome accepts non-radio traffic, a signal
square is positioned on the aerodrome side of the control tower to give information to aircraft
airborne. To complement this, a signals mast is positioned near the control tower to give
information to aircraft taxiing or stationary on the ground. All visual control rooms (VCR) in control
towers are required to be equipped with a signal lamp capable of being aimed at a particular
aircraft; showing red, green, and white light; and capable of transmitting visual Morse code. VCRs
and where situated, runway caravans, are also equipped with pyrotechnic (flare) cartridges and a
means of firing them. The following table contains the lamp and pyrotechnic signals from the VCR
or a runway caravan.
Series of Red flashes Aerodrome unsafe, do not Taxi clear of landing area in
land use
Series of White flashes Land at this aerodrome and Return to starting point on
proceed to apron the aerodrome
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
When seen an acknowledgement is given by:
¾ When in Flight
¾ During the hours of daylight by rocking the aircraft’s wings;
¾ During the hours of darkness by flashing the aircraft’s landing lights on and off twice
or, if not so equipped, by switching its navigation lights on and off twice.
¾ When on the Ground
¾ During the hours of daylight by moving the aircraft’s ailerons or rudder.
¾ During the hours of darkness by flashing the aircraft’s landing lights on and off twice
or, if not so equipped, by switching its navigation lights on and off twice.
Prohibition of Landing
A horizontal red square with yellow diagonals when displayed in a signal area indicates that
landings are prohibited and that prohibition is likely to be prolonged.
A horizontal red square with one yellow diagonal when displayed in a signal area indicates that
owing to the bad state of the manoeuvring area, or for any other reason, special precautions must
be observed in approaching to land or in landing.
QDM Boards
26
Two digits displayed vertically at or near to the aerodrome control tower
indicate the direction for take-off. These units are expressed in units of 10°
to the nearest 10° of the magnetic compass.
X Runway
X Taxiway
C
location of the ATS reporting office.
Marshalling Signals
These signals are designed for use by the marshaller with hands illuminated as necessary to
facilitate observation by the pilot, and facing the aircraft in a position:
¾ For Fixed Wing Aircraft Forward of the left wing tip within view of the pilot
¾ For Helicopters Where the marshaller can best be seen by the pilot
8-4 Air Law
Signals Chapter 8
This Bay
Arms above head in vertical position with palms facing forward.
TURN
Move Ahead
Arms a little aside, palms facing backward and repeatedly
moved upward-backward from shoulder height.
Stop
Arms repeatedly crossed above the head (the rapidity
of the arm movement should be related to the urgency
of the stop ie the faster the movement the quicker the
stop).
BRAKES
Engage Brakes
Raise arm, and hand with fingers extended, horizontally in front of the body,
then clench the fingers.
Release Brakes
Raise arm, with fist clenched, horizontally in front of body, then extend fingers.
CHOCKS
Chocks Inserted
Arms down, palms facing inwards, move arms from
extended position inwards.
Chocks Removed
Arms down, palms facing outwards, move arms outwards.
Start Engine(s)
Left hand overhead with appropriate number of fingers extended, to indicate
the number of the engine to be started, and circular motion of right hand at
head level.
Cut Engines
Either arm and hand level with shoulder, hand across the
throat, palm downward. The hand is moved sideways with
the arm remaining bent.
Slow Down
Arms down with palms toward ground.
Move Back
Arms by sides, palms facing forward, swept forward and upward
repeatedly to shoulder height.
All Clear
Right arm raised at elbow with thumb erect.
Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services
(Document 4444 –RAC/501)
Height
The vertical position of an aircraft with reference to a defined position on the surface of the Earth
is referred to as height. To display this on the aircraft altimeter, the barometric pressure observed
at a known location is set in the altimeter sub scale. This setting is referred to as QFE.
Unit of Measure
Altitude and height are measured in metres (the SI unit defined in Annex 5) or by use of the
alternative SI unit of measure, feet. The majority of altimeters in use in aircraft are calibrated in
feet. The alternative unit of measure will continue to be used until the North American states
decide to fully metricise units of measure used in those states.
Flight Levels
Cruising levels are usually defined as Flight Levels (FLs). A flight level (FL) is the vertical position
of an aircraft above a constant plane of equal barometric pressure. The standard pressure setting
(SPS) is 1013 hPa (or the more commonly used unit; mb. 1hPa = 1 mb). FLs are defined by
thousands of feet with intervals of 500 ft. FL0 (flight level zero) exists at the vertical position
where the barometric pressure is (or would be) 1013 mb. Therefore FL50 is 5000 feet above the
pressure level of 1013 mb, and FL55 is 5500 ft above the pressure level of 1013 mb. By using
FLs all transiting aircraft in the vicinity of each other can be separated vertically without the need
to reference to either local QNH or local QFE.
QNE
If the local QNH is below the limit of the altimeter subscale (usually about 930 mb), the altitude at
touchdown will not be displayed. In order to overcome this, the pilot is instructed to set the SPS
(1013 mb) and land with a reference altitude displayed on the altimeter. This reference altitude is
referred to as QNE. Many pilots mistakenly think that QNE is the SPS. It is not. It is the altitude
displayed at touchdown with 1013 mb set in the sub scale of the altimeter.
TRANSITION
Changing from QNH to SPS and the Reverse
In order to maintain ATC separation between arriving and departing IFR flights, the points at
which the altimeter setting is changed from QNH to SPS for departing aircraft, and from SPS to
QNH for arriving aircraft is defined by the authority. ICAO requires that the authorities of all states
define a transition altitude either generally or for each individual aerodrome. At the transition
altitude the QNH is replaced by SPS for departing aircraft. By use of defined tables, the ATC
authority at an aerodrome calculates the transition level at which arriving aircraft reset the
altimeter subscale from SPS to QNH.
Transition Layer
The airspace between the TA and TL is called the Transition Layer. Generally the maximum
depth of the Transition Layer is 500 ft. However, some states (Norway for example) specify a
minimum depth for the Transition Layer. In the case of Norway, it is 1000 ft.
Note: In the above example of determining the TL, if the state specified a minimum depth
of the Transition Layer of 1000 ft, the TL in that example would be 3027 + 1000 = 4027 ft.
First available FL above 4027 is FL45.
Set QNH
1003
TL
TAlt
Set 1013
Transition QNH
Altitude 1003 mb
3000 ft
1003 mb
1013 mb
Use of QFE
A pilot may elect to use either QNH or QFE as the reference for vertical position during an
approach to land. When an aircraft is completing its approach using QFE, the datum reference for
height will be the aerodrome elevation except where the elevation of a runway being used for an
instrument approach is 2 m (7 ft) or more below the aerodrome elevation. Runway threshold
elevation is always used as the reference for precision instrument approaches.
FLIGHT PLANNING
Enroute
Where a transition altitude has not been established, for flights enroute the vertical position of
aircraft is expressed in terms of:
Provision of Information
Altimeter setting information is available from ATCUs and FICs to allow pilots to verify lowest
enroute altitudes and lowest safe FLs and to calculate terrain clearance. The transition level
should be included in an approach clearance when requested by the pilot or when the appropriate
authority deems it necessary. QNH is included in approach clearances or clearances to enter the
traffic circuit, and in taxi clearances for departing aircraft, except when it is known that the aircraft
has already received the information. QFE is provided to aircraft on request or on a regular basis
in accordance with local arrangements.
Round Down
Altimeter settings provided to aircraft are rounded down to the nearest lower whole hectopascal
(mb).
¾ ± 20 m (60 ft) for altimeters with a test range of 0 to 9000 m (0 to 30 000 ft)
¾ ± 25 m (80 ft) for altimeters with a test range of 0 to 15 000 m (0 to 50 000 ft)
INTRODUCTION
It is not always possible to operate in good visual met conditions. Modern aircraft and radio
navigation facilities permit operations in poor weather and low visibility so that a scheduled
commercial service can meet the commitment of the schedule and the expectation of the
travelling public. In ATC the use of radar has revolutionised terminal control but there is still a
need for the pilot to gain some sort of visual criteria (visual contact with the ground) during
landing operation. To this end, highly technical systems and strictly imposed procedures have
been devised to reduce reliance on visual contact to the minimum. This chapter of the notes
explores the instrument procedures and associated systems which permit what is termed as ‘low
visibility’ operations.
PUBLICATIONS
ICAO details the SARPs for low visibility operations in Annex 6. Because the subject is large and
technically complex, technical details, procedural amplification, and guidance to operators is
contained in ICAO Document 8168 - Procedures for Air Navigation Services - Aircraft Operations
(This book is known as PANS-OPS). The document consists of two volumes:
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
The overriding concern with regard to low visibility operations is the unwanted occurrence of
‘controlled flight into terrain’. Once above the transition level or whilst in the cruise, the
procedures outlined in Chapter 9 provide the necessary elements of safety from terrain. However,
in the process of taking-off and landing the aircraft must inevitably be flown below the defined
safety altitude. During these phases of flights, strict adherence to the procedures and the laid
down minima is required; complying with these minima will keep the aircraft on the specified flight
path and, therefore, safe. However, the man/machine system, despite being highly trained and
technically complex, is not perfect, and tolerances have to be applied to cover inadvertent
deviation. This must inevitably lead to the introduction of risk. In compiling the procedures using
the systems specified in PANS-OPS, an acceptable risk factor has been defined at 1:10 000 000.
ABBREVIATIONS
In Chapter 1, there is a comprehensive list of abbreviations used in the examinations. In this
section, certain specific abbreviations are detailed as required knowledge. These are reproduced
below.
Abbreviations Used
ATIS Automatic terminal information NOZ Normal operating zone
service NTZ No transgression zone
C/L Centre line OCA/H Obstacle clearance altitude/height
DA/H Decision altitude/height OIS Obstacle identification surface
DER Departure end of the runway OM Outer marker
DR Dead reckoning PAR Precision approach radar
EFIS Electronic flight instrument system PDG Procedure design gradient
FAF Final approach fix RNAV Area navigation
FAP Final approach point RSR En-route surveillance radar
FMS Flight management system RSS Root sum square
HSI Horizontal situation indicator SID Standard instrument departure
IAF Initial approach fix SOC Start of climb
IF Intermediate fix SPI Special position indicator
MAPt Missed approach point STAR Standard instrument arrival
MDA/H Minimum descent altitude/height TAR Terminal area surveillance radar
MOC Minimum obstacle clearance TP Turning point
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
The natural environment of an aircraft is in the air. On the ground or during the transition from
ground to air the machine is at its most vulnerable. Departure procedures ensure the safe take-off
and initial climb to safe flying speed, and then concentrate on positioning the aircraft at the right
point and altitude to commence the en-route portion of the flight. The criteria in part 1 of PANS-
OPS are designed to provide flight crews and other flight operations personnel with an
appreciation, from the operational point of view, of the parameters and criteria used in the design
of instrument departure procedures which include, but are not limited to, standard instrument
departure (SID) routes and associated procedures. These assume that all engines are operating
normally. The ‘engine-out’ case or other emergency situation is the subject of special instructions
which the operator is required by law to define. Such procedures are outside the LOs for Air Law.
In order to ensure acceptable clearance above obstacles during the departure phase, instrument
departure procedures may be published as specific routes to be followed (SIDs), or omni-
directional departures (which may specify sectors to be avoided), together with procedure design
gradients (PDGs) and details of significant obstacles.
Noise Abatement
The use of automatic take-off thrust control systems (ATTCS) and noise abatement
procedures will need to be taken into consideration by the pilot and the operator.
Visual Minima
Where obstacles cannot be cleared by the appropriate margin when the aeroplane is
flown on instruments, aerodrome operating minima are established to permit visual flight
clear of obstacles. Visual minima are defined as required ground visibility and cloud base
prevailing at the departure aerodrome.
Straight Departures
Wherever possible, a straight departure will be specified which is aligned with the runway
centre line.
Turning Departures
When a departure route requires a turn of more than 15° to avoid an obstacle, a turning
departure is constructed. Wherever limiting speeds or flight speeds are promulgated, they
must be complied with to remain within the appropriate areas. If an aeroplane operation
requires a higher speed, then an alternative departure procedure must be requested.
Wind Effect
The procedures will assume that pilots will not compensate for wind effects when being radar
vectored, but will compensate for known or estimated wind effect when flying departure routes
which are expressed as track to be made good.
The protected areas and obstacle clearance applicable to individual types of departure are
discussed later in this chapter. Unless otherwise published, a PDG of 3.3% is assumed.
The PDG is made up of 2.5% gradient of obstacle identification surfaces or the gradient based on
the most critical obstacle penetrating these surfaces, whichever is the higher gradient, plus 0.8%
increasing obstacle clearance. Gradients published will be specified to an altitude/height after
which the minimum gradient of 3.3% is used. The final PDG continues until obstacle clearance is
ensured for the next phase of flight. At this point the departure procedure ends and is marked by
a significant point.
The minimum obstacle clearance equals zero at the DER and increases by 0.8% of the horizontal
distance in the direction of flight assuming a maximum turn of 15°. In the turn initiation area and
turn area a minimum obstacle clearance of 90 m (295 ft) is provided.
Where mountainous terrain exists, consideration is given by the procedure designer to increasing
the minimum obstacle clearance.
Whenever a suitably located DME exists, additional specific height/distance information intended
for obstacle avoidance may be published. RNAV way-points or other suitable fixes may be used
to provide a means of monitoring climb performance.
Where obstacles exist affecting the departure route, PDGs greater than 3.3% are promulgated to
an altitude/height after which the 3.3% gradient is considered to prevail. Gradients to a height of
60 m (200 ft) or less, caused by close-in obstacles, are not specified.
Mountainous Terrain
In areas where the terrain is described as ‘mountainous’ the minimum obstacle clearance (MOC)
is increased from 1000 ft to 2000 ft. Mountainous terrain is defined as terrain over which the
prevailing wind of 37 km/h generates significant downdraughts.
PDG = 3.3%
This altitude/height
is to be published if
2.5%
more than 200 ft = 0.8%
4.5%
3.7% OIS
2.5%
5m (16ft)
Aerodrome Elevation
DER Obstacle
Aircraft Categories
In defining procedures where turns are required, the aircraft speed must be taken into account so
that the aircraft remains in the protected zone, established by the procedure designer, during the
turn. The following table defines the maximum speeds for the different categories of aircraft:
STRAIGHT DEPARTURES
A straight departure is one in which the initial departure track is within 15° of the runway centre
line. Track guidance may be provided by a suitably located facility (VOR or NDB) or by RNAV. By
definition, track guidance for a straight departure must be attained from a navigation facility within
20 km (10.8 nm) from DER.
Max 15°
15° C/L VOR/NDB Area 2
TURNING DEPARTURES
When a turning departure requires a turn of more than 15°, a turning area is constructed and the
turn required is commenced upon reaching a specified altitude/height, at a fix or at a facility
(VOR/NDB). Straight flight is assumed until reaching an altitude of 120 m (394 ft) above the
elevation of DER. Track guidance must be obtained within 10 km (5.4 nm) after the completion of
the turn.
Splay angle
VOR 7.8°/NDB 10.3°
C/L
VOR/NDB
15°
Departure Track
30°
Fix Tolerance
15° 15°
DER
CONTINGENCY PROCEDURES
Development of contingency procedures required covering the case of engine failure or an
emergency in flight that occurs after V1, is the responsibility of the operator. When it is necessary
to develop turning procedures to avoid an obstacle which would have become limiting, then the
procedure should be detailed in the appropriate operator’s manual. The point for a start of a turn
in this procedure must be readily identifiable by the pilot when flying under instrument conditions.
Omni-directional Departures
Where no track guidance is provided in the design, the departure criteria are developed by using
the omni-directional method.
The departure procedure commences at the DER, which is the end of the area declared suitable
for take-off, either the end of the runway or clearway as appropriate. Since the point of lift-off will
vary, the departure is constructed on the assumption that a turn at 120 m (394 ft) above the
elevation of the aerodrome will not be initiated sooner than 600 m from the beginning of the
runway.
Unless otherwise specified, a 3.3% PDG is presumed. The basic procedure ensures that the
aircraft will climb on the extended runway centre line to 120 m (394 ft) before turns can be
specified, and at least 90 m (295 ft) of obstacle clearance will be provided before turns greater
than 15° can be specified. Where obstacles do not permit the development of omni-directional
procedures, it is necessary to fly a departure route, or ensure that the ceiling and visibility will
permit obstacles to be avoided by visual means. The omni-directional departure procedure is
designed using any one of a combination of the following:
30°
15°
Centre Line
Area 1
d = distance where the aircraft
climbing at the minimum gradient
Area 2 (3.3% or the gradient specified in
3.5 km the procedure whichever is the
(1.9 nm) higher) will have reached the
or less specified turn height/altitude. If
the turn height is 120m above the
DER this distance is 3.5 km (1.9
d nm) for a 3.3% gradient.
Standard Case
Where no obstacles penetrate the 2.5% OIS and 90 m (295 ft) of obstacle prevails; a 3.3% climb
to 120 m (394 ft) will satisfy the obstacle clearance requirements.
Sector Departures
Where obstacle(s) exist, the procedure may identify sector(s) for which either a minimum gradient
or a minimum turn altitude/height is specified. A clearance for such a procedure
PUBLISHED INFORMATION
Departure routes and standard instrument departures (SIDs) are produced and published in
accordance with Annex 11 and Annex 4. The information listed will be published for operational
reasons. For departure routes, the following information is promulgated:
RNAV Routes
Departure routes are labelled as RNAV only when that is the primary means of navigation
utilized.
Omnidirectional Departures
For omni-directional departures, the restrictions will be expressed as sectors in which
minimum gradients and/or minimum altitudes are specified to enable an aeroplane to safely
overfly obstacles. The published minimum gradient will be the highest in any sector that may
be expected to be overflown. The altitude to which the minimum gradient is specified will
permit the aircraft to continue at the 3.3% minimum gradient through that sector; a
succeeding sector, or to an altitude authorized for another phase of flight eg en-route, holding
or approach. A fix may also be designated to mark the point at which a gradient in excess of
3.3% is no longer required.
The SID will also specify limitations to altitude and specific track requirements to avoid arriving
traffic, restricted, prohibited, and danger areas, and also other aerodromes and their specific
departure and arrival routes. Typically, a SID will require more than one radio beacon (VOR/NDB)
and will normally use DME information from VOR/DME or VORTAC facilities. Due to the limited
requirements for IFR navigation equipment in aircraft (1 ADF and 2 NAV receivers), SIDS will not
specify data to be obtained at any one instant from more than 2 VORs and 1 NDB. SIDs will
normally be restricted to 25 nm from DER, and ATC service will be provided by the approach
controller responsible for traffic in the CTR.
Radar
Where radar is used for approach control, once identified by SSR a pilot may be instructed to
route directly to position. In such cases the aircraft will be navigated directly to that position
without compliance with the SID.
Noise Abatement
SIDs reflect the preferred noise abatement routes. Initially, the SID will require a climb to 120 m
(394 ft) but in practice (and to make system management easier) a climb to 500 ft is specified. At
500 ft turns may be commenced, and the pilot is required to continue the climb as required by the
SID with power, gear, flaps and lift enhancers in the noise abatement configuration, and to fly at
the specified speed. In an emergency, or when the PIC considers that his aircraft would be
hazarded by compliance with noise abatement procedures, any power or configuration may be
used, however, the operator/pilot will have to justify the action subsequently.
GNSS Procedures
The use of GNSS is approved for departure procedures in many states and procedures are
published in the form of GNSS/FMS/RNAV SIDS. Where a GNSS SID is used, the pilot must
have available data from non GNSS sources (i.e. VOR/DME) so that a cross check can be made
to ensure the system is functioning correctly. GNSS SIDs are titled RNAV (PRNAV).
The following SID charts are reproductions of aerodrome procedures from the UK AIP. The first
chart depicts the Midhurst SIDs from Heathrow. These departure procedures would be used for
flights to Northwest France, The Channel Islands and possibly Spain and Portugal. They place
the departing aircraft in a position to join airway A34 and then into A1 at FL75 and above. The
Manchester SIDs via Honiley depict the route flown by flights joining A1 southbound. The final
chart depicts a trial route for FMS/GNSS operations from Luton to the East and South East. Note
the accuracy of the check positions for the waypoints (accurate to 1/100 of a second of longitude,
approximately 30 cm).
SID Designators
SIDs are ATS routes (see Chapter regarding ATS and Airspace). Each SID is given a unique
identifier called a designator. The chart below (London Heathrow – Midhurst SIDs) shows all the
current SIDs from the departure runways at Heathrow terminating at the Midhurst VOR. The route
from 27R is called MID4F. The full designator would be ‘London Heathrow SID MID4F’. The
number relates to the progressive series of routes. At some point in history there was MID1, the
current MID series is 3 and 4. The letter shows the ‘amendment/change’ status of the SID route.
When the series reaches 9 and a new series is required, the number reverts to 1. An amendment
to SID MID4F would be called MID4G.
Precision Procedures
Precision procedures give the pilot guidance in azimuth (by defining a track to be flown) and
elevation (by defining a glide path with reference to electronic equipment). Typically, an ILS
approach is a precision procedure.
Precision Categories
ICAO and JARs specify categories of precision approach in terms of decision height/altitude and
required runway visual range. The ICAO categories are:
Speed
Aircraft performance has a direct effect on the airspace and visibility needed to perform the
various manoeuvres associated with the conduct of instrument approach procedures. The most
significant performance factor is aircraft speed.
Accordingly, five categories of typical aircraft have been established. Each category is based on
the speed at which the pilot attempts to cross the threshold of the landing runway, Vat. (Defined as
1.3 times stalling speed in the landing configuration at maximum certificated landing mass).
This provides a standardised basis for relating aircraft manoeuvrability to specific instrument
approach procedures. The instrument approach chart will specify the individual categories of
aircraft for which the procedure is approved. Normally, procedures will be designed to provide
protected airspace and obstacle clearance for aircraft up to and including Category D. Where
airspace requirements are critical, procedures may be restricted to lower speed categories.
Air Law 10-13
Chapter 10 Instrument Procedures
Visual Approach
As the intention of the procedures is to place the aeroplane in a position from which the pilot can
see either the aerodrome or the landing runway, once established on final approach to land the
pilot has the option of continuing the approach visually providing the aerodrome or runway is, and
will remain, in sight. This is not converting an IFR approach into a VFR approach; neither is it
flying under VFR.
Visual Criteria
For all approaches except CATIIIC, the pilot must have visual references to the position of the
runway centre line and the location of the aiming point within the touch-down zone. (These will be
defined in the chapter devoted to Aerodromes). The exact requirements are the responsibility of
the operator to define in the Operations Manual.
Procedure Design
When flying a departure procedure, the aeroplane climbs to and above safety height, thus safety
increases with time and altitude. For an approach procedure the reverse is true. In order to
compensate for the reduction in safety inherent in flying close to the ground in poor or zero
visibility, track guidance and, where offered, elevation guidance, is required to be more accurate
the closer the aeroplane gets to the ground. CATII and CATIII precision procedures require the
use of an autopilot to achieve the accuracy of flying necessary for the low visibility operations
specifications, whereas CATI and non-precision procedures, being less accurate in vertical
positioning, specify high DH and minimum descent height (MDH). From the start of the
procedure, the designer also applies increasing accuracy requirements for track guidance. To
achieve this, all instrument procedures have 5 segments.
Fixes
The approach segments begin and end at designated fixes. Under certain circumstances the
segments may begin at specified points where no fixes are available. For example: The final
approach segment of a precision approach may originate at the point of intersection of the
designated intermediate flight altitude with the nominal glide path.
Straight In Approaches
Wherever possible, a straight-in approach will be specified which is aligned with the runway
centre line. In the case of non-precision approaches, a straight-in approach is considered
acceptable if the angle between the final approach track and the runway centre line is 30º or less.
Circling Approach
In those cases where terrain or other constraints cause the final approach track alignment or
descent gradient to fall outside the criteria for a straight-in approach a circling approach will be
specified. The final approach track of a circling approach procedure is in most cases aligned to
pass over a portion of the usable landing surface of the aerodrome.
Track Maintenance
The procedures are defined by tracks to be made good and pilots are expected to allow for the
wind. During Precision Approach Radar (PAR) and Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA)
procedures, the controller ‘talking the aircraft down’ will adjust the required heading to counter the
effects of drift. For ILS approaches pilots are required to maintain aircraft position to within half
scale disposition of the deviation displays.
OBSTACLE CLEARANCE
Obstacle clearance is a primary safety consideration in the development of instrument approach
procedures. The criteria used and the detailed method of calculation are covered in PANS-OPS,
Volume II. The obstacle clearance applied in the development of each instrument approach
procedure is considered to be the minimum required for an acceptable level of safety in
operations. The protected areas and obstacle clearance applicable to individual types of
approaches are specified later.
System Minima
Regardless of the result of calculation of DH or MDH, for each approach system (procedure or
equipment), a minimum height above the datum is established as a ‘never below’ figure. The
following table shows the system minima which override a lower DH or MDH. For instance, if the
published OCH for a VOR/DME approach (non precision) was 130 ft and the margin or lower limit
was 20 ft, theoretically the MDH would be 150 ft. However, the system minimum for VOR/DME is
250 ft, therefore the MDH is 250 ft.
Threshold Elevation
Aerodrome Elevation
The angle of the glide path is set to provide the required clearance from obstacles. The MOC for
a non-precision approach is made up of two areas; the primary MOC area and the Secondary
MOC area.
At any point the width of the primary area is equal to ½ of the total width. The width of each
secondary area is equal to ¼ of the total width. Where no track guidance is provided during a turn
specified by the procedure, the total width of the area is considered as a primary area. MOC is
provided for the whole width of the primary area.
For the secondary area, MOC is provided at the inner edges gradually reducing to zero at the
outer edge. The degree of MOC in the primary area depends upon the availability of a Final
Approach Fix (FAF) (FAF - see below). With a defined FAF the MOC is 70 m (246 ft) and 90 m
(295 ft) without.
MOC
MOC
Obstacle
Obstacle
Secondary Secondary
Area Primary Area Area
Total width
ACCURACY OF FIXES
Fixes and points used in designing approach procedures are normally based on standard
navigation systems. These include, but are not limited to:
Nominal Fix
¾ VOR ± 4.5º when used in an approach procedure to establish a step down fix
where less than 300 m (984 ft) of obstacle clearance prevails; accuracy
is considered to be ± 7.8º
¾ ILS Localizer ± 1.4º
¾ NDB ± 6.2º when used in an approach procedure to establish a step down fix
where less than 300 m (984 ft) of obstacle clearance prevails; accuracy
is considered to be ± 10.3º
Surveillance Radar
Radar fix accuracy is based on consideration of: radar mapping accuracy, azimuth
resolution, flight technical tolerance, controller technical tolerances, and the speed of the
aircraft in the terminal area.
DME
Fix tolerance is ± 0.46 km (± 0.25 nm) + 1.25% of the distance to the antenna.
75 MHz Marker Beacons Fix tolerances for ILS and “Z” markers for use with instrument
approach procedures are calculated using the aerial polar diagram. Typically fix tolerance is +/-
0.8 km (0.45 nm) at 6000 ft and 0.35 km (0.2 nm) at 1000 ft.
VOR
VOR provides excellent track guidance but fix tolerance overhead a VOR is based upon
a cone of confusion 50º from the vertical. At 3000 ft the accuracy of the ‘on top’ is given
by:
2 x tan 50° x 3000 = 2 x 1.19 x 3000 = 7140 ft or 1.17 nm
NDB
Fix tolerance overhead an NDB is based upon an inverted cone of ambiguity extending at
an angle of 40º either side of the facility. At 3000 ft the accuracy of the ‘on top’ is given
by:
2 x tan 40° x 3000 = 2 x 0.84 x 3000 = 5040 ft or 0.83 nm
Locator
To improve the accuracy of ‘on tops’ some procedures employ an NDB with a 75Mhz
marker co-located. This gives reasonable track guidance with an accurate ‘on top’. This
system is called a locator and is shown on the chart as NDB(L).
Missed approach
Point (MAPt)
FAF
Primary area
NDB = 2.5 nm
FAF Location
For the final approach segment (contained between FAF and MAPt), the optimum and maximum
distances for locating the FAF relative to the threshold are 9 km (5 nm) and 19 km (10 nm)
respectively.
DESCENT GRADIENT
In designing instrument approach procedures adequate space is allowed for descent from the
facility crossing altitude/height to the runway threshold for straight-in approach or to OCA/H for
circling approaches.
Establishing a maximum allowable descent gradient for each segment of the procedure provides
adequate space for descent.
The optimum descent gradient in the final approach should not exceed 5% (50 m/km,
approximately 300 ft/nm) which is equivalent to a 3º glidepath.
Where a steeper descent gradient is necessary, the maximum permissible is 6.5% (65 m/km,
approximately 400 ft/nm) which is equivalent to a 3.8º glidepath. In the case of a precision
approach the operationally preferred glidepath angle is 3º. An ILS glidepath in excess of 3º is
used only where alternate means of satisfying obstacle clearance requirements are impractical.
In certain cases the maximum descent gradient of 6.5% (65 m/km) results in descent rates that
exceed the recommended rates of descent for some aircraft. Pilots should consider carefully the
descent rate required for non-precision final approach segments before starting the approach.
APPROACH SEGMENTS
There are five segments to a standard instrument approach procedure.
When arrival routes are published, the width of the associated area decreases from the “enroute”
value to the “initial approach” value with a convergence angle of 30º each side of the axis.
This convergence begins at 46 km (25 nm) before the IAF if the length of the arrival route is
greater than or equal to 46 km (25 nm). It begins at the starting point of the arrival route if the
length is less than 46 km (25 nm).
The arrival route normally ends at the initial approach fix. Omni-directional or sector arrivals can
be provided taking into account MSA. When terminal radar is employed the aircraft is vectored to
a fix, or onto the intermediate or final approach track, at a point where the pilot may continue the
approach.
STARs are published in the AD section of the AIP under the appropriate aerodrome. An example
of a STAR is reproduced below. This particular STAR covers arrivals from the West and North
West and terminates at the Ockham VOR. This is the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) for procedures to
land on runway 09L at Heathrow.
The initial approach segment provides at least 300 m (984 ft) of obstacle clearance in the primary
area. Track guidance is provided along the initial approach segment to the IF, with a maximum
angle of interception of 90º for a precision approach and 120º for a non-precision approach.
Where no suitable lAF or IF is available, a racetrack or holding pattern is required.
On a 3º glide path interception occurs between 6 km (3 nm) and 19 km (10 nm) from the
threshold. The width of the ILS final approach area is much narrower than those of a non-
precision approach. Descent on the glide path must never be initiated until the aircraft is
established on the localizer.
The ILS obstacle clearance surfaces assume that the pilot does not normally deviate from the
centre line more than half a scale deflection after being established on track. Thereafter the
aircraft should adhere to the on-course, on-glide path position since more than half course sector
deflection or more than half course fly up deflection combined with other allowable system
tolerances could place the aircraft in the vicinity of the edge or bottom of the protected airspace
where loss of protection from obstacles can occur. The intermediate approach track or radar
vector has been designed to place the aircraft on the localizer at an altitude/height that is below
the nominal glide path.
Check Fix
The final approach area contains a fix at approximately 4DME that permits verification of
the glide path/altimeter relationship. The outer marker is normally used for this purpose.
Prior to crossing the fix, descent may be made on the glide path to the published fix
crossing altitude/height. Descent below the fix crossing altitude/height should not be
made prior to crossing the fix.
Loss of Precision
In the event of loss of glide path guidance during the approach, the procedure becomes a
non-precision approach. The OCA/H published for the glide path inoperative (ILS no GP)
case will apply.
Determination of DA or DH — ILS
As well as the physical characteristics of the ILS installation, the procedures specialist’s
consideration is given to obstacles in the approach areas for the calculation of the OCA/H for a
procedure. The calculated OCA/H is the height of the highest approach obstacle, or equivalent
missed approach obstacle, plus an aircraft category related allowance. In assessing these
obstacles, the operational variables of the aircraft category, approach coupling, category of
operation, and missed approach climb performance, are considered.
Standard Conditions
The OCA or OCH values are listed on the instrument approach chart for those categories of
aircraft for which the procedure is designed. The values are based on the following standard
conditions:
MISSED APPROACH
If at any time during a procedure the pilot wishes to abandon the procedure, or at DH/A for a
precision approach and at the missed approach point (MAPt) for a non-precision approach, when
the visual criteria as defined by the operator is not obtained, the pilot is to fly a missed approach
procedure.
In commercial aviation this is commonly referred to as ‘the Go Around’ procedure, implying that
the pilot is going around the pattern again. During the missed approach phase, the pilot is faced
with the demanding task of changing the aircraft configuration, attitude, and altitude. For this
reason the design of the missed approach is kept as simple as possible. A missed approach
procedure consists of three phases: Initial Missed Approach; Intermediate Missed Approach, and
Final Missed approach.
MDA(H) Runway
Obstacle Clearance
A missed approach procedure is designed to provide protection from obstacles throughout the
missed approach manoeuvre. The procedure is applicable to the landing runway but may be
modified to cater for the instrument aid being used. The procedure specifies a point where the
missed approach begins and a point or an altitude/height where it ends.
The missed approach is to be initiated not lower than DA/H in the precision approach or at a
specified point (MAPt) in non-precision approach procedures where the aircraft is not lower than
the MDA/H.
The MAPt in a procedure may be the point of intersection of an electronic glide path with the
applicable DA/H, a navigational facility, a fix, or a specified distance from the FAF.
When a navigational facility or a fix defines the MAPt, the distance from the FAF to the MAPt is
normally published, and may be used for timing to the MAPt. In cases where timing is not
authorised, the procedure is annotated “timing not authorized for defining the MAPt.”
Climb Gradient
Procedures are based on a nominal missed approach climb gradient of 2.5%. A gradient of 2%
may be used in the procedure construction if the necessary survey and safeguarding can be
provided with the approval of the appropriate authority. Gradients of 3, 4, or 5% may be used for
aircraft whose climb performance permits an operational advantage to be thus obtained.
If a gradient other than a 2.5% gradient is used, this is indicated on the instrument approach
chart. A missed approach procedure which is based on the nominal climb gradient of 2.5%
cannot be used by all aeroplanes when operating at or near maximum certificated gross mass
and engine out conditions. The operation of these aeroplanes needs special consideration at
aerodromes where there are critical obstacles on the missed approach area. These obstacles
may result in a special procedure being established with a possible increase in the DA/H or
MDA/H.
Intermediate Phase
The intermediate phase is the phase within which the climb is continued, normally straight ahead.
It extends to the first point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is obtained and can be
maintained. Turns of no more than 15º may be specified. During this phase, it is assumed that the
pilot will make track corrections.
Final Phase
The final phase begins at the point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is first obtained and
can be maintained. It extends to the point where a new approach is started, the aircraft enters a
holding pattern, or the aircraft returns to the enroute structure. Turns may be prescribed during
this phase.
¾ Aircraft category
¾ Speed for each category
¾ Wind speed, 46 km/h (25 kt) throughout the turn, and
¾ Bank angle, 20º average or 3º per second, whichever requires less bank
Obstacle Clearance
When the (VM(C)A) has been established the OCA/H is determined for each category of aircraft.
The OCA/H for VM(C) is applicable to the aerodrome, not the runway used for the instrument
procedure. ICAO publishes the following table of minima for VM(C). It should be noted that the
criteria for minimum visibility are advisory whereas the criteria published in JAR OPS-1.430 are
mandatory (also required knowledge for Operational Procedures).
PUBLISHED INFORMATION
The VM(C) OCA for the aerodrome is published on the chart for the instrument part of the
approach. The fixed margin is added to OCA for each category of aircraft.
Highest
obstacle in
area
Radius from
end of Runway
The radius is
based on aircraft
category/speed
Localiser Ident
and Frequency
MSA
Holding Pattern
FAP (there is no
defined FAF)
IAF
IF
Procedure Turn
Missed Approach
Procedure
Glidepath
interception
OCA (OCH)
VM(C) OCA
Glidepath
information
PROCEDURE
An arriving aircraft would usually enter the holding pattern above the LUT NDB(L), the IAF for the
procedure, at an altitude above the lowest holding altitude (LHA) and wait for clearance to begin
the procedure. When cleared to the LHA in the hold, the aircraft speed will be adjusted and
aircraft configuration adjusted. The ATC clearance would be “(callsign)… cleared ILS runway
08 advising turning inbound at 2000 ft” The aircraft leaves the hold on a track of 258°mag to a
point on the reciprocal of the ILS localiser at DME range 5 nm. The pilot would advise ATC
“(callsign) turning inbound at 2000 ft”. The controller will then clear the aircraft “(callsign)
report established ILS 08”. The aircraft is then flown through a procedure turn that places the
aircraft in a position to intercept the localiser beam inbound. Once established on the localiser
and reported so, the controller will instruct the pilot to report glidepath descending to the
aerodrome controller. The aircraft is flown along the localiser beam until the glidepath is
intercepted, and descent is commenced. If at DH the visual criteria is not obtained, the “go
around” (missed approach) procedure is flown as published on the chart.
Air Law 10-33
Chapter 10 Instrument Procedures
Track Reversals
There are several different track reversal methods. The diagram below shows:
¾ Procedure turns;
¾ Base turn; and
¾ Racetrack.
Note: In all the procedures, tracks are flown. Therefore pilots must make allowance for the wind.
Note: The outbound leg is usually flown with reference to the ILS localiser (if the
procedure is part of an ILS approach). Flying the reciprocal of the localiser course is not
flying the back beam, which is not approved in Europe. The pilot must remember that
indications are reversed when flying the localiser in the wrong direction!
Base Turn
Where accurate track guidance is available other than the ILS localiser, for instance VOR
information, a base turn can be flown. From on top of the facility the aircraft is established on a
defined track which diverges from the reciprocal of the desired inbound track. At a point defined
by time, DME distance or interception of information from another aid, the aircraft is established in
a turn at rate 1 or 25° bank angle until the inbound track is intercepted.
Racetrack
It is not always convenient for the holding pattern associated with a single beacon procedure to
be oriented so that the inbound holding track can be extended directly into the outbound
procedure track as in the case of Luton. The picture below shows part of the procedure for
Edinburgh including a racetrack shown by the dotted line.
Normal
procedure
without holding
Racetrack
Procedure
From the above picture it is clear that there is no way that the pilot can track outbound on 065°
directly from the holding pattern. In this case, when cleared to commence the approach the
aircraft is flown outbound in the holding pattern and the outbound track is maintained to a defined
point (in this case DME range 9 nm) at which a rate 1 turn through 180° is initiated to bring the
aircraft on to the desired inbound track. On the approach chart this would be specified as an
‘alternative procedure’.
Air Law 10-35
Chapter 10 Instrument Procedures
Note: The student must not confuse a racetrack with a holding pattern. The racetrack is
only used for track reversal; similarly, a holding pattern is only used for holding.
Centre line
45°
ILS Localiser
OM DR segment
10 nm max
DR Fix
VOR/DME
DME range
HOLDING PROCEDURES
Inevitably aircraft will not be able to make a straight in approach and will need to temporarily
‘park’ whilst awaiting clearance to commence the approach procedure. The process of ‘parking’ is
known as holding. We have already seen that the single beacon reversing turn procedure usually
starts at a holding point and it is usual for the missed approach procedure to end at a holding
point. Holding is achieved by the pilot flying the aircraft around a holding pattern. The process of
flying around the pattern is called ‘shuttling’. As part of the IRT the student will be required to fly
holding patterns to a precise degree, and this will be achieved after a lot of practice. In the
Chapters concerned with Approach Control, the student will be introduced to the process known
as ‘stacking’, but first the holding pattern needs to be described and the procedures for joining
and flying the pattern discussed.
Deviation Warning
Deviations from the procedures for holding may incur the risk of excursions beyond the perimeter
of the holding area into airspace used for other purposes. As such pilots must adhere to the
published procedures modified where necessary by ATC instructions or local instructions
published on STAR and instrument approach charts, and enroute charts.
Standard Pattern
A holding pattern normally involves a right turn at the holding point. Left hand patterns may be
specified where airspace considerations warrant. A left hand pattern and the associated joining
procedures are a mirror image of a right hand pattern.
Procedure
The pattern is flown making all turns at rate 1 (3°/sec) or a maximum bank angle of 25°. The
pattern is defined by tracks to be made good and pilots are to allow for the wind. The pattern is
timed along the outbound leg, normally 1 minute starting at the abeam point, but timing may be
started at the holding point adding 1 minute for the turn. If the abeam point cannot be determined,
timing may start at the completion of the outbound turn. The outbound leg may be limited by DME
range. Holding patterns are flown at specified speeds although the FMC system in modern
aircraft calculates the most cost effective holding speed and sets the speed when an auto-
coupled holding pattern is flown.
Holding Speeds (Note: Speeds and heights in bold are required knowledge)
Holding Speeds
1
Levels Normal Conditions Turbulence Conditions
2 3
Up to 4250 m (14 000 ft) inclusive 425 km/h (230 kts) 520 km/h (280 kts)
4 4
315 km/h (170 kt) 315 km/h (170 kt)
5
Above 4250 m (14 000 ft) to 6100m 445 km/h (240 kt) 520 km/h (280 kt)
(20 000 ft) inclusive or 0.8 M whichever is less
3
5
Above 6100 m (20 000 ft) to 490 km/h (265 kt) 520 km/h (280 kt)
3
10 350 m (34 000 ft) inclusive or 0.8 M whichever is less
Obstacle Clearance
The holding area is not defined in terms of lateral dimensions. The designer will ensure that there
is sufficient airspace above the MOC to encompass the holding pattern and the associated joining
procedures. Surrounding the holding area, a buffer area is established extending laterally 5 nm
from the holding area. Full MOC is maintained within the holding area and 1 nm into the buffer
area. The MOC is reduced in steps for each nm into the buffer area until the MOC is reduced to
zero at the extremity of the buffer area.
Note: When the minimum distance between two parallel runway centre lines is lower
than the specified value dictated by wake turbulence considerations, the parallel runways
are considered as a single runway in regard to separation between departing aircraft. A
simultaneous dependent parallel departure mode of operation is therefore not used.
Mixed operations
All modes of operation are possible 1,2,3 or 4
Radar Monitoring
All approaches regardless of weather conditions are radar monitored. Control instructions
and information necessary to ensure separation between aircraft, and to ensure aircraft
do not enter the NTZ, are issued. The ATC procedure will be to vector arriving aircraft to
one or the other of the parallel ILS localizer courses. When cleared for an ILS approach,
only a straight in approach is permitted (no track reversals). When vectoring to intercept
the ILS localizer course, the final vector is such as to enable the aircraft to intercept the
ILS localizer course at an angle not greater than 30º and to provide at least 2 km (1 nm)
straight and level flight prior to ILS localizer course intercept. This vector enables the
aircraft to be established on the ILS localizer course in level flight for at least 3.7 km
(2.0 nm) prior to intercepting the ILS glide path.
Separation
Each pair of parallel approaches will have a “high side” and a “low side” for vectoring, to
provide vertical separation until aircraft are established inbound on their respective
parallel ILS localizer course. The low side altitude will normally be such that the aircraft
will be established on the ILS localizer course well before ILS glidepath interception. The
high side altitude will be 300 m (1000 ft) above the low side. The main objective is that
both aircraft be established on the ILS localizer course before the 300 m (1000 ft) vertical
separation is reduced.
Corrective Action
If an aircraft is observed to overshoot the ILS localizer course during turn to final, the
aircraft will be instructed to return immediately to the correct track. Pilots are not required
to acknowledge these transmissions or subsequent instructions while on final approach
unless requested to do so. Once the 300 m (1000 ft) vertical separation is reduced, the
radar controller monitoring the approach will issue control instructions if the aircraft
deviates substantially from the ILS localizer course. If the aircraft fails to take corrective
action and penetrates the NTZ, the aircraft on the adjacent ILS localizer course will be
issued appropriate control instructions.
To satisfy the uniformity and consistency in the provision of aeronautical information that is
required for operational use, states shall, as far as possible, avoid standards and procedures
other than those established for international use.
The aeronautical information service shall obtain information for it to provide a pre-flight
information service to meet the need for in-flight information, and to ensure that information is in a
form suitable for the requirements of flight operations personnel including flight crews, flight
planning and flight simulator, and the ATS unit responsible for a FIS.
Note: AlPs are intended primarily to satisfy international requirements for the exchange
of aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation. When
practicable, the form of presentation is designed to facilitate their use in flight.
WGS 84
As of 1 January 1984, published geographical co-ordinates indicating latitude and longitude shall
be expressed in terms of the World Geodetic System - 1984 (WGS 84).
The identification assigned is used to identify the area in all subsequent notifications pertaining to
that area. The identification is composed of a group comprising; nationality letters for location
indicators assigned to the state or territory, which has established the airspace (EG is used for
the UK); a letter: P - Prohibited area; R - Restricted area; D - Danger area; and a unique number
within the state or territory concerned. Hence EGD001 is danger area number 001 in the United
Kingdom.
To avoid confusion, identification numbers are not re-used for a period of at least one year after
cancellation of any area to which they refer. This will allow all aeronautical publications and charts
to be reprinted at least once after the designation is cancelled.
Note: Information of short duration containing extensive text and/or graphics is published
as an AIP Supplement.
Distribution
A NOTAM is distributed to addressees to whom the information is of direct operational
significance, and who would not otherwise have at least seven days prior notification.
NOTAM Checklist
A checklist of NOTAMs in force is issued over the AFTN at intervals of not more than one month;
it refers to the latest AIP Amendments, AIP Supplements and at least the internationally
distributed AICs. The checklist must have the same distribution as the actual message series to
which they refer.
NOTAM Summary
This is a monthly printed plain language summary which is prepared and forwarded to the
recipients of the integrated AIP containing details of the NOTAMs in force, the latest AIP
Amendments, a checklist of AIP Supplements, and AIC issued.
SNOWTAM
Information concerning snow, ice, and standing water on aerodrome pavements is reported by
SNOWTAM. The maximum validity of a SNOWTAM is 24 hours. However, a new SNOWTAM
must be issued when there is a significant change in conditions.
SNOCLO
This is a term used in a VOLMET broadcast to indicate that an aerodrome is closed due to snow
or snow clearance in progress.
SNOWTAM Form
The SNOWTAM Form is broken into 17 sections as shown in the form below.
Interpretation
When a runway is reported as DRY, DAMP, or WET, pilots may assume an acceptable level of
braking friction is present. WATER PATCHES or FLOODED means that braking may be affected
by hydroplaning and appropriate adjustments should be considered. Water patches will be
reported if at least 25% of the runway is affected. When a runway is notified as ‘slippery when
wet’ take-offs and landings in wet conditions should only be considered if the distances equal or
exceed the distances required for icy runways as defined in the aircraft manual.
ASHTAM
Information concerning an operationally significant change in volcanic activity, a volcanic eruption
and/or volcanic ash cloud is reported by means of an ASHTAM. An ASHTAM provides
information on the status of activity of a volcano, when a change in its activity is expected, or is,
of operational significance. Information is passed using a volcano level of alert colour code given
in the table.
Specification
AICs are issued in printed form containing both text and diagrams if required. A state may
distribute AICs internationally as well as domestically. AICs have a consecutive serial number
based on the calendar year. If more than one series is published, each series is given an
identification letter. AICs are differentiated by subject matter by way of colour coding the paper
they are printed on. A checklist of AICs currently in force is to be issued at least once a year.
Example of AIC system: The following is the UK system for coding AICs:
Pink Matters relating to safety
Yellow Operational matters including ATS facilities and requirements
White Administrative matters e.g. exam dates and fees
Mauve Airspace reservations
Green Maps and charts
Uses
An AIC shall be originated whenever it is desirable to promulgate a long term forecast of any
major change in legislation, regulations, procedures, or facilities; information of a purely
explanatory or advisory nature liable to affect flight safety; information, or notification of an
explanatory or advisory nature concerning technical, legislative, or purely administrative matters.
Planning
Aeronautical information provided for pre-flight planning purposes shall include relevant
elements of the Integrated Aeronautical Information Package, maps and charts, and
additional current information relating to the aerodrome of departure.
PIBs
All NOTAM information is to be available to pilots in the form of pre-flight information bulletins
(PIB).
AlP Amendments
Permanent changes to the AlP are published as AlP amendments.
AlP Supplements
Temporary changes of long duration (three months) and information of short duration which
contains extensive text and/or graphics are published as AIP supplements. AIP supplement
pages are coloured in order to be conspicuous, preferably in yellow (as in the UK).
GEN 3 — Services
Information applicable to the provision of:
¾ Aeronautical information services;
¾ Aeronautical charts;
¾ Air traffic services;
¾ Meteorological services;
¾ SAR.
AD 1 — Aerodromes/Heliports Introduction
Specific information relating to:
¾ Aerodrome/heliport availability;
¾ Rescue and fire fighting services and snow plan;
¾ Index to aerodromes and heliports;
¾ Groupings of aerodromes/heliports.
AD 2 — Aerodromes
Specifications of and data relating to:
¾ Aerodrome location indicator and name;
¾ Aerodrome geographical and administrative data;
¾ Operational hours;
¾ Handling services and facilities;
¾ Passenger facilities;
¾ Rescue and fire fighting services;
¾ Seasonal availability – clearing;
¾ Aprons, taxiways and check locations/positions data;
¾ Surface movement guidance and markings;
¾ Aerodrome obstacles;
¾ Meteorological information provided;
¾ Runway physical characteristics;
¾ Declared distances;
¾ Helicopter landing area;
¾ Approach and runway lighting;
¾ Other lighting, secondary power supply;
¾ ATS airspace;
¾ ATS communication facilities;
¾ Radio navigation and landing aids;
¾ Local traffic regulations;
¾ Noise abatement procedures;
¾ Flight procedures;
¾ Any additional information.
AD 3 — Heliports
Relating specifically to heliports.
INTRODUCTION
Since the introduction of modern Air Traffic Control service following WWII, procedures and
technology have advanced and kept pace with the growth of air traffic and the advances in
aircraft design. The modern ATC system is as different today to a 1950s ATCO as would be the
flight deck of a Boeing 777 to a Comet pilot.
Whilst there is still reliance on the individual skill of the controller, modern digital data systems,
digital radar displays, and hi-speed communications all help make the controller’s job less
stressful and more professional, thus enhancing safety. The success of an ATC system depends
on the adherence to procedures and the application of standards.
The training of Air Traffic Control Officers (ATCOs) is no less demanding than that of pilots.
ATCOs are required to hold a class 1 medical certificate and are subject to regular skill tests and
proficiency checks as are aircrew. As aircrew, you will see only a little of what goes on in the
ATCC or the control tower, and your only contact with ATCOs will usually be by RTF. However,
the LOs for 010 Air Law require the ATPL student to understand the types of ATC offered to
pilots, knowledge of the types of airspace, and the standards for separation applied in them.
¾ Alerting Service
To notify appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need of SAR aid, and assist such
organizations as required.
The Air Traffic Control Service is further sub-divided into three parts:
CLASSES OF AIRSPACE
When it has been determined that ATS will be provided in a particular portion of airspace or at a
particular aerodrome, the airspace is designated according to the services to be provided. The
designation (classes) of airspace is as follows:
Traffic Info
ATC Speed Radio
Class Rules Service Separation and SVFR Use
Clearance Limit Watch
avoidance
Airway; CTA;
A IFR ATC Required IFR-IFR No Yes Yes
CTR; ATZ
IFR-IFR
IFR ATC
IFR-VFR
B Required
VFR-IFR No Yes Yes
Airway; CTA;
VFR ATC CTR; ATZ
VFR-VFR
ATC IFR – IFR No
IFR
ATC IFR – VFR
C Required
Yes Yes
Airway; CTA;
ATC VFR – IFR CTR; ATZ
VFR Yes
FIS VFR-VFR
ATC IFR-IFR
IFR (1)
ATC IFR-VFR
D (1)
Required
Yes Yes Yes
Airway; CTA;
ATC VFR-IFR CTR; ATZ
VFR None
FIS VFR-VFR
ATC IFR-IFR
IFR Required Yes
FIS IFR-VFR
E Yes No Airway; CTA
FIS VFR-IFR
VFR None None No
FIS VFR-VFR
IFR-IFR
ADV
IFR None (as far as Yes Advisory
F ATC Yes No
practical) Routes
VFR FIS None None No
IFR Yes
FIS Routes
G FIS None None Yes No
VFR No Open FIR
Note 1: In Class D, traffic information and avoidance is provided by a service called Radar Information
Service (not to be confused with the UK RIS). This is not ATC and it is not Advisory ATC as in Class F. For
this purpose it is classified as ATC.
Speed Limit
Where imposed, the speed limit is 250 kts IAS. ATC may impose lower speed restrictions to
facilitate separation. Other speed restrictions may be applied to aircraft flying a STAR and the
start point of such limits will be published on the STAR chart.
Controlled Aerodromes
Those aerodromes where it is determined that ATC service will be provided to aerodrome traffic,
are designated as controlled aerodromes.
Class A
Where the interaction of IFR and VFR traffic is not desirable mainly due to traffic density
and the use of VFR flight levels, VFR is prohibited. In Europe Class A is used extensively
for airways; CTAs and CTRs. In Class A CTRs SVFR is permitted. In N America
(especially the USA) Class A is infrequently used.
Class B
Where it is considered acceptable to mix IFR and VFR traffic all of which is subject to
ATC and the density of traffic is not excessive, Class B is applied. In the UK the UIR is all
Class B. In N America most CTAs and CTRs are Class B. SVFR is permitted in Class B
CTRs. Where an airway passes through Class B airspace, the airway adopts that
classification.
Class C
Where there is a need for IFR and VFR traffic to be mixed but it is considered sufficient
for VFR traffic to maintain its own separation from other VFR traffic, and whilst VFR traffic
is separated from IFR traffic by the use of VFR FLs, Class C is applied. In Europe, most
CTAs and many CTRs (especially in Eire) are Class C. There is no Class C airspace in
the UK because the UK does not recognise VFR FLs. SVFR is permitted in Class C
CTRs. Where an airway passes through Class C airspace, the airway adopts that
classification.
Class D
At less busy regional aerodromes and military aerodromes used by civilian traffic CTRs
are predominantly Class D. Class D allows the separation of IFR traffic and offers the
ability to provide a radar information service to transiting and terminal VFR traffic in
addition to the underpinning FIS. Most CTRs in the UK are Class D. SVFR is permitted in
Class D CTRs. Where an airway passes through Class D airspace, the airway adopts
that classification.
Class E
Where traffic is light or the activity of the traffic mainly transiting, CTAs are established with
Class E airspace. Class E permits IFR and VFR but neither imposes nor offers any control
over VFR traffic. Indeed, VFR traffic may operate as non-radio traffic in Class E airspace.
ICAO proscribes the use of Class E for CTRs therefore SVFR is not permitted in Class E
airspace. Where an airway passes through Class E airspace, the airway adopts that
classification.
Class F
Advisory ATC service is provided in Class F airspace to participating IFR flights only. Other
IFR and VFR flights are permitted but they only receive FIS. Advisory ATC is limited to the
provision of the service for aircraft enroute therefore Class F is restricted to advisory routes,
similar in characteristics to an airway. There is no Class F airspace in the USA.
Class G
Both IFR and VFR are permitted but no service other than FIS is provided. FIS routes may be
defined along which FIS is guaranteed to be available. Class G is known as the Open FIR
and comprises all the airspace of an FIR outside of controlled airspace (CAS).
e.g. RNP 1 implies that an aircraft would be within a distance of 1 nm from the intended
position for at least 95% of the total flying time, or 95% of aircraft flying that route will be
within 1 nm of their intended position.
RNP Standards
The RNP standards are 1, 4, 10, 12.6, and 20. There is an interim standard of RNP 5
intended to be applied during the introduction of RNP4. Only one state, Japan, achieved
RNP4 and subsequently abandoned it on the grounds of maintenance cost. To date RNP5 is
the accepted standard. RNP12.6 is the standard for the North Atlantic and is derived from
historic RNAV data based on triple INS navigation. RNP is to be superceded with the
introduction of PRNAV through GPS. It is envisaged that BaroVRNAV and GPS approach
procedures will produce an equivalent of RNP0.3.
SCOTTISH FIR
LONDON FIR
CONTROL AREAS
CTAs (including airways, Terminal Manoeuvring Areas (TMAs), and Terminal Control Areas
(TCAs)), are designated so as to encompass enough airspace to contain the flight paths of IFR
flights for which it is desired to provide protection, taking into account the capabilities of the
navigation aids within the area and the activity of the traffic in the area. CTAs are established at
the confluence of airways in the vicinity of major aerodromes.
Within a CTA, vertical delineation may be established to permit varying activities to take place. At
the top of a CTA the traffic will be transiting and will not affect the activity below. Below the
cruising levels of transiting traffic, arriving and departing traffic for aerodromes served by the CTA
will be manoeuvring to enter and leave the airway structure. Where this is specifically organised
the area within vertical limits is called a TCA. At lower levels, traffic may be separated for arrival
and departure at specific aerodromes as in the case of Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted and Luton.
Where this organised, the area is called a TMA.
CONTROL ZONE
Airways
Airways are control areas in the form of a corridor linking other CTAs. The base of an airway is
defined to include the lowest cruising level above the highest terrain within a defined distance of
the airway centreline. In normal terrain the base would be 1000 ft above the highest terrain or in
mountainous areas, 2000 ft above. The base of an airway, when defined as a FL, will be a VFR
FL. Airways are normally classified as either class A or class B, but where an airway passes
through a CTA or CTR of lesser classification, the classification of the airway is reduced
accordingly.
CONTROL ZONES
CTRs are defined to include all the airspace, outside of CTAs, used for IFR flights arriving at and
departing from aerodromes. The lateral limit of a CTR should extend at least 9.3 km (5 nm) from
the centre of the aerodrome, or aerodromes (in the case of the CTR covering more than one
aerodrome), in the direction(s) from which approaches may be made. If a CTR is located within
the lateral limits of a CTA, it will extend upwards from the surface to at least the lower limit of the
CTA. The upper limit of a CTR may be higher than the lower limit of an overlying CTA. Where
there is no overlying CTA, the upper limit of the CTR is defined. When this limit is above 900 m
(3000 ft) msl it should coincide with a VFR cruising level.
Note: Even in states that do not recognise VFR FLs, the lower and upper limits of
controlled airspace (Airways, CTAs and CTRs) are defined in terms of the vertical
displacement which would coincide with a VFR FL. For instance, the UK does not
recognise VFR FLs but the base of airways in the UK is always a FL + 500 ft i.e. FL75. It
is generally accepted that the practical maximum upper limit of any defined CAS is
FL660. If you refer to the table of FLs you will find this is a VFR FL.
Note: It is common practice to define the upper limit of CTRs as altitudes where the
upper limit coincides with or is less than the transition altitude for the aerodrome(s)
served by the CTR, even if this is above 900 m (3000 ft). In N America, for any CTR or
CTA with an upper limit below 18 000 ft, the upper limit is defined as an altitude.
Purpose of Designators
Designators are the ‘code names’ given to routes established for aircraft to fly along. For
instance, the airway that joins London to Singapore is given the designator A1. The purpose of a
system of route designators is to allow both pilot and ATS:
¾ To make unambiguous reference to any ATS route without the need to resort to the use
of geographical co-ordinates or other means in order to describe it;
¾ To relate an ATS route to a specific vertical structure of the airspace, as applicable;
¾ To indicate a required level of navigation performance accuracy, when operating along
an ATS route or within a specified area; and
¾ To indicate that a route is used primarily or exclusively by certain types of aircraft.
Composition of Designators
Designators for controlled, advisory and uncontrolled ATS routes, with the exception of standard
arrival and departure routes, have the following format:
¾ A letter followed by a number; with;
¾ One prefix; and
¾ One suffix.
Number of Characters
The number of characters required to compose the designator:
¾ Shall not exceed 6 characters, but
¾ Should be kept to a maximum of 5 characters.
Note: RNAV routes are defined by waypoints (VOR radial and DME range etc.); non-
RNAV routes are defined by overflying beacons (VOR; NDB etc.)
Note: ‘Regional’ refers to the ICAO regions and implies that routes are not restricted to
the domestic airspace of a state. ‘Non regional’ implies that the route does not extend
beyond the domestic airspace of a state.
Prefix
Where applicable, one supplementary letter is added as a prefix to the basic designator to
designate the following:
¾ K to indicate a low level route established for use primarily by helicopters;
¾ U to indicate that a route or portion of that route is established in the upper airspace;
and
¾ S to indicate a route established exclusively for use by supersonic aircraft during
acceleration, deceleration and while in supersonic flight.
Suffix
A supplementary letter may be added after the basic designator of the ATS route to indicate the
type of service provided or the turn performance required on the route. The following are the
applicable suffixes:
¾ F indicates that the route is an advisory route (class F airspace).
¾ G indicates that the route is an FIS route in class G airspace.
¾ Y indicates that for RNP 1 routes at and above FL200, all turns on the route between 30°
and 90° shall be made within the allowable RNP tolerance of a tangential arc between
the straight leg segments defined with a radius of 22.5 nm.
¾ Z indicates that for RNP 1 routes at or below FL 190, all turns on the route between 30°
and 90° shall be made within the allowable RNP tolerance of a tangential arc between
the straight leg segments defined with a radius of 15 nm.
Belfast CTA/TMA/CTR
¾ Proximity of Aircraft;
¾ Procedural inadequacy;
¾ Equipment malfunction.
AIRPROX
The ATIR dealing with proximity of aircraft (one aircraft getting too close to another) is called an
AIRPROX report. After the report is ‘filed’ a process of investigation starts which amongst other
things, will determine the degree of risk involved. This will be classified as:
¾ Risk of collision;
¾ Safety not assured;
¾ No risk of collision;
¾ Risk not determined.
Filing an ATIR
If the ATCO becomes aware of a breach of separation standard then an AIRPROX (Controller) is
to be raised. If a pilot observes or becomes aware of an aircraft too close or cleared to or through
the same level/altitude or to commence a manoeuvre that would cause proximity concern, then
he/she is to raise an AIRPROX (Pilot).
ICAO has published a standard reporting form for AIRPROX (Pilot). When a pilot makes an
AIRPROX report, an initial report is to be made by RTF to the ATCU providing control at that
time. The form has shaded boxes for the information needed to be transmitted for the initial
report. When the aircraft has landed, the pilot is to complete the form and file it either directly with
the ATCU at the aerodrome of landing or through the Operator or the Operator’s agent.
Action
When an ACAS or TCAS resolution advisory results in the aircraft deviation from the cleared
track or altitude, the pilot is to take the necessary avoiding action or allow the TCAS system to
operate automatically without pre-approval or re-clearance from ATC. On completion of
manoeuvre the pilot is to report the action taken to ATC. When a pilot reports a manoeuvre
because of an ACAS resolution advisory, the controller will not attempt to modify the aircraft flight
path until the pilot reports that the aircraft is returning to the current ATC instruction or clearance.
Traffic information is provided during the manoeuvre.
Note: The difference between ACAS and TCAS is that ACAS is totally autonomous
whereas TCAS has the ability to coordinate the advisory information offered with the
other aircraft involved providing, of course, the other aircraft is TCAS fitted. TCAS can
coordinate up to three aircraft at any time.
Note: The ATC service provided to VFR traffic in class D airspace is a Radar Information
service.
Note: The provision of approach control at aerodromes outside of CTRs is advisory only. At
some busy aerodromes, the aerodrome authority has established approach control, the use
of which is not mandatory. Example aerodromes are Oxford and Cambridge. It may not be
sensible to ignore the service offered.
Note: The task of providing specified services on the apron may be assigned to an
aerodrome control tower or to a separate unit known as the Apron Management Service.
Procedural Control
Modern ATC systems use radar in almost all ATC situations. With radar including SSR, the ATCO
probably knows where the aircraft is better than the pilot does when flying in IMC. However, the
basic ATC system uses procedural control where the pilot tells the ATCO where the aircraft is
and what altitude it is at. Based on this information and the ATCO’s knowledge of the positions
and altitude of other aircraft, the ATCO issues a clearance to the aircraft. Procedural control is
based on time for horizontal separation. The specific standards will be detailed under Area
Control. Throughout the chapters dealing with Approach Control and Area Control, the underlying
provision of service is through procedural control. For this reason, the procedures may seem
cumbersome and outmoded in today’s radar environment. Radar control, where separation is
based on distance, is discussed in the chapter dealing with Radar.
¾ Be provided with information on the intended movement of each aircraft and with current
information on the actual progress of each aircraft;
¾ Determine from the information received, the relative positions of known aircraft to each
other;
¾ Issue clearances and information for the purpose of preventing collisions between aircraft
under its control and of expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of traffic;
¾ Co-ordinate clearances as necessary with other units:
¾ Whenever an aircraft might otherwise conflict with traffic operated under the control
of such other units;
¾ Before transferring control of an aircraft to such other units.
Separation
Separation is the act of physically ensuring that collisions between aircraft do not take place.
Clearances issued by ATCUs provide separation:
Separation Methods
Separation can be obtained by at least one of the following:
¾ Vertical separation
Obtained by assigning different altitudes or FLs to geographically adjacent aircraft.
¾ Horizontal separation
Obtained by providing:
¾ Longitudinal separation
By maintaining an interval between aircraft operating along the same, converging or
reciprocal tracks, expressed in time or distance; or
¾ Lateral separation
By maintaining aircraft on different routes or in different geographical areas.
¾ Composite separation
Consisting of a combination of vertical and one of the other forms of separation. The
minima for use with each of these is possibly less than, but never less than ½ of, those
for use with each of the combined elements when applied individually. Composite
separation is applied only on the basis of regional air navigation agreements.
Note: Communications failure procedure in the NAT area uses composite separation.
¾ Arriving Aircraft
The responsibility for the control of an aircraft approaching to land is transferred from the
unit providing approach control service to the unit providing aerodrome control service, as
soon as the aircraft is in the vicinity of the aerodrome and:
¾ It is considered that it will be able to complete its approach and landing with visual
reference to the ground; or
¾ It has reached uninterrupted VMC; or
¾ Has landed.
¾ Departing Aircraft
The responsibility for control of a departing aircraft is transferred from the unit providing
aerodrome control service to the unit providing Approach Control service at the earliest
opportunity:
¾ In VMC:
¾ In IMC:
Co-Ordination of Clearances
An ATC clearance is to be co-ordinated between ATC units to cover the entire route of an aircraft,
or a specified portion of a route as follows. An aircraft is normally cleared for the entire route to
the aerodrome of first intended landing:
¾ When it has been possible, prior to departure, to co-ordinate the clearance between all
the units under whose control the aircraft will come, or
¾ When there is reasonable assurance that prior co-ordination will be effected between
those units under whose control the aircraft will subsequently come.
Limited Clearance
When co-ordination has not been achieved or is not anticipated, the aircraft will only be cleared to
a point where co-ordination is reasonably certain. Prior to reaching such a point, or at that point,
the aircraft must receive a further clearance, with holding instructions being issued as
appropriate.
A clearance limit is specified by using the name of the appropriate reporting point, or aerodrome,
or CAS boundary. When prior co-ordination has been effected with units under whose control the
aircraft will subsequently come under or if there is reasonable time prior to the assumption of
control, the clearance limit is the destination aerodrome or, if not practicable, an appropriate
intermediate point, and co-ordination shall be expedited so that a clearance to the destination
may be issued as soon as possible.
Note: If the clearance for the levels covers only part of the route, it is important for the
ATCU to specify a point to which the part of the clearance regarding levels applies.
Expiry Time
The time of expiry of a clearance indicates the time after which the clearance will be automatically
cancelled if the flight has not been started; in which case, a new clearance will have to be
requested by the pilot.
Entering a CTA
When an aircraft intends to depart from an aerodrome within a CTA, to enter another CTA within
a period of 30 minutes, co-ordination with the subsequent area control centre is obtained prior to
the issue of the departure clearance.
Route of Flight
The route of flight is detailed in each clearance when deemed necessary. The phrases used and
meanings are:
¾ The clearance shall be for a specified portion of the flight during climb or descent and
subject to further restrictions as and when prescribed on the basis of regional air
navigation agreements.
¾ If there is a possibility that flight under VMC may become impracticable an IFR flight shall
be provided with alternative instructions to be complied with in the event that flight in
VMC cannot be maintained for the term of the clearance.
¾ The pilot of an IFR flight, on observing that conditions are deteriorating and considering
that operation in VMC will become impossible, shall inform ATC before entering IMC and
shall proceed in accordance with the alternative instructions given.
Note: As a VFR flight must remain in VMC at all times, the issuance of a clearance to a
VFR flight to fly subject to maintaining own separation and remaining in VMC has no
other meaning other than to signify that, for the duration of the clearance, the provision of
separation by ATC is not applicable.
Note: This information will inevitably relate to controlled flights cleared subject to maintaining
own separation and remaining in VMC.
Emergency Vehicles
P
proceeding to the assistance of an aircraft in distress are afforded priority over all other surface
movement traffic.
¾ Vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft shall give way to aircraft which are landing, taking-
off or taxiing (1); and
¾ Vehicles shall give way to other vehicles towing aircraft; and
¾ Vehicles shall give way to other vehicles in accordance with local instructions; and
¾ Notwithstanding the above, vehicles and vehicles towing aircraft shall comply with
instructions issued by the aerodrome control tower.
Note 1: In the UK aircraft taxiing are required to give way to aircraft being towed.
Emergency Descent
Upon receipt of advice that an aircraft is making an emergency descent through other traffic, ATC
will take all possible action to immediately safeguard all aircraft concerned including broadcasts
by RTF.
Position Reporting
The procedures for position reporting have already been covered in Chapter 7 Rules of the Air;
however, additional requirements have been added.
Air Reports and Special Air Reports (Airep and Airep Special)
When operational information and/or routine meteorological information is to be reported
by aircraft enroute, the position report is to be given in the form of a routine air-report
(airep). Special observations (non routine) are reported as special aireps. Aireps may be
sent by ADS if available. An example of an Airep form is shown below. The operational
form has columns adjacent to the parameter column for the pilot (or usually the co-pilot)
to record the necessary data. The form also serves as a log of the ATC communications
throughout the enroute portion of a flight.
Position Report
Section 1 (outlined in red) is a standard position report.
Operational Information
Section 2 (outlined in blue) includes the ETA and the fuel based endurance remaining.
Meteorological Information
Section 3 (outlined in green) lists the met data which (if available) should be transmitted when the
flight is required to ‘report met’. Note item 15 contains the met phenomena which if encountered,
would require the transmission of an airep special.
Precedence
Where ATS units provide both FIS and air traffic control service, the provision of air traffic control
service has precedence over the provision of FIS whenever the provision of air traffic control
service so requires.
Use of Radar
ICAO SARPs allow the use of radar in the provision of a FIS. Where this is provided it is known
as a radar information service. Do not confuse this with the UK radar service offered to traffic
inside and outside of controlled airspace under the LARS service which is called Radar
Information Service (RIS).
Additional Information
FIS provided to flights includes, in addition to the information already outlined, the provision of
information concerning weather conditions reported or forecast at departure, destination and
alternate aerodromes, and collision hazards to aircraft flying in airspace Classes C, D, E, F and
G. For flight over water areas, in so far as practicable and when requested by a pilot, any
available information such as radio call sign, position, true track, speed, etc., of vessels in the
area.
Information Broadcasts
When a Regional Air Navigation Agreement determines that a requirement for a broadcast exists
then the following formats are followed:
¾ HF OFIS broadcast
¾ VHF OFIS broadcast
¾ Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
ATIS
ATIS broadcasts are provided at aerodromes where there is a requirement to reduce the
communication load on the ATS VHF air-ground communication channels. ATIS is established as
Voice ATIS (V-ATIS) which can be supplemented with Data ATIS (D-ATIS).
V-ATIS
A discrete VHF frequency is used for ATIS broadcasts. If a discrete frequency is not available, the
transmission may be made on the voice channel of the most appropriate terminal navigation aid,
preferably a VOR, provided the range and readability are adequate and the identification of the
navigation aid is sequenced with the broadcast so that the latter is not obliterated. ATIS
broadcasts are not to be transmitted on the voice channel of ILS. When provided V-ATIS
comprises:
D-ATIS
D-ATIS is transmitted continuously on the data link system from an ACC. Because it is
transmitted continuously and consists of data rather than voice information, it can be updated
virtually instantaneously. In any one data transmission information concerning multiple
aerodromes can be included together with appropriate administrative information. D-ATIS is
displayed on the flight deck through the EFIS system.
VOLMET
Meteorological information (TAFS and Metars) is broadcast on both HF and VHF where there is a
need. The term VOLMET is taken from ‘meteorologie de vol’. A VOLMET broadcast is transmitted
by the FIS of a FIR (VHF) or an OCA (HF). It typically covers many aerodromes either within the
FIR or adjacent FIRs.
INTRODUCTION
There is no regulatory requirement for an aerodrome that is outside CAS and used only for VFR
flying to have an aerodrome controller. However, where an aerodrome is used for commercial
operations under IFR the aerodrome must be licensed and under the licensing requirements the
provision of an aerodrome controller will be required.
The aerodrome controller must be a licensed ATCO. Such an aerodrome is defined by ICAO as a
controlled aerodrome. The aerodrome controller usually uses the aerodrome name plus the word
‘tower’ as an RTF callsign e.g. Coventry Tower. Alternatively, the word ‘local’ refers to the
aerodrome controller also. The aerodrome controller may be assisted by a ground movements
controller whose function would be to advise pilots of collision risks and to pass other
aeronautical information. If the ground controller is required to provide ATC to aircraft on the
ground, he/she must be a licenced ATCO.
An alternative to a licensed ATCO is to use a Flight Information Service Officer (FISO) who is
licensed to provide FIS. Where a FISO is appointed his/her RTF callsign will have the suffix
“Information”, for example: Redhill Information. At busy aerodromes e.g. Heathrow, there is an
arrivals controller and a departures controller, both of whom share the responsibility of the
aerodrome controller.
The ATZ reduces to uncontrolled airspace outside of the notified hours of watch of the aerodrome
controller (as per the AD entry in the AIP for the state). Clearances for traffic taking off and
remaining in the visual circuit, or landing from the visual circuit are given by the aerodrome
controller. Outside of the hours of ATC watch, pilots may use the aerodrome if required (with
permission of the land owner to avoid trespass) but may only do so in VMC, during which the
rules of the air apply.
Procedures
The following procedures are observed by the aerodrome control tower whenever VFR
operations are suspended:
¾ The holding of all departures other than those which file an IFR flight plan and obtain
approval from the area control centre;
¾ The recall of all local flights operating under VFR or special VFR;
¾ The notification of the area control centre of the action taken; and
¾ The notification of all operators, or their designated representatives, of the reason for
taking such action if necessary or requested.
Final
Ba
se
Le
g
Downwind Leg
Circuit Positions
The following positions of aircraft in the traffic and taxi circuits are the positions where the aircraft
normally receive aerodrome control tower clearances, whether these are given by light signals or
radio. Aircraft should be watched closely as they approach these positions so that proper
clearances may be issued without delay. Where practicable, all clearances are issued without
waiting for the aircraft to initiate the call.
3 5
1 6
¾ Position 1
Aircraft initiates call to taxi for departing flight, runway in use information and taxi
clearances given.
¾ Position 2
If there is conflicting traffic, the departing aircraft is held at this point. Engines of the
aircraft would normally be run-up here.
¾ Position 3
Take-off clearance is issued here if not practicable at position 2.
¾ Position 4
Clearance to land is issued here.
¾ Position 5
Clearance to taxi to hangar line or parking area is issued here.
¾ Position 6
Parking information issued here if necessary.
PRIOR TO TAKE-OFF
Aircraft are advised of any significant changes in the surface wind direction and speed, the air
temperature, and the visibility or RVR value(s) given, and significant meteorological conditions in
the take-off and climb out area, except when it is known that the information has already been
received by the aircraft.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE
When operating under VMC, it is the responsibility of the PIC of an aircraft to avoid collision with
other aircraft. However, due to the restricted space on and around manoeuvring areas, it is often
essential that traffic information be issued to aid the PIC of an aircraft to avoid collision. Essential
local traffic is considered to consist of any aircraft, vehicle, or personnel on or near the
manoeuvring area, or traffic operating in the vicinity of the aerodrome, which may constitute a
hazard to the aircraft concerned. Information on essential local traffic is issued either directly or
through the unit providing approach control service when, in the judgement of the aerodrome
controller the information is necessary in the interests of safety, or when requested by aircraft.
OTHER HAZARDS
In issuing clearances or instructions, air traffic controllers should take into account the hazards
caused by jet blast and propeller slipstream to taxiing aircraft, to aircraft taking-off or landing,
particularly when intersecting runways are being used, and to vehicles and personnel operating
on the aerodrome.
Note: The movement area of an aerodrome consists of the apron and the manoeuvring area.
UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE
An aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference or which for other reasons
needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities shall be cleared to the designated isolated
parking position. Where such an isolated parking position has not been designated, or if the
designated position is not available, the aircraft shall be cleared to a position within the area or
areas selected by prior agreement with the aerodrome authority. The taxi clearance shall specify
the taxi route to be followed to the parking position. This route shall be selected with a view to
minimizing any security risks to the public, other aircraft and installations at the aerodrome.
TWO-WAY RADIO
At controlled aerodromes all vehicles employed on the manoeuvring area must be capable of
maintaining two-way radio communication with the aerodrome control tower. Vehicles without
radios are to be accompanied by vehicles with radios.
UNAUTHORISED INCURSION
If an aircraft enters an aerodrome traffic circuit without proper authorisation, it shall be permitted
to land if its actions indicate that that is the pilot’s intention. If necessary, aircraft in the circuit will
be asked to give way so as to negate any hazard created. Other than in accordance with normal
procedure, landing clearance will not be withheld.
SPECIAL AUTHORIZATION
Special authorisation for use of the manoeuvring area may be given to an aircraft which
anticipates being compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft,
as well as hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured persons requiring
urgent medical attention.
¾ The preceding departing aircraft has crossed the end of the runway in use; or
¾ The preceding departing aircraft has started a turn away from the runway centreline;
or
¾ All preceding landing aircraft are clear of the runway in use.
Where the ATS authority has agreed alternative procedures, they will not be permitted:
TAKE-OFF CLEARANCE
Take-off clearance may be issued to an aircraft when there is reasonable assurance that the
separation prescribed will exist when the aircraft starts its take-off run. In the interest of expediting
traffic, a clearance for immediate take-off may be issued to an aircraft before it enters the runway.
On receipt of such a clearance the aircraft shall taxi onto the runway and start the take-off run in
one continuous movement.
¾ A preceding departing aircraft has crossed the upwind end of the runway, or
¾ A preceding departing aircraft has turned away from the runway centreline, or
¾ A preceding landing aircraft has moved off the runway.
¾ The landing aircraft must be able to keep the preceding aircraft in sight;
¾ It must be during day time;
¾ The braking action must not be adversely affected by runway contaminants;
¾ The pilot of the landing aircraft must agree to the procedure being used;
¾ The operators of the aircraft concerned agree to the procedure being used.
¾ HEAVY (H)
MTOM equal to or greater than 136 000 kg
¾ MEDIUM (M)
MTOM less than 136 000 kg but greater than 7000 kg
¾ LIGHT (L)
MTOM equal to or less than 7000 kg
Opposite Direction
Separation of 2 minutes shall be applied between a LIGHT or MEDIUM aircraft and a HEAVY
aircraft and between a LIGHT aircraft and a MEDIUM aircraft when the heavier aircraft is making
a low missed approach, and the lighter aircraft is:
INTRODUCTION
Approach Control is the interface between the Aerodrome Controller and the Area Controller.
Normally Approach control is provided out to a range of 25 nm from a controlled aerodrome
situated within a CTR. It is normal to use radar to supplement the procedural service. Approach
control is mandatory for all IFR traffic and all controlled VFR flights within a CTR.
DEPARTURES
Departing Aircraft
Approach Control is provided to all IFR departing flights and departing VFR controlled flights. IFR
flights normally follow a Standard Instrument Departure (SID) profile to a convenient point at
which control is transferred to an area controller for insertion into the adjacent airways system.
Note: To minimise RTF transmission and to standardise procedures, the above information is
delivered by instructing the pilot to comply with a published SID. Also to ensure an orderly
flow of air traffic, ATCUs should attempt to permit aircraft departing on long distance flights to
proceed on heading with as few turns or other manoeuvres as possible, and to climb to
cruising level without restrictions.
Expeditious Flow
Departing aircraft may be expedited by suggesting a take-off direction that is not into wind. It is
the responsibility of the PIC of an aircraft to decide between making such a take-off, and waiting
for normal take-off in a preferred direction.
Delays
It is normal ATFM practice to delay take off rather than incur excessive holding at destination. If
departures are delayed, delayed flights shall normally be cleared in an order based on their ETD,
however, deviations from this may be made to facilitate the maximum number of departures with
the least average delay. ATCUs should advise aircraft operators or their designated
representatives when anticipated delays due to traffic conditions are likely to be substantial and in
any event, when they are expected to exceed 30 minutes.
¾ One minute if the departing tracks diverge by at least 45° immediately after take-off. This
may be reduced for parallel runway or diverging runway operations. The latter need
specific ATS approval.
¾ Two minutes where the first aircraft has filed a cruising speed that is 40 knots faster than
the second, and both aircraft intend to follow the same track.
¾ Five minutes while vertical separation does not exist.
ARRIVALS
Arriving Aircraft
Arriving flights are normally ‘handed over’ from the area controller or the CTA controller, to the
approach controller at a convenient point usually located in the vicinity of a radio navigation
facility. Flights under approach control will normally be handed over to the aerodrome controller
when the pilot has reported ‘field in sight’ or has passed a specific point on an instrument
approach.
¾ The pilot has reported passing an appropriate point defined by a radio aid; or
¾ The pilot reports that the aerodrome is and can be maintained in sight; or
¾ The aircraft is conducting a visual approach; or
¾ The aircraft’s position has been positively determined by the use of radar.
Visual Approach
An approach flown with visual reference by an aircraft flying under IFR is not a VFR approach. An
IFR flight may be cleared to execute a visual approach provided that the pilot can maintain visual
reference to the terrain and the reported ceiling is at or above the approved initial approach level
for the aircraft so cleared, or the pilot reports at the initial approach level or at any time during the
approach that the meteorological conditions are such that a visual approach and landing can be
completed.
Separation
Separation is to be provided between an aircraft cleared to execute a visual approach and other
arriving and departing aircraft.
Maintenance of Separation
For successive visual approaches, radar or non-radar separation is to be maintained until the pilot
of a following aircraft reports having the preceding aircraft in sight. The aircraft is to be instructed
to follow and maintain separation from the preceding aircraft. Transfers of communications are
made at a point or time so that a clearance to land or alternative instructions can be issued to the
aircraft in a timely manner.
Instrument Approach
If it is clearly apparent to the ATC unit, or the pilot reports that he/she is not familiar with an
instrument approach procedure, then approach control will pass the following details:
Straight-in Approach
If the aircraft is to be cleared for a straight-in approach then only the last item of the above list
need be specified.
Full Procedure
If visual reference to terrain is established before completion of the approach procedure, the
entire procedure must be flown unless the pilot requests, and is cleared for, a visual approach.
Specific Procedure
A particular approach procedure may be specified to expedite traffic. The omission of a specified
approach procedure will indicate that any authorised approach may be used at the discretion of
the pilot.
Speed Control
In the clearance to commence the instrument procedure, the pilot will be instructed to fly at a
defined speed to facilitate separation. Where radar is used to apply separation, speed adjustment
instructions will be given to the pilot to maintain separation.
Holding
Holding and holding pattern entry has to be accomplished in accordance with procedures
established by the appropriate ATS authority and published in Aeronautical Information
Publications (AIP).
If entry and holding procedures have not been published or if the procedures are not known to the
PIC of an aircraft, the appropriate ATCU will describe the procedures to be followed. Aircraft must
be held at a designated holding point. The required minimum vertical, lateral or longitudinal
separation from other aircraft, according to the system in use at that holding point, will be
provided.
When aircraft are being held in flight, the appropriate vertical separation minima shall continue to
be provided between holding aircraft and enroute aircraft while such aircraft are within 5 minutes
flying time of the holding area, unless the correct lateral separation exists. Levels at holding
points are assigned in a manner that facilitates the clearance of each aircraft to approach in its
proper priority. Normally, the first aircraft to arrive over a holding point should be at the lowest
level, with following aircraft at successively higher levels. Aircraft particularly sensitive to high fuel
consumption at low levels, such as supersonic aircraft, are permitted to hold at higher levels than
their order in the approach sequence indicates, without losing their order in the sequence. This is
allowed whenever the availability of discrete descent paths and/or radar makes it possible to clear
the aircraft for descent through the levels occupied by other aircraft. If a PIC of an aircraft advises
of an inability to comply with the approach control holding or communication procedures, the
alternative procedure(s) requested by the PIC should be approved if known traffic conditions
permit.
Priority
The stack is established in a manner that will permit arrival of the maximum number of aircraft
with the least average delay. A special priority may be given to an aircraft which anticipates being
compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft; or hospital
aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured person requiring urgent medical attention.
Flow
Succeeding aircraft are cleared for approach when the preceding aircraft:
¾ Has reported that it is able to complete its approach without encountering IMC; or
¾ Is in communication with and sighted by the aerodrome control tower and reasonable
assurance exists that a normal landing can be accomplished; or
¾ Radar separation has been applied between the aircraft and the preceding aircraft.
Remaining Holding
If the pilot of an aircraft in a stack has indicated an intention to hold for weather improvement, or
for other reasons, such action shall be approved. When other holding aircraft indicate their
intention to continue the approach to land, and alternative procedures are not available, the pilot
desiring to hold will be cleared to an adjacent fix for holding. Alternatively, the aircraft should be
given a clearance to place it at the top of the stack so that other holding aircraft may be permitted
to land. The aircraft operator, or a designated representative, shall be advised of the action taken
immediately after the clearance is issued, if practicable.
Credit Time
An aircraft which has been deliberately delayed by ATC enroute to minimise terminal holding, and
is still required to enter the stack, will be given credit for the time lost due to delay and placed in
the stack at an appropriate position.
¾ A suitable point on the approach path, which shall be capable of being accurately
determined by the pilot, is specified to serve as a check point in timing successive
approaches;
¾ Aircraft shall be given a time at which to pass the specified point inbound. This time will
allow the desired interval between successive landings on the runway to be achieved
while respecting the applicable separation minima at all times, including the periods of
runway occupancy.
¾ Runway in use
¾ Current meteorological information
¾ Current runway surface conditions, in case of precipitants or other temporary hazards
¾ Changes in the operational status of visual and non-visual aids essential for approach
and landing
Note: If the controller possesses wind information in the form of components, the
significant changes are:
¾ The latest information, if any, on wind shear and/or turbulence in the final approach area
including the current visibility representative of the direction of approach and landing or,
when provided, the current RVR value(s) and the trend, if practicable, supplemented by
slant visual range value(s) if provided.
Complete Procedure
Where an arriving aircraft is making a complete instrument approach, a departing aircraft may
take off in any direction until the arriving aircraft has started the procedure turn or base turn
leading to final approach, or take off in a direction at least 45° from the reciprocal of the approach
direction providing there will be at least 3 minutes until the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over
the threshold of the landing runway.
Straight in Approach
When an arriving aircraft is making a straight in approach, a departing aircraft may take off in any
direction until 5 minutes before the arriving aircraft is estimated to be over the threshold of the
landing runway. A take off may also be cleared in a direction at least 45° from the reciprocal of
the approach direction providing there will be at least 3 minutes until the arriving aircraft is
estimated to be over the threshold of the landing runway, or before the arriving aircraft crosses a
designated fix on the approach track.
A Straight in B Start of
Approach Procedure Turn 45°
45°
INTRODUCTION
The provision of an ATC service to aircraft flying along airways or transiting through control areas
is called area control. Area control is only provided in CAS and only provided to IFR traffic or
controlled VFR traffic where the class of airspace permits such traffic. Whilst the complexity of the
operation may appear less than that of approach control, the numbers of aircraft involved,
especially over continental Europe and North America, make area control a specifically
demanding aspect of the ATC service. Generally area control is applied above the levels used for
terminal manoeuvring and outside of CTAs, at the normal cruising levels for the activity of the
traffic concerned. The unit providing an area control service is an Area Control Centre (ACC).
Procedural Control
The system underpinning area control is procedural ATC. In order for this to function, pilots are
required to make position reports at mandatory reporting points enroute. On enroute charts such
points are noted by a black triangle (S). Unless ordered to cease position reporting, pilots are to
make the necessary reports. In any event, a pilot is to make a report when at the FIR boundary.
Adjacent FIRs
In order to allow international commercial operations to operate, the area controller in one FIR
must co-ordinate the movement of aircraft into adjacent FIRs. To do this, pilots may be asked to
adjust the route to be flown or to accept lower levels than flight planned. Instructions such as
“route via (position)” or “maintain FL190 until (position)” or “request level change enroute” are
used for revisions or interim clearances. At the point of transfer of control to a succeeding FIR,
the controllers concerned will ‘co-ordinate’ a handover such that there is a positive handover of
control. Where radar is used, this will involve radar identification by the assuming controller based
on information from the relieving controller and SSR information.
Flight Levels
As flights progress aircraft are able to cruise at higher flight levels (or altitudes). Area controllers
will attempt to accommodate all requests for higher levels within operational constraints.
Instructions such as “request higher after (position)” or “advise when able higher” are used when
level adjustment is not practical at that time.
Airways
When flying along ATS corridor routes (airways), pilots are responsible for their own navigation.
Area controllers expect aircraft to navigate along the centre line of airways and route via the
defining radio navigation aids. When cleared to climb and descend, such action should be
commenced immediately and completed as expeditiously as possible. Instructions such as “from
(position) route via (position)” or “from present position proceed directly to (position)” will be used
to expedite the flow of traffic along routes or through areas by missing intermediate points on the
flight planned route.
SEPARATION
General Provisions for Separation
The LO’s for 010 Air Law require the student to have knowledge of the separation standards as
applied in area control. These are complex but follow a definite pattern. It is not unusual for
several questions to appear in a paper concerning the separation standards. In general, the
provision of vertical separation will take precedent over horizontal separation. The philosophy is
that ‘two aircraft at different altitudes cannot hit each other!’
Application of Separation
In area control, vertical or horizontal separation is provided between:
VERTICAL SEPARATION
Vertical Separation Application
Vertical separation is obtained by requiring aircraft to use prescribed altimeter setting procedures
to operate at different levels expressed in terms of flight levels or altitudes.
Approach Sequence
Cruising levels of aircraft flying to the same destination are assigned so that they are correct for
the approach sequence at the destination. This may require level adjustment at a considerable
distance from destination.
Example: Aircraft A is cleared to descend from FL140 to FL100. Aircraft B would be cleared to
descend to FL140 when aircraft A reports that it has left FL140 and is descending to FL100. In
severe turbulence conditions the area controller would instruct aircraft A to report passing FL130
in the descent before issuing a clearance to aircraft B to descend to the level previously occupied.
HORIZONTAL SEPARATION
Horizontal Separation Definition
There are two types of horizontal separation: lateral and longitudinal. Broadly, lateral separation
requires aircraft to fly on different tracks separated by the required minima in terms of distance,
whereas longitudinal separation involves arranging flights along the same track to be separated
by time (or in certain circumstances, by distance).
LATERAL SEPARATION
Application
Lateral separation is applied so that the distance between aircraft that are to be laterally
separated is never less than an established distance (the minima) taking into account
navigational inaccuracies plus a specified buffer. This buffer is determined by the appropriate
authority and is included in the lateral separation minima.
Buffer — A contrivance to lessen the shock of concussion. In this context, the word
buffer means distance or time which is added into a situation that allows more space to
ensure that the risk of two aircraft colliding is minimised.
Geographical Separation
The aircraft reports over a different geographical location determined visually or by
reference to a navigation aid.
Track Separation Between Aircraft Using the Same Navigation Aid or Method
Aircraft fly on specified tracks which are separated by a minimum amount appropriate to
the navigation aid or method employed. By doing so, separation would be deemed to
exist when one or both aircraft are:
VOR: Flying tracks separated by least 15°, and one or both aircraft have reported
at a distance of 28 km (15 nm) or more from the facility.
28 km (15NM)
VOR
15°
28 k
m (1
5NM
)
NDB: Flying tracks separated by least 30°, and one or both aircraft have reported
at a distance of 28 km (15 nm) or more from the facility
28 km (15NM)
NDB
30°
28
km
(1
5N
M)
28 km (15NM)
FIX
45°
28
km
(1
5N
M
)
Reduced Distance
When aircraft are operating on tracks which are separated by considerably more than
these minima, States may reduce the distance at which the lateral separation is
achieved.
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
Application
Longitudinal separation is applied so that the spacing between the estimated positions of the
aircraft being separated is never less than the prescribed minimum. The specified spacing
reflects the accuracy of the navigation aids being used or the accuracy with which the pilot can
determine his/her position. Beacon ‘hopping’ is a fairly simple case but the use of RNAV over
remote areas such as oceans or deserts will require much greater distances to be applied.
Longitudinal separation between aircraft following the same or diverging tracks may be
maintained by the application of the Mach Number technique in which aircraft are required to fly
maintaining a specified mach number in relation to another aircraft also flying at specified mach
number. It is the underlying principle that the local speed of sound for two aircraft in relatively
close proximity will be the same. Longitudinal separation is established by requiring aircraft:
15 minutes:
15 MIN
Navigational Navigational
Aid Aid
10 MIN
5 minutes: in the following cases, providing that in each case the lead aircraft is
maintaining a TAS of 37 km/h (20 kt) or more, faster than the aircraft following:
5 MIN
3 minutes: in the cases listed below provided that in each case the lead aircraft is
maintaining a TAS of 74 km/h (40 kt) or more faster than the aircraft following.
Aerodrome
or 74 KMH (40 KT)
Reporting Point or Faster
3 MIN
15 minutes:
15 MIN
Navigational
Aid
Navigational
Aid
10 MIN
Navigational
Aids
1 5 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
1 5 M IN
FL 240
1 5 M IN
or when descending,
1 5 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
1 5 M IN
FL 240
1 5 M IN
10 minutes: at the time the level is crossed, where navigation aids permit frequent
determination of position and speed;
10 MIN
FL 260
FL 250
10 MIN
FL 240
10 MIN
NAVIGATION AID
10 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
10 M IN
FL 240
10 M IN
5 minutes: at the time the level is crossed, provided that the level change is commenced
within 10 minutes of the time the second aircraft has reported over an exact reporting
point (climbing and descending cases applicable).
5 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
5 M IN
1 0 M IN
F L 2 40
5 M IN
N A V IG A T IO N A ID
15 minutes: at the time the levels are crossed (climbing and descending cases
applicable);
15 M IN
FL 260
FL 250
15 M IN
FL 240
15 M IN
10 MIN
FL 260
FL 250
10 MIN
FL 240
10 MIN
NAVIGATION AID
Estimated Time
of Passing
10 MIN
10 MIN
37 km (20 nm) provided each aircraft utilizes "on-track" DME stations, and a separation
is checked by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from the aircraft at frequent intervals
to ensure that the minimum will not be infringed.
DME
37 KM (20 NM)
19 km (10 nm) provided the lead aircraft maintains a TAS of 37 km/h (20 kt) or more
faster than the aircraft following; each aircraft utilizes "on-track" DME stations, and
separation is checked by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from the aircraft at
intervals as necessary to ensure that the minimum established and will not be infringed.
37 KM (20 KT)
or Faster DME
19 KM
(10 NM)
37 KM (20 KT)
or Faster
DME
NM M
)
(1 9 K
1
0
or,
DME
NM M
)
(2 7 K
3
0
Aircraft Climbing or Descending on the Same Track
19 km (10 nm) at the time the level is crossed provided each aircraft utilizes "on-track"
DME stations. One aircraft maintains a level while vertical separation does not exist, and
separation is established by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from the aircraft;
19 K M
10 NM
FL 260
FL 250
19 KM
10 NM
FL 240
19 KM
10 NM
or when descending,
19 KM
10 NM
FL 260
19 KM 19 KM
10 NM 10 NM
FL 250
FL 240
DME
To assist pilots providing the required RNAV distance information, position reports should be
referenced to a common way-point ahead of both aircraft. RNAV distance based separation may
be applied between RNAV equipped aircraft when operating on designated RNAV routes or on
ATS routes defined by VOR. RNAV distance based separation minima shall not be applied after
ATC has received pilot advice indicating navigation equipment deterioration or failure.
WAY-POINT
150 KM
80 NM
A 150 km (80 nm) RNAV distance based separation minimum may be used provided
each aircraft reports its distance to or from the same "on-track" way point, and separation
is checked by obtaining simultaneous RNAV distance readings from the aircraft at
frequent intervals to ensure that the minimum will not be infringed.
A 150 km (80 nm) RNAV distance based separation minimum may be used at the time
the level is crossed, provided each aircraft reports its distance to or from the same "on-
track" way point. One aircraft maintains a level while vertical separation does not exist,
and separation is established by obtaining simultaneous RNAV distance readings from
the aircraft.
150 KM WAY-POINT
80 NM
FL 260
FL 250
150 KM
80 NM
FL 240
150 KM
80 NM
or when descending,
150 K M
W A Y -P O INT
8 0 NM
F L 2 60
FL 25 0
1 50 KM
8 0 NM
F L 24 0
150 K M
8 0 NM
150 km
WAY -POINT W AY -POINT
80 NM
RNAV Operations
When RNAV equipped aircraft operate within the coverage of electronic aids that provide the
necessary updates to maintain navigation accuracy, separation may also be reduced.
INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the formal route structure for airways in the FIR cannot always meet the
requirements of remote aerodromes or areas of a state. For instance, until the boom in the oil
exploration and recovery business in the North Sea, the Shetland and Orkney Isles of the UK
were remote areas where boats were the main means of transportation to the mainland. There
were aerodromes there but no long distance scheduled air services served the islands. Small
regional operators used small aeroplanes to provide a limited service. The ATC support for this
was very limited confined to no more than aerodrome control and enroute FIS. This effectively
limited the services to VFR only.
As the level of traffic increased, and in order to offer a more formalised service and a greater
degree of safety, the UK CAA established a system of advisory routes for IFR traffic to use, along
which all IFR traffic using the route and asking for the service would be provided with ATC. It was
envisaged that this service would be, and to a certain extent has remained, purely procedural.
With the introduction of the ICAO airspace classification system in the early 1980s, the airspace
in which this service was offered was titled Class F airspace, and a sub-division of ATC created
called the Air Traffic Advisory Service. Today, ICAO permits the use of radar in the provision of
an advisory service, however, this should not be confused with the UK radar service provided
under the LARS, RAS (Radar Advisory Service).
OPERATION
Air traffic advisory service does not afford the same degree of safety and cannot assume the
same responsibilities as air traffic control service in respect of the avoidance of collisions, since
information regarding the disposition of traffic in the area concerned available to the unit providing
air traffic advisory service may be incomplete. To make this quite clear, air traffic advisory service
does not deliver clearances but only advisory information, and it uses the words “advise” or
“suggest” when a course of action is proposed to an aircraft.
The Commanders of aircraft flying to destinations served by class F routes or airspace, must
request the service. This is done by filing a FPL and annotating the remarks to make it clear that
the Advisory Service is requested. The ATCU responsible for the operation of the service will
acknowledge receipt of the FPL, but no clearance will be issued. When RTF contact is
established between the aircraft and the ATCU, the pilot will be advised which altitude or FL
should be used and advised of any other known traffic (IFR or VFR) flying along or in the vicinity
of the route. If conflictions arise, the pilots of aircraft in receipt of the service will be offered
suggestions or advice as to the approved method of de-confliction. Under no circumstances will
the ATCO apply ATC procedures nor will he/she assume any responsibility for separation.
IFR/VFR
The service is only available to pilots who have stated their intention to fly under IFR by filing an
IFR FPL. The use of the routes or airspace is not restricted to IFR only, but no service is offered
or available to VFR pilots other than the usual FIS. Likewise no service is offered to pilots of
aircraft flying under IFR who have not requested the service despite having filed a FPL.
Note: Pilots flying under IFR because they are flying in IMC must file a FPL before entering class
F airspace. If the service is required it must be requested.
Advise the aircraft to depart at the time specified and to cruise at the levels indicated in
the flight plan if it does not foresee any conflict with other known traffic.
Suggest to aircraft a course of action by which a potential hazard may be avoided, giving
priority to an aircraft already in advisory airspace over other aircraft desiring to enter such
advisory airspace.
Pass to aircraft traffic information comprising the same information as that prescribed for
area control service.
Advisory Philosophy
The criteria used above should be at least those laid down for aircraft operating in CAS and
should take into account the limitations inherent in the provision of air traffic control advisory
service, navigation facilities, and air-ground communications prevailing in the region.
Designation of Airspace
Class F airspace consists of advisory routes and advisory airspace. As the service is limited in
scope, there is no facility for co-ordination of traffic flying along advisory routes with FIRs of
adjacent states. Class F routes are therefore limited to domestic FIRs only and do not cross the
international FIR boundary between states. Class F routes are given the suffix F by ICAO. A
typical advisory route designator may be: W911F.
Note: In the UK, advisory routes are given the suffix D therefore the 'ICAO' route W911F would in
the UK be designated W911D. You find this route on E(Lo)1. It runs from Newcastle via the IoM
and stops at the London/Shannon FIR boundary.
INTRODUCTION
Radar is now used widely in ATC, and the advances including digital systems and data handling
systems have revolutionised ATC. Radar allows the ATCO to supervise the airspace from the
ground without reliance on pilot reports and thus enhance safety. Whilst procedural control is
retained because if all else fails it is still there, almost 90% of air traffic services use radar in one
form or another. Radar is used extensively in area control where airways and upper air routes are
virtually exclusively radar controlled, in approach radar for zone and terminal activity, and for
monitoring SIDs and STARs. Radar is also used in aerodrome control both for traffic control in the
visual circuit and for surface movement guidance. The early GCA systems were replaced by
PAR, and now with the demise of MLS, computerised PAR is again being installed primarily at
busy military aerodromes.
RADAR COVERAGE
The use of radar in ATS is by necessity, limited to specified areas of radar cover and shall be
subject to limitations as specified by the appropriate ATS authority. Information on the operating
methods used is published in AlPs.
Types of Radar
Primary surveillance radar (PSR) and secondary surveillance radar (SSR) can be used either
alone or in combination, provided reliable coverage exists in the area, and the probability of
detection, the accuracy, and the integrity of the radar system are satisfactory. PSR systems
should be used in circumstances where SSR alone would not meet the ATS needs. SSR
systems, especially those with monopulse technique or Mode S capability, may be used alone,
including in the provision of separation between aircraft, provided the carriage of SSR
transponders is mandatory within the area, and aircraft identification is established and
maintained by use of assigned discrete SSR codes.
Note: Monopulse technique uses azimuth information derived from aircraft responses
using comparison of signals received by two or more antenna beams. This gives greatly
improved azimuth resolution and less ‘garbling’ (see Radio Navigation notes) than
conventional SSR sensors.
IDENTIFICATION OF AIRCRAFT
Before providing a radar service to an aircraft, radar identification must be established and the
pilot informed. Thereafter, radar identification must be maintained until termination of the radar
service. If radar identification is subsequently lost, the pilot must be informed accordingly, and
when applicable, appropriate instructions issued. Radar identification is to be established by at
least one of the following methods:
Note: Radar Label is the term used for the display of information on a radar display unit
(radar screen) relating to a particular aircraft the details of which are known to the ATCU
providing the radar service.
¾ By correlating a particular radar contact with an aircraft reporting its position over, or as
bearing and distance from a point displayed on the radar map, and by confirming that the
track of the particular radar position is consistent with the aircraft path or reported
heading;
¾ By correlating an observed radar contact with an aircraft which is known to have just
departed, provided that the identification is established within 2 km (1 nm) from the DER
of the runway used;
¾ By transfer of radar identification;
¾ By ascertaining aircraft heading, if circumstances require, and following a period of track
observation;
¾ Instructing the pilot to execute changes of heading of 30° or more and correlating the
movements of one particular radar contact with the aircraft’s acknowledged execution of
the instructions given; or
¾ Correlating the movements of a particular radar contact with manoeuvres currently
executed by an aircraft having so reported.
Use of VDF
Use may be made of direction finding bearings to assist in radar identification of an aircraft. This
method shall not be used as the sole means of establishing radar identification, unless so
prescribed by the ATS authority for particular cases under specified conditions.
POSITION INFORMATION
An aircraft to be provided with radar service should be informed of its position:
¾ On initial identification;
¾ On transfer of radar identification from another radar unit;
¾ When the pilot requests this information;
¾ When a pilot’s estimate differs significantly from the radar controller’s contact position;
¾ When the pilot is instructed to resume own navigation after radar vectoring;
¾ Immediately before termination of radar service.
Defining Position
Position information is passed to aircraft in one of the following forms:
¾ As a geographical position;
¾ As magnetic track and distance to a significant point, an enroute navigation aid, or an
approach aid;
¾ As direction and distance from a known position;
¾ As distance to touchdown, if the aircraft is on final approach; or
¾ As distance and direction from the centre line of an ATS route.
RADAR VECTORING
Radar vectoring is a procedure that allows a radar controller to position an aircraft by issuing
specific headings for the aircraft to fly to maintain the desired track. This allows an aircraft to be
positioned at a point where visual criteria is obtained; or that allows an instrument procedure to
be commenced; or traffic to be avoided; or terrain and restricted airspace to be avoided.
Procedure
Radar vectoring is only carried out in a defined Radar Vectoring Area (RVA) within CAS. Details
of all RVA are published in the AIP for a state and the RVA for Manchester is reproduced below.
When vectoring an aircraft, a radar controller should tell the pilot what the purpose of the
vectoring is, and where practicable, vector the aircraft along routes or tracks on which the pilot
can monitor the aircraft position with reference to navigation aids. When terminating radar
vectoring, the radar controller will instruct the pilot to resume own navigation, giving the pilot the
aircraft’s position and appropriate instructions as necessary. During radar vectoring, the pilot
should fly the heading given and not correct for the wind. The radar controller will amend the
vectoring instructions to take account of observed drift.
Limit of Vectoring
Except when transfer of radar control has been effected prior to transfer of communication,
aircraft are not to be vectored closer than 4.6 km (2.5 nm), or a distance equivalent to ½ of the
radar separation minimum (where radar separation greater than 9.3 km (5 nm) is prescribed),
from the edge of the RVA, unless local arrangements have been made to ensure that separation
will exist with radar controlled aircraft operating in adjoining areas. Controlled flights will only be
vectored into uncontrolled airspace:
Obstacle Clearance
Whilst providing radar vectoring the ATCO will take responsibility for terrain avoidance (although
the pilot should monitor the situation closely). When vectoring an IFR flight, the radar controller
shall issue altitude instructions such that the required obstacle clearance will exist until the aircraft
reaches the point where the pilot will resume own navigation. Whenever possible, minimum
vectoring altitudes should be sufficiently high to minimize activation of GPWS. Operators are to
report incidents involving the activation of aircraft GPWS so that locations can be identified, and
altitude, routing, and/or aircraft operating procedures can be altered to prevent recurrences.
Compass Failure
When an aircraft has reported unreliable directional instruments, the radar controller will advise
the pilot to make all turns at an agreed rate (normally rate 1; 3° per sec) and to start the turn
immediately upon receipt. The controller will time the turn and advise the pilot to stop the turn
after the appropriate arc has been turned through.
¾ To provide radar services to improve airspace utilization, reduce delays, provide for direct
routings and more optimum flight profiles, as well as to enhance safety;
¾ To provide radar vectoring to departing aircraft;
¾ To provide radar vectoring to resolve potential conflicts;
¾ To provide radar vectoring to arriving aircraft;
¾ To provide radar vectoring to assist pilots in their navigation;
¾ To provide separation and maintain normal traffic flow when an aircraft experiences
communication failure within the area of radar coverage;
¾ To maintain the monitoring of air traffic;
¾ When applicable, maintain a watch on the progress of air traffic, in order to provide a
non-radar controller with:
¾ Improved position information regarding aircraft under control;
¾ Supplementary information regarding other traffic; and
¾ Information regarding any significant deviations, by aircraft from the terms of their
respective ATC clearances, including their cleared routes as well as levels when
appropriate.
Not Below 5.6 km (3 nm) when radar capabilities at a given location permit, the
separation minima maybe reduced to 3 nm. This is usually applied out to a maximum
range of 40 nm from the radar head (the radar transmitter site) when the radar is used for
terminal approach control.
Not Below 4.6 km (2.5 nm) The minimum may be further reduced between succeeding
aircraft which are established on the same final approach track within 18.5 km (10 nm) of
the runway end. This reduced minimum may only be applied when:
¾ The average runway occupancy time of landing aircraft does not exceed 50 seconds;
¾ Braking action is good and runway occupancy times are not adversely affected by
runway contaminants such as slush, snow, or ice;
¾ A radar system with appropriate azimuth and range resolution and an update rate of
5 seconds or less is used in combination with suitable radar displays; and
¾ The aerodrome controller is able to observe the runway in use and associated exit
and entry taxiways (visually, by surface movement radar (SMR), or a surface
movement guidance and control system (SMCGS));
¾ The wake turbulence radar separation minima does not apply;
¾ Aircraft approach speeds are closely monitored by the controller, and when
necessary, adjusted so as to ensure that separation is not reduced below the
minimum;
¾ Aircraft operators and pilots have been made fully aware that during reduced
minimum operations of the requirement for runway occupancy time not exceeding 50
secs; and
¾ The procedures used are published in AIP.
Conditions
The minima set out above apply when:
¾ An aircraft is operating directly behind another aircraft at the same altitude or less
than 300 m (1000 ft) below the preceding aircraft, or
¾ Both aircraft are using the same runway, or parallel runways separated by less than
760 m, or
¾ An aircraft is crossing behind another aircraft, at the same altitude or less than 300 m
(1000 ft) below.
Speed Control
Radar controllers may request aircraft to adjust their speed in order to facilitate radar control.
Aircraft may be requested to maintain maximum speed, minimum speed, minimum clean speed,
minimum approach speed, or specific speed. Where a specific speed is given it is expressed in
multiples of 20 km/h (10 knots) IAS, or multiples of 0.01 Mach. Only minor speed adjustments of
not more than 40 km/h (20 knots) should be requested of aircraft established on an intermediate
or final approach. No speed control should be applied after 8 km (4 nm) from the threshold on the
final approach. Aircraft should be advised once speed control is no longer required.
SSR Code
If the pilot of an aircraft encountering a state of emergency has previously been directed by ATC
to operate the transponder on a specific code, that code will normally be maintained unless, in
special circumstances, the pilot has decided or has been advised otherwise. Where ATC has not
requested a code to be set, the pilot will set the transponder to mode A code 7700.
Descent Point
Final Vector
Vectoring to Intercept the Final Approach Track
Separation
A minimum of 3 nm separation is given to aircraft on the same localiser course.
Landing Clearance
Clearance to land should be passed to an aircraft before it reaches 2 nm from touchdown. If no
clearance to land has been received at that range and no other instructions issued, then the
published missed approach procedure must be carried out.
RADAR APPROACHES
Before Commencement
Before a radar approach is started, the pilot is to be informed of:
RTF
During a radar approach, the pilot will maintain communication with the radar approach controller.
The radar controller will liaise with the aerodrome controller by intercom and relay any essential
traffic information to the pilot. On completion of the radar approach, communication may be
transferred directly to the ground movement controller when the pilot reports to the radar
controller that the aircraft is clear of the active runway.
Discontinuation
If for any reason the radar approach has to be discontinued, the pilot will be informed
immediately. If possible, the approach is to be continued utilising another aid or visually if the pilot
reports accordingly. If continuation is not possible, the pilot will be given alternative instructions.
Undercarriage
At a point on final approach, the pilot of an aircraft making a radar approach is to be asked to
confirm that the landing gear is down and locked.
Landing Clearance
The aerodrome controller is to be advised when an aircraft making a radar approach is 8 nm from
touchdown. At this point the aerodrome controller may either issue a landing clearance or state
that the clearance will be issued subsequently. If landing clearance has not been issued at 8 nm,
the radar controller will advise the aerodrome controller again when the aircraft is at 4 nm from
touchdown and request landing clearance on behalf of the pilot. In busy circuit situations, the
aerodrome controller may delay the landing clearance providing it is issued before the aircraft
reaches 2 nm from touchdown. If the clearance has not been issued by 2 nm, the radar controller
will instruct the pilot to carry out the missed approach procedure without further delay.
Missed Approach
An aircraft making a radar approach should be instructed to execute the missed approach
procedure when the aircraft appears to be dangerously positioned on final approach, for reasons
of conflicting traffic, if no landing clearance has been received by 2 nm, or on instructions from
the aerodrome controller. If at any time during the radar approach radar contact is lost for any
significant interval of time, the pilot will be instructed to make a missed approach. Unless required
by exceptional circumstances, instructions issued by the radar controller concerning missed
approach are to be in accordance with the published procedure.
PAR
During a precision approach radar procedure, the pilot is ‘talked’ down the glide path and along
the centre line. This is achieved by radar vectoring using very accurate radar information relating
to the aircraft position in azimuth and elevation with reference to the centre line and the defined
glide path. At the start of the procedure the pilot will be instructed not to acknowledge any further
instructions unless requested. Range information is passed and the pilot will be instructed to
commence descent at the appropriate point. The radar controller then transmits continuously
passing range, heading and adjustments to heading, and adjustments to the rate of descent to
maintain the centre line and the glide path. At 4 nm from touchdown, whilst keeping up the
‘talkdown’, the radar controller will ask the aerodrome controller for clearance to land. If given,
this is relayed to the pilot together with a request for landing gear confirmation and instruction to
acknowledge. The talkdown will continue until the aircraft reaches the decision height or is seen
on radar to be making a missed approach.
¾ At or before the commencement of the final approach the aircraft shall be informed of
the point at where the SRA will be terminated (1 nm or 2 nm from touchdown);
¾ The aircraft shall be informed when the aircraft is approaching the point at where the
descent should begin;
¾ Before reaching the computed descent point, the aircraft shall be informed of the
OCA/H and instructed to descend and check the appropriate minima;
¾ At the descent point the aircraft will be instructed to begin descent as for a 300 ft per
mile glide path;
¾ Distance to touchdown is normally passed at every 2 km (1 nm) with the pre-
computed level the aircraft should be passing;
¾ The approach shall be terminated at the earliest of:
¾ monitoring aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area for compliance with
clearances;
¾ determining that the runway is clear before aircraft land or take off;
¾ providing essential local traffic information on or near the manoeuvring area;
¾ determining the location of aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area;
¾ providing directional assistance to aircraft taxiing when requested by the pilot;
¾ providing assistance and advice to emergency response vehicles.
INTRODUCTION
The use of Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) has radically affected the provision of ATC
especially in the enroute (Area) and terminal (Approach) phases of flight. Modern ATC systems
use SSR not just to identify aircraft but to give information regarding aircraft callsign, altitude or
level, and destination. The system can also be used to identify a particular airframe and is a
fundamental part of the ACAS/TCAS systems. SSR has its origins in WWII with the invention of a
system known as Identification Friend or Foe (IFF). The equipment fitted to aircraft that performed
the task was given the code name ‘parrot’ and this is evident in some of the phraseology we still
use.
System
The technology and the equipment used are discussed in detail in Radio Navigation, but
simplistically, a ground station transmits a signal that is received by the aircraft equipment and re-
transmitted back to the ground station. The aircraft equipment is called a ‘transponder’: a
transmitter that responds. The signal from the aircraft is coded with the identification code
allocated to the aircraft by the controller, which when received, permits access to the details of
the aircraft’s flight plan held in the ATC data system. The transmitted signal operates in different
modes, with mode A used for ident codes and mode C used for automatic altitude reporting.
Special Codes
Under certain circumstances, pilots are required to set special codes on the SSR system to
indicate aircraft situation to the controller. These are:
Mode S
Pilots of aircraft equipped with Mode S having an aircraft identification feature shall set the aircraft
identification in the transponder. This setting shall correspond to the aircraft identification
specified in item 7 of the ICAO flight plan, or, if no flight plan has been filed, the aircraft
registration.
OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS
In commercial aviation an aircraft is not permitted to commence a flight with an unserviceable
transponder. Unless advised by the ATC authority, the transponder is to be operated at all times
during flight, regardless of whether the aircraft is inside or outside airspace where SSR is used for
ATS purposes. If a transponder fails in flight and cannot be repaired at an intermediate stop
enroute, approval may be given for the flight to continue to planned destination with the
unserviceable transponder. In such circumstance, item 10 of the FPL (information concerning the
carriage of SSR) is to be annotated “N” for nil. In the absence of any ATC directions (code
instructions) or regional air navigation agreements (specific code requirements), the transponder
should be set to mode A code 2000.
Setting a Code
The approved procedure for setting a code is designed to prevent inadvertent squawking of a
special code. Before changing a code character, set the transponder control to standby. Change
the code and then reselect ON. Alternatively, where the aircraft system includes twin SSR
controllers, select the new code on the control unit not being used and then operate the
changeover switch to activate the controller that has the desired code set.
Confirm Squawk
When requested by ATC to “Confirm Squawk” the pilot shall:
Ident Feature
The system includes a facility which graphically draws the attention of the radar controller to the
symbol relating to the aircraft on the radar display. It is usual for the symbol to ‘flash’ when the
pilot operates the “ident feature”. Pilots are not to squawk IDENT unless requested by ATC.
Use of Mode C
Whenever Mode C is in use, level (or altitude) is to be reported to the nearest full 30 m or 100 ft
as indicated on the pilot’s altimeter, in communication with ATC. The tolerance value used by
ATC to determine that Mode C derived level information displayed to the controller is accurate, is
the reported altitude/level ± 300 ft (JAR OPS requires a tolerance of ± 200 ft).
Level Occupancy
An aircraft is considered to be maintaining its assigned level as long as the Mode C
indicates that it is within 300 ft of the assigned level.
Climbing or Descending
An aircraft is deemed to have crossed a level when the Mode C indicates it has passed
this level by more than 300 ft in the required direction.
Passing a Level
An aircraft is deemed to be passing through a level when the Mode C indicates it is within
300 ft of the stated level ascending or descending in the required direction.
Departing a Level
An aircraft is considered to have left its previously assigned level when the Mode C
indicates that it is more than 300 ft from the previously assigned level.
Reaching a Level
An aircraft is considered to have reached its newly assigned level when the Mode C
indicates that it is within 300 ft of the assigned level
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
If the pilot thinks necessary, when in an emergency the mode A code 7700 should be squawked.
This will activate alarm signs and sounds in the radar control room and alert all concerned to the
identity of the aircraft suffering the emergency. If the pilot is already in communication with the
radar controller and the emergency is declared on the radar controller’s frequency after the
aircraft has been radar identified, the 7700 squawk may be superfluous.
Note: Specific indoctrination concerning the handling of acts of unlawful interference will
be conducted by individual operators.
PHRASEOLOGY
When acknowledging mode/code setting instructions, pilots shall read back the mode and code to
be set.
ATC System
In accordance with the Regional Air Navigation agreement (RAN), ATCUs utilising SSR are
allocated a block of codes for the unit to use. There are 4096 individual codes encompassing all
the possible combinations of the digits 0 – 7 in 4 digit sets. So a code containing the digits 8 or 9
is invalid. A particular ATCU is usually identified by the first two digits of a code. The third digit
indicates the control console and the last digit the allocated track number for that console. For
example the code 4321 would indicate a radar approach unit at a specific location, console
number 2, track 1.
Gate-to-Gate Operations
Within the ‘gate to gate’ concept of European ATC being pioneered by Eurocontrol, each flight will
be allocated a specific SSR code during the pre-tactical phase of the ATFM procedure, and that
code will remain with the aircraft until the aircraft lands at the final destination.
ALERTING SERVICE
It is essential that an aircraft experiencing an emergency or any other form of difficulty is able to
communicate the fact and get assistance. Underpinning the ATS is a system of communication,
liaison, co-operation and information interchange that is utilised to assist aircraft. This system is
called the Alerting Service and is the third part of the ATS system.
Application
The Alerting Service is provided for all aircraft provided with air traffic control service; in so far as
is practicable, all aircraft having filed a flight plan or otherwise known to the ATS, and any aircraft
known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference.
Notification
In the event of a state of emergency arising to an aircraft while it is under the control of an
aerodrome control tower or approach control office, such unit shall notify immediately the flight
information centre or area control centre responsible which shall in turn notify the RCC.
Notification of the area control centre, flight information centre or RCC shall not be required when
the nature of the emergency is one that can be dealt with by the service concerned.
Local Response
Whenever the urgency of the situation so requires, the aerodrome control tower or approach
control office responsible shall first alert and take other necessary steps to set in motion all
appropriate local rescue and emergency organizations which can give the immediate assistance
required.
¾ No communication has been received from an aircraft within a period of thirty minutes
after the time a communication should have been received, or from the time an
unsuccessful attempt to establish communication with the aircraft was first made,
whichever is earlier, or when
¾ An aircraft fails to arrive within thirty minutes of the ETA last notified to, or estimated
by, ATS units.
UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE
When an ATS unit knows or believes that an aircraft is being subjected to unlawful interference,
no reference shall be made in ATS air-ground communications to the nature of the emergency
unless it has been referred to in communications from the aircraft involved and it is certain that
such reference will not aggravate the situation.
Note: The phrase “regional air navigation agreements” refers to the agreements
approved by the Council of ICAO normally on the advice of Regional Air Navigation
Meetings.
ORGANISATION
Establishment and Provision of Search and Rescue Service
SAR services are to be available on a 24 hour basis. In providing assistance to aircraft in distress
and to survivors of aircraft accidents, contracting states are required to do so regardless of the
nationality of such aircraft or survivors.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
Information Concerning Emergencies
Any authority or any element of the SAR organization having reason to believe that an aircraft is
in an emergency shall give all available information to the RCC concerned immediately. RCCs
shall, immediately upon receipt of information concerning aircraft in emergency, evaluate such
information and determine the extent of operation required. When information concerning aircraft
in emergency is received from other sources than ATS units, the RCC shall determine to which
emergency phase the situation corresponds and shall apply the procedures applicable to that
phase.
Uncertainty Phase
During the uncertainty phase, the RCC shall co-operate to the utmost with ATS units and
other appropriate agencies and services in order that incoming reports may be speedily
evaluated.
Alert Phase
Upon the occurrence of an alert phase the RCC shall immediately alert appropriate SAR
services units and rescue units and initiate any necessary action.
Distress Phase
When an aircraft is believed to be in distress, or when a distress phase exists, the RCC
shall:
¾ Initiate action by appropriate SAR services units and rescue units in accordance with
the detailed plan of operation;
¾ Ascertain the position of the aircraft, estimate the degree of uncertainty of this
position, and, on the basis of this information and the circumstances, determine the
extent of the area to be searched;
¾ Notify the operator, where possible, and keep him informed of developments;
¾ Notify adjacent RCCs, the help of which seems likely to be required, or which may be
concerned in the operation;
¾ Notify the associated ATS unit, when the information on the emergency has been
received from another source;
¾ Request at an early stage such aircraft, vessels, coastal stations, or other services
not specifically included in SAR services or rescue units as are in a position to do so
to:
¾ Maintain a listening watch for transmission from the aircraft in distress or from an
emergency locator transmitter;
Note: The frequencies used by emergency locator beacons are 121.500 MHz
and 406 MHz.
¾ From the information available, draw up a plan for the conduct of the search
and/or rescue operation required and communicate such plan for the
guidance of the authorities immediately directing the conduct of such an
operation;
¾ Amend as necessary, in the light of circumstances, the guidance already
given above;
¾ Notify the State of Registry of the aircraft;
¾ Notify the appropriate accident investigation authorities.
Ground/Air Signals from Survivors The following signals may be set out in some form
(marked in snow; oil on sand; burned grass in open areas etc.) Symbols shall be at least
2.5 metres long and shall be made as conspicuous as possible.
1 Require assistance V
2 Require medical assistance X
3 No or negative N
4 Yes or affirm Y
5 Proceed in this direction Í
SAR Communications
Perhaps the most important role a civilian aircraft can perform in the SAR scenario is to act as a
communications link. By remaining at high altitude the aircraft can relay messages from SAR
units on the surface or at low level to ATCUs or directly to the RCC using VHF or HF. The aircraft
at high level can also relay messages between SAR units on the surface which are not in direct
line of sight communication with each other. The following radio frequencies are used for SAR:
ANNEX 14
This is the Annex to the Chicago Convention that specifies the SARPs for the construction of and
services required for aerodromes. Annex 14 is only concerned with aerodromes that are open to
the public, in other words, aerodromes which conduct commercial operations. This does not limit
the application of the SARPs to state owned or authority operated aerodromes, but implies that
an aerodrome licensed for commercial operations must comply with the SARPs in order for the
licence to be granted. This Annex contains SARPs that detail the physical characteristics and
obstacle limitation surfaces to be provided for at aerodromes, and certain facilities and technical
services normally provided at an aerodrome. It is not intended that these specifications limit or
regulate the operation of an aircraft. At certain types of aerodrome used occasionally for
commercial air transport, differences under article 38 can be notified (i.e. military aerodromes).
TYPES OF AERODROME
ICAO does not categorise aerodromes as does, for instance, the CAA of the UK. ICAO does
however, specify different SARPs to aerodromes used only for VFR operations compared to
those for aerodromes used for instrument procedures.
PARTS OF AN AERODROME
All licensed aerodromes have an apron, a manoeuvring area, and a movement area (see
definitions Chapter 1). Where necessary, or commercial interests prevail, an aerodrome may
have a technical area. Where established, a technical area, except for the entrance to and exit
from, are not under ATC control. On some very busy international aerodromes the control of
surface traffic and operations on the apron is delegated to an apron management service
operated by the aerodrome operator.
Code Element 1
The code number for element 1 is determined by selecting the code number
corresponding to the highest value for the aeroplane reference field lengths of the
aeroplanes for which the runway is intended. Aeroplane reference field length is the
minimum take-off distance required at maximum certificated take-off mass under still air
and ISA conditions.
Code Element 2
The code letter for element 2 is determined by selecting the code letter which
corresponds to the greatest wing span, or the greatest outer main gear wheel span,
whichever gives the more demanding code letter of the aeroplanes for which the use of
the aerodrome is intended.
Note: Outer main gear wheel span is the distance between the outermost wheels of the
main undercarriage. The runways and taxiways have to be at least as wide as this.
Note: For convenience the code letters and numbers are not used in the text of these
notes. The data within the table is given instead. However, the table is examined in the
JAR Air Law examination.
AERONAUTICAL DATA
GEOGRAPHICAL CO-ORDINATES
Geographical co-ordinates indicating latitude and longitude are determined and reported in terms
of the World Geodetic System - 1984 (WGS-84).
DECLARED DISTANCES
The following distances shall be calculated to the nearest metre or foot for a runway intended for
use by international commercial air transport:
TORA
TODA
ASDA
LDA
Clearway
TORA
ASDA
LDA
TODA
Stopway
TORA
TODA
LDA
ASDA
LDA
TORA
TODA
ASDA
Clearway
Stopway
LDA
TORA
ASDA
TODA
RUNWAYS
USABILITY
For an aerodrome to be used for co mercial transport, the schedules agreed must be able to be
operated. This means that the runways are not only long enough and strong enough for the
aeroplanes to use, but also sited to take into account prevailing meteorological conditions, air
traffic requirements, and obstacle clearance. Wind is probably the most important meteorological
consideration and runway direction must be biased towards the prevailing wind. It is a
requirement of ICAO that an aerodrome must be useable for not less than 95% of the notified
hours of operation.
TYPES OF RUNWAY
Runways are described by the types of operations that can be conducted on the runway:
¾ Instrument Runway
A runway to which instrument arrival and departure procedures are applied.
There are two types of instrument runways:
¾ Take-off Runway
A runway used only for take-off operations usually due to excessive obstacles
precluding a useful approach.
LOCATION OF THRESHOLD
The beginning of the landing runway is defined as the threshold of the landing runway. It normally
starts at the beginning of a paved runway or the beginning of the marked area for a grass runway.
The marked threshold may be displaced from the start of the paved area where there is a
requirement for the landing aircraft to avoid the first part of the paved area, or there is a need for
the aircraft to cross the beginning of the paved area at a height greater than would be achieved
for the normal positioning of the threshold marking.
LENGTH OF RUNWAYS
The actual length of a runway should be sufficient to permit normal operations to be carried out
by the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended. It should take into account local conditions
(elevation, temperature, slope, humidity, surface type), but not abnormal aircraft operating
conditions.
RUNWAY WIDTH
The width of a runway should be:
RUNWAY STRIP
A Runway Strip is defined as an area including the runway and stopway, if provided, intended to
reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off the runway, and to protect aircraft flying over it
during take-off and landing operations.
CLEARWAY
A clearway is defined as a rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the
appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make
a portion of its initial climb to a specified height. The length of a clearway should not exceed half
the length of the TORA. Clearway width should be at least 75 m on each side of the extended
centre line of the runway.
STOPWAYS
A stopway is defined as a rectangular area on the ground at the end of the TORA prepared as a
suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned take-off. A stopway
shall have the same width as the runway with which it is associated.
TAXIWAYS
In planning the layout of taxiways, the designer must consider the need for taxiways to move
aircraft to and from the runways to the apron(s) in the most expeditious and uncomplicated
manner. Consideration has to be given to the manoeuvrability of aircraft on the ground, poor
visibility from the flight deck, and the density of traffic. The physical construction of taxiways must
take into account the ability of an aircraft to turn through the angle required with the wheels
turning, wing span and jet efflux. Taxiways must be of equal load bearing to the runway, and
marked or otherwise delineated so as not to be confused with runways. Runway entrances and
exits need to be planned to permit rapid egress to and from the runway and to meet the obstacle
Air Law 23-7
Chapter 23 Aerodromes
clearance requirements for precision operations. In some cases, the runway may be used for
taxiing. Where this is the case, additional areas at the end of the runway may be necessary to
provide turning space or a turning loop.
TAXIWAY DIMENSIONS
The most important consideration in taxiway design is width. The designer must make sure that
the aircraft has enough room on the taxiway. The design of a taxiway should be such that, when
the flight deck of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line markings, the clearance
distance between the outer main gear wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should
be not less than:
WIDTH OF TAXIWAY
The width of the straight portion of a taxiway should not be less than:
TAXIWAY CURVES
Changes in direction along taxiways should be as few as possible and the radius of the curve
must be compatible with the manoeuvrability of the aircraft using the taxiway at normal taxi
speeds. Where necessary, widening fillets are used to increase the width of a taxiway. This
provides additional space to cope with ‘main gear wander’. The pilot should attempt to keep the
nosewheel on the centre line. Pilots should also be aware of ‘swept wing growth’ during turns.
Taxiway widening to
achieve minimum wheel
to edge clearance
Taxiway Curve
APRONS
REQUIREMENT
Aprons are defined as the places on an aerodrome where passengers, mail and cargo are loaded
and unloaded, as well as minor servicing of aircraft, such that aerodrome traffic is not disrupted.
The total apron areas should be sufficient to allow the expeditious handling of traffic at maximum
anticipated density. Aprons are constructed to handle slow moving traffic and to withstand higher
stresses than runways.
SIGNALLING LAMP
A signalling lamp is to be provided at a controlled aerodrome in the aerodrome control tower and
should be capable of producing red, green and white signals. The lamp should also be capable
of:
MARKINGS
Markings are symbols, designs or characters painted on the surface of a runway, taxiway or
apron. The colour of a marking usually indicates where the marking is, for instance all runway
markings are white whereas all taxiway markings are yellow.
RUNWAY MARKINGS
Runway Designation Marking
A runway designation marking shall be provided at the thresholds of a paved runway. The runway
designation marking shall be located at the threshold as shown in the diagram below.
Runway Designator
showing magnetic
azimuth (QDM) of the
runway direction
27 27L
27
27
Examples of Runway Designator Positions
Characteristics
A runway designation marking shall consist of a two-digit number and on parallel runways
shall be supplemented with a letter (L for the left hand runway and R for the right hand
runway). The two-digit number shall be the whole number nearest the one-tenth of the
magnetic north when viewed from the direction of approach. Where there are three
parallel runways the centre runway is supplemented with C. If there are four parallel
runways, one pair of adjacent runways are designated, for instance 27L and 27R and the
next pair are 28L and 28R. When the above rule would give a single digit number it will
be proceeded by a zero.
Characteristics
Centre line markings shall consist of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. The
length of a stripe plus a gap shall not be less than 50 m or more than 75 m. The length of
each stripe shall be at least equal to the length of the gap or 30 m, whichever is greater.
THRESHOLD MARKINGS
A threshold marking shall be provided at the threshold of a paved instrument runway, and a
paved non-instrument runway that is intended for use by international commercial air transport. A
threshold marking should be provided at the thresholds of an unpaved runway. The stripes of the
threshold marking shall commence 6 m from the runway edge.
Characteristics
A runway threshold marking shall consist of a pattern of longitudinal stripes of uniform
dimensions disposed symmetrically about the centre line. They may be placed either side
of the runway designator. The number of stripes is a function of the runway width.
27 27 27
X
X
27
Permanently Temporarily Pre threshold Pre threshold
displaced displaced area not fit for area fit for use
(pre threshold for 6 months or aircraft by aircraft as a
area fit for aircraft less (runway movement stopway only
movement) designator is
not moved)
Location
The aiming point marking shall commence no closer to the threshold than the distance
indicated in the table below, except that on a runway equipped with a visual approach
slope indicator system, the beginning of the marking shall be coincident with the visual
approach slope origin. Where a touchdown zone marking is provided, the lateral spacing
shall be the same as that of the aiming point marking.
Location
A touchdown zone marking shall consist of pairs of rectangular markings as shown in the
diagram below. These markings shall be symmetrically disposed about the runway centre
line with the number of such pairs related to the landing distance available. Where the
marking is to be displayed at both the approach directions of a runway, the distance
between the thresholds as follows:
Spacing of Markings
The pairs of markings shall be provided at longitudinal spacing of 150 m beginning from
the threshold, except that pairs of touchdown zone markings coincident with or located
within 50 m of an aiming point marking shall be deleted from the pattern.
300 m
900 m
Touchdown Zone Markings (Pattern A)
on a runway less than 2400 m (aiming point 300 m from threshold)
900 m
TAXIWAY MARKINGS
Colour
Taxiway markings and (in general) aircraft parking stand markings are yellow. Apron safety lines
are to be painted in a conspicuous contrasting colour to the concrete and the colour used for
stand markings.
Runway
Runway
INFORMATION MARKINGS
Where an information sign would normally be installed and it is physically impossible to install a
sign, an information marking shall be displayed on the paved surface. An information marking
consists of an inscription in yellow, when it supplements or replaces a location sign, and an
inscription in black, when it replaces or supplements a direction or destination sign. Where there
is insufficient contrast between the marking and the pavement surface, the marking will include a
black background where the inscriptions are in yellow and a yellow background where the
inscriptions are in black.
SIGNS
Signs are provided on aerodromes to convey mandatory instructions, information on a specific
location, or information on surface movement guidance.
CHARACTERISTICS
Signs shall be frangible (not rigidly constructed so as to damage aircraft if hit), and when near a
runway or taxiway, they must be sufficiently low to allow clearance for engines and propellers.
Signs are to be illuminated for use in RVR conditions less than a value of 800 m, or at night in
association with instrument runways, or at night in association with non-instrument runways
where the runway length is 1200 m or greater.
27 27
Instrument Runway
Holding Point for CATII
operations for Runway 27
on taxiway “D”
D 27 CAT II 27 CAT II D
A1 27 27 A1
Position A2
A Direction Sign
27y31
Runway Destination Sign for
different runways
A
Runway Vacated Sign
(left side of taxiway)
APRON SIGNS
5
Signs on aprons conveying information to pilots (stand numbers etc.) consist of white characters
on a blue background. The sign below indicates that this is stand number B3.
B3
MARKERS
A marker is an object that is positioned to indicate an obstacle or to mark a boundary. Markers
are used where there are no lights or where lighting is inadequate. Markers must be frangible or
capable of being trampled. Those located near a runway or taxiway shall be sufficiently low to
preserve clearance for propellers and engines.
BOUNDARY MARKERS
Boundary markers are used to mark the extremity of the landing area on a grass aerodrome. The
markers should be coloured to contrast with the background against which they will be seen. A
single colour - orange or red; or two contrasting colours - orange and white, or red and white,
should be used.
Type A
60 cm
1m
60 cm
Min
60 cm Min
Type C
Not less
than 3 m
Type B
AERODROME LIGHTING
An aerodrome at night is a profusion of lights. Apart from the main stadium lighting around the
apron and passenger areas, the runways are lit as are the taxiways; buildings and vehicles have
lights on them as do aircraft. All the coloured lights have a purpose and the arrangements of
lights also have meanings. The design aspects of lighting systems are beyond the LOs for this
course and the syllabus is quite explicit in stating that spacing of lights apart from the essential
elements of approach systems are not examinable. Where included in the description of lighting
systems, dimensions are stated to assist the student to appreciate the appearance of the
systems.
ELEVATED LIGHTS
Elevated runway, stopway, and taxiway lights and their supporting structures are to be frangible.
When an approach light fixture or supporting structure is not sufficiently conspicuous, it shall be
suitably marked. Elevated lights on the movement area shall be sufficiently low to ensure
clearance for propellers and for the engine pods of jet aircraft.
INTENSITY
The intensity (brilliance) of the following lights is to be variable:
EMERGENCY LIGHTING
It is normal for an aerodrome to have a back up power supply in the event of main supply failure
(power outage). At an aerodrome without a secondary power supply, sufficient emergency lights
should be available.
AERONAUTICAL BEACONS
An aerodrome beacon or an identification beacon may be provided at an aerodrome intended for
night operations.
Aerodrome Beacon
An aerodrome beacon is usually situated on top of the control tower or at an elevated
position elsewhere on the aerodrome. It will be either a flashing green (yellow at a water
aerodrome) and white light, or flashing white only.
Identification Beacon
An identification beacon may be provided at an aerodrome that is intended for use at
night where the aerodrome cannot be easily identified from the air by other means. At a
land aerodrome the identification beacon shall show flashing green characters (red at a
military aerodrome), flashing published Morse code identification letters.
BARRETTES
ICAO specifies standards for approach lighting based on the use of barrettes (or small bars). A
barrette consists of a line of 4 or 5 closely spaced lights forming a small bar.
Runway Edge
Lights
Runway End
Lights
APAPI
Threshold
Lights
Centreline
Simple Approach
Lighting System Crossbar
CAT I Calvert
Stopway
Approach
Lighting System
Caution Zone
PAPI
Aiming Point
Displaced
Threshold
Starter
Extension
Crossbars
Centreline
300 m
Crossbar
Centreline
Barrettes
900 m
COLOUR CODED
Cat II/III Calvert CENTRELINE
Approach
Lighting System
TOUCHDOWN ZONE
FLOODLIGHTING
PAPI
THRESHOLD
WING BARS
SUPPLEMENTARY
APPROACH LIGHTING
Wing Strobes
300 m
Crossbar
Centreline
Barrettes
Rippling
Strobe Lights
APAPI
The APAPI uses only two light sources and gives indication:
Minimum Eye
Height (MEHT)
Gear to ground
height less than
MEHT
MEHT SPECIFICATION
The normal MEHT is 50 ft. On a 300 ft/nm glide path this equates to 300 m distance, therefore
the aiming point and the origin of the PAPI beams must be not less than 300 m from the
threshold. Where large aeroplanes (B777; B747 and A380 etc.) use the aerodrome the MEHT is
increased because of the greater distance between the pilot’s eye and the bottom of the main
gear. At Heathrow, the MEHT is 70 ft. This requires the aiming point to be 400 m from the
threshold. An alternative to moving the aiming point along the runway is to increase the glide path
angle. The maximum permitted GP angle is 3.5°.
RUNWAY LIGHTS
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS
Edge lights are used on runways used at night or in low visibility operations (RVR less than
800 m). They are fixed (not flashing), white, variable in intensity and unidirectional (facing the
approach direction) except where the runway is used for circling approaches in which case, they
are omni-directional. For a CAT I runway, the last 600 m or 1/3 of the runway length, the edge
lights are possibly yellow, indicating the proximity of the end of the runway. This is called a
caution zone.
TAXIWAY LIGHTING
Taxiway lights are provided to give pilots guidance and information during taxiing to and from the
runways at night or during low visibility operations (RVR less than 800 m). They consist of
centreline lights, edge lights, guard lights, and stop lights at holding points.
EDGE LIGHTS
Taxiway edge lights are provided at the edges of holding bays, de/anti-icing facilities, aprons, and
on taxiways without centreline lighting. In areas where additional lighting (stadium lighting on
aprons) is adequate, edge lights may be dispensed with. Edge lights are fixed, variable intensity,
blue, and omnidirectional.
CENTRELINE LIGHTS
These are provided on taxiways for use in RVR conditions less than 350 m. They are fixed,
variable intensity, green, and are designed to be visible only from aeroplanes in the vicinity of the
light. On exit taxiways from instrument runways, the lights may be alternating green/yellow from
the centreline of the runway to a point where interference with radio navigation aids (ILS) is no
longer a hazard. This point may be marked with a ‘runway vacated’ sign and is usually coincident
with the runway holding point for aircraft taxiing in the opposite direction.
STOP BARS
Stop bars should be provided at taxiway intersections and holding points when it is necessary to
supplement the markings and signs. They are to be provided where operations in RVR less than
350 m are conducted. They consist of a row of lights spaced at 3 m across the taxiway, fixed,
variable intensity, and showing red in the direction of approaching traffic. The bar may be
augmented by two additional elevated lights at each end of the bar (off of the taxiway) where
snow may be a hazard.
D 27 CAT II 27 CAT II D
A B
Guard Lights
Guard Lights
Rapid Exit
Taxiway
OBSTACLES
Clearly anything that is constructed on or near an aerodrome is a potential hazard to aeroplanes.
For that reason, SIDs and STARs route aircraft away from high ground and large man made
obstacles. Closer to the aerodrome normal buildings, power lines, chimneys, and radio antennas
become obstacles to aircraft as they descend for landing. Where these cannot be removed, they
must be marked and lit to make their presence obvious to pilots.
CLEARED STRIP
As previously discussed, the cleared strip is created either side of the runway extending at least
the width of the runway on either side. In this area no obstacles are permitted. The ILS glide path
aerial and the localiser aerial are the only exceptions. Aeroplanes and vehicles are required to
enter the cleared strip and these are also treated as obstacles, and are lit (or marked in the case
of vehicles) to show that they are there.
Inner Horizontal
Surface
Inner
Transition
Surface
Strip
150 m
45 m
15 Km
Datum
Elevation
LIGHTING OF OBSTACLES
Obstacles which are required to be lit because they penetrate the OIS are lit by one of three
options: low, medium, or high intensity lights. Low intensity lights are steady (fixed) lights,
whereas medium and high intensity are flashing. Low and medium intensity lights are either red
or white (but the colour is never mixed on the same aerodrome obstacle) whereas high intensity
are always white. The exception to mixed colour rule is where an obstacle is an aerodrome
obstacle to two aerodromes, requiring high intensity for one aerodrome and medium for the other.
In that case, when required the obstacle is lit as high intensity, and at other times with medium
intensity. For obstacles 45 m or less that need to be lit, they are lit by one low intensity light at the
top. Obstacles over 45 m are lit by one medium intensity light at the top and one low intensity light
at 45 m above the datum. Other obstacles are lit at the top and then at 45 m intervals below.
Where high intensity lights are fitted, they flash sequentially. Aerodrome obstacle lights are
controlled by the aerodrome controller and either come on automatically, or are switched on with
the normal runway/taxiway lighting.
150m
135m
90m
45m
Datum
Obstacle lights
MARKING OF VEHICLES
Vehicles that are permitted on the movement area of an aerodrome are to be in two-way RTF
communication with the aerodrome controller. They are also required to be either lit or marked.
Normally, maintenance vehicles are painted a distinctive colour (yellow) and carry flashing yellow
lights. Where a trailer is towed, the trailer has a low intensity obstacle light fitted. Vehicles that
use the aerodrome infrequently may carry a red/white chequered flag.
EMERGENCY VEHICLES
Paint of a distinctive colour is required for crash/rescue vehicles. It is recommended that they are
painted ‘day-glo’ yellowish green, or red. They carry flashing blue lights for use in an emergency
and also the normal yellow lights for non emergency movement on the aerodrome. When
responding to an emergency, emergency vehicles from outside civilian agencies show blue
flashing lights.
EMERGENCY SERVICES
More than 80% of aircraft accidents occur on or within close proximity to an aerodrome.
Aerodromes serving international commercial aviation are required to maintain facilities for the
provision of a crash/rescue service. The inherent nature of aircraft operations makes fire the
greatest hazard to loss of life and crash/rescue teams are trained to fight fires. The objective of
the provision of a crash/rescue service is to save life. Once all the passengers of a crashed
aircraft have been rescued, the fire will be allowed to burn itself out unless other aircraft and
facilities are threatened.
LEVEL OF PROTECTION
The number of fire vehicles and crews are determined from a table of categories, based on the
size of the biggest aircraft normally using the aerodrome. The categories are based on a. the
length of the aircraft and b. the width of the fuselage. If the fuselage width is greater than the
maximum for a category, the category is increased by 1.
RESPONSE TIME
It is imperative that the crash/rescue service responds promptly to incidents on the aerodrome.
The required standard aims to achieve 2 minutes but not more than 3 minutes is required to the
extremities of the aerodrome. The response time is decided when the first fire vehicle arrives at
the scene and is capable of delivering fire retardant foam at half the rate required for the fire. In
order to enhance response time, special routes may be provided on aerodromes to and from the
fire stations.
BIRD HAZARD
Birds and aeroplanes share the air but birds are a constant hazard to aeroplanes at low level
especially where aircraft are at the most vulnerable, take-off, and landing. Aerodromes are
attractive to birds, especially migratory species. The short grass gives the birds excellent visibility
and the maximum warning of the approach of predators. Birds which have flocked together
present special hazards to aircraft as multiple bird strikes can obscure windows and block air
intakes. Aerodromes are required to maintain a bird control unit and also to publish information on
known migratory patterns of birds that frequent the aerodrome and surrounding areas. ICAO
operates the ICAO Bird Strike Information System (IBIS) designed to collect and disseminate
information concerning bird strikes.
NATIONAL ORGANISATION
ICAO contracting states are required to establish a national civil aviation security programme to
keep under constant review the level of threat within its territory taking into account the
international situation, and adjust relevant elements of its national civil aviation security
programme accordingly. It is also to ensure the establishment of an airport security programme,
adequate to the needs of international traffic, for each airport serving international civil aviation,
and require operators providing service from that state to implement a security programme
appropriate to meet the requirements of the national civil aviation security programme of that
state.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
Each state is required to co-operate with other states in order to adapt their respective national
civil aviation security programmes as necessary. The states should make available to other
states, on request, a written version of the appropriate parts of its national civil aviation security
programme; include in its bilateral agreements on air transport a clause related to aviation
security; and ensure that requests from other states for special security measures in respect of a
specific flight or specified flights by operators, as far as practicable, are met.
PRE-FLIGHT CHECKS
States must ensure that pre-flight checks of aircraft assigned to international flights include
measures to discover suspicious objects or anomalies that could conceal weapons, explosives, or
any other dangerous devices.
MISSING PASSENGERS
The state must establish measures to ensure that operators, when providing service from that
state, do not transport the baggage of passengers who are not on board the aircraft.
TRAINING PROGRAMMES
Operators are to establish and maintain a training programme that enables crewmembers to act
in the most appropriate manner to minimize the consequences of acts of unlawful interference.
DEFINITIONS
Accident — An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place
between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time
when all such persons have disembarked, resulting in any of the following situations:
Except when the injuries are from natural causes; self-inflicted or inflicted
by other persons, or are to stowaways hiding outside the areas normally
available to the passengers and crew.
2. The aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which adversely affects the
structural strength, performance or flight characteristics of the aircraft and would
normally require major repair or replacement of the affected component.
Except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited to the
engine, cowlings, or accessories; or for damage limited to propellers,
wing tips, antennas, tyres, brakes, fairings, small dents, or puncture
holes in the aircraft skin.
Note: ICAO classes an injury resulting in death within 30 days of the date of the
accident as a fatal injury.
¾ Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within 7 days from
the date the injury was received, or
¾ Results in a fracture of any bone (Not simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose),
or
¾ Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle, or tendon
damage, or
¾ Involves injury to any internal organ, or
¾ Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of
the body surface, or
¾ Involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
Flight Recorder
Protection of flight recorder evidence requires that the recovery and handling of the recorder and
its recordings be assigned only to qualified personnel.
Note: The State of Design may be different from the State of Manufacture. The State of
Design of Concorde was the UK whereas France was the State of Manufacture because
the final assembly took place at Toulouse in France.
REPORTS
When the aircraft involved has a maximum take off mass greater than 2250 kg the state
conducting the investigation is to send a copy of the preliminary and final reports to:
AIM
The aim of the SARPs relating to Facilitation is to try and ensure that travel and cargo handling by
international commercial aviation is not disadvantaged with respect to other methods of travel.
For instance, it is probably quicker now to travel from the centre of London to the centre of Paris
by train than by air. This is due to technological advances rather than bureaucracy. If, however, a
state arbitrarily applied pedantic rules and regulations that only applied to travel by air which
created delays, thus encouraging people to travel by train, this would be contrary to article 37.
General Declaration
For ships engaged in international maritime trading and passenger carrying, a form
known as the General Declaration of Shipping has to be carried when the ship is outside
of the territorial waters of the state of registry. In the early days of international
commercial aviation, a similar form was required to be carried in aircraft. The form
includes details of the aircraft (owner, registration, insurance, etc.), a statement that it is
engaged in operations complying with the requirements of the International Air Services
Agreement and details of the crew. It also states the number of passengers carried,
quantity of freight, together with a statement that the aircraft is not carrying any
passenger or animal suffering from a notifiable disease.
Passenger Manifest
Another form carried on ships is the passenger manifest. This contains details of all
passengers (name, place of birth and destination). A similar form is required for aircraft.
Cargo Manifest
This is similar to the Passenger Manifest but relates to cargo carried. The details include
the details of the shipper, the recipient, description of the cargo, and a declaration that
the cargo does not contravene any international agreements to proscribe or restrict
trading in such goods (i.e. the trade in ivory). This also includes unaccompanied
baggage.
Stores List
Ships are required to declare all goods remaining on board the ship at the destination
that were intended for sale to passengers enroute, consumption by the crew, and
passengers enroute, or for use in the running and maintenance of the ship while enroute.
These are typically alcohol and tobacco products and dutiable fuel products. Aircraft are
required to have a simple stores list mainly concerning alcohol and tobacco products sold
to the passengers enroute.
Outbound Procedures
The following procedures relate to situations where the above forms are still required.
Contracting States can require the authorised agent or the commander to deliver to the
public authorities concerned, before departure of the aircraft, not more than:
Inbound Procedures
Contracting States can require the authorised agent or the commander to deliver to the
public authorities concerned, on arrival of the aircraft, not more than:
Completion of Documents
Documents may be typewritten, produced by electronic media, or handwritten providing
they are legible.
Medical Requirements
In cases where evidence of protection against yellow fever is required, Contracting States
shall accept the International Certificate of Vaccination or Revaccination issued by the
World Health Organisation. Medical examination of persons arriving by air should
normally be limited to those disembarking and coming within the incubation period of the
disease concerned from an area infected with one of the three diseases requiring
quarantine: plague, cholera, and yellow fever.
Clearance Procedures
Contracting States shall accept an oral declaration of the content and ownership of
baggage from passengers and crew. Unaccompanied baggage shall be inspected on a
sampling or selective basis.
Note: The licence is recognised as a satisfactory identity document even if the holder is
not a national of the State of Registry of the aircraft on which he serves.
Non-Scheduled Services
Each Contracting State is to extend privileges of temporary admission to those
crewmembers on aircraft engaged in non-scheduled international air services, providing
that such crewmembers depart on the aircraft on its first flight out of the territory of the
state.
Relief Crew
When it is necessary for airline crewmembers, in the exercise of their duties, to travel to
another state as a passenger by any means of transportation in order to join an aircraft,
each Contracting State shall accept from that crewmember, in lieu of passport and visa
for temporary admission either a licence or crewmember’s certificate. A document from
the crewmember’s employer certifying the purpose of the journey may be required.
Crewmember Certificate
To comply with rules for the admission of crewmembers and to stop the flight crew
licence being used for purposes for which it was not intended, ICAO recommends the
adoption of an operator issued crewmember certificate. The certificates generally used
are credit card sized and state the name of the operator, the name and a photograph of
the crewmember, and a statement that the holder is bona fide crew engaged in
international commercial aviation. The card serves as acceptable means of identity where
required. The card usually has a magnetic strip or bar code that can be automatically
read by machines where access control is applied or entry authorisation to restricted
areas is applied.
Inadmissible Persons
A state may refuse entry to any person found inadmissible for any reason, such as a
false declaration, false passport, criminal record, record of deportation, no visa etc. The
state will inform the operator that a person has been declared inadmissible and it then
becomes the responsibility of the operator to return the person to the point of departure. It
therefore beholds the operator to ensure before departure that all passengers are
admissible or accept the financial penalty of having to return the passenger to the
departure aerodrome. The operator may seek to recover any direct costs and expenses
incurred in the return passage, through the process of law, but the operator is not
permitted to charge the inadmissible passenger for the return flight before departure.
Deportees
A state has the right to deport or extradite foreign national citizens, usually after due
process of law, to the state of domicile, state requesting extradition, or any other state
willing to offer shelter. The cost of the transportation will be borne by the deporting state
or the state requesting extradition. The deporting state is required to inform the operator
when a deportee is being placed aboard an aircraft. The operator is required to inform the
commander of the passenger being deported, and the crew are to be aware of the
location of the deportee in the aircraft.
Persons in Custody
Where a person in judicial custody, escorted by a law enforcement officer, is carried on
an aircraft, the commander is to be informed of the location of the person and informed of
any restraint applied to the person. In an aircraft emergency the person is to be released
from restraint.
MAJOR UK DIFFERENCES
VMC Criteria
In the UK, there is no VMC criteria defined for class A airspace. Also, the VMC criteria for
class B airspace is 8 km flight visibility at or above FL100 (10 000 ft) and 5 km below and
clear of cloud. ICAO defines flight visibility and vertical and horizontal distance from
cloud, for both classes A and B.
Quadrantal Rule
For IFR flight outside of CAS and above the transition level up to FL245, pilots are
required to fly at a FL dependent upon the magnetic track of the aircraft with respect to
the quadrant of the compass which contains the magnetic track. Above FL245 all flights
comply with the semi-circular rule for IFR flights in accordance with the table in Annex 2
for IFR flight in ‘other airspace’. The quadrants and applicable FLs are:
Limits of CAS
In the UK all airspace above FL245 is the Upper Information Region (UIR) and is
classified as class B. All flights in the UIR are controlled flights with the exception of
gliders when flying in the, now very limited, designated gliding areas.
VFR at Night
Flight under VFR at night is not permitted in the UK.
Licensing
In the UK a pilot may fly in CAS (except in class A) in IMC without an IR providing he/she
holds an IMC rating additional to the basic licence. Pilots may fly at night in VMC if they
hold a night rating in addition to the basic licence.
SVFR
In the UK the definition of SVFR is:
“a flight made at any time in a CTR which is class A airspace or is in any other
CTR in IMC or at night, in respect of which the appropriate ATCU has given
permission for the flight to be made in accordance with special instructions
instead of in accordance with IFR providing the aircraft complies with any
instructions given by the ATCU and remains clear of cloud and in sight of the
surface.”
Departure Separation
The UK procedural separation standard for departure is 2 minutes.
Radar Separation
Where SSR is used alone, the radar separation standard is increased to 10nm.
Controlled Aerodrome
The UK does not define a controlled aerodrome.
Low Flying
In the UK the following restrictions to low flying are enforced:
ROYAL FLIGHTS
A Royal Flight is a flight made by Her Majesty the Queen or certain other members of the Royal
Family. Royal Flight procedures are often implemented for flights made within UK airspace by
other Monarchs, Heads of State, or foreign dignitaries. Special ATC procedures are implemented
to provide additional separation between Royal Flight aircraft and other aircraft.
RNOTAM
The occurrence of a Royal Flight is notified in a Royal Flight NOTAM (RNOTAM).
Purple Airspace
Within and outside of CAS, the enhanced separation standards are applied in ‘Purple
Airspace’ which is defined between reporting points and exists as detailed in the
RNOTAM. Purple Airspace is class A. For Royal Flights operating into or out of
aerodromes not within a CTR, a temporary CTR and temporary airways to link the CTR
to the airways structure will be established as published in the RNOTAM. Temporary
Purple Airspace will exist from 15 minutes prior to and 30 minutes after the ETA Royal
Flight at the aerodrome. Established CTRs may be upgraded to class A airspace during
Royal flight operations in the CTR. Purple Airspace is not normally established for Royal
Flight helicopters.
Restrictions
During the notified period of a Royal Flight in the UK FIRs, practice PAN procedures on
121.500 MHz are suspended. Clearances to climb or descend whilst maintaining own
separation in VMC will not be granted in the vicinity of a Royal Flight. Gliders are not to
be flown in Purple Airspace.
Dimensions
The ATZ is either 2 nm or 2.5 nm radius dependent upon the length of the longest
runway. The MATZ is superimposed on the ATZ and has a radius of 5 nm regardless of
the length of the longest runway. The MATZ is extended in the direction from which
instrument approaches are made to the main instrument runway. This extension is 5 nm
long and exists between 1000 ft and 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation. The extension is
known at the MATZ “panhandle”.
MATZ
With 2 MATZ
panhandles
COMBINED
MATZ
Altimeter Setting
Military approach and aerodrome operations are usually carried out with reference to
aerodrome elevation with QFE set. The MATZ crosser will, where necessary for
separation from military aircraft, be instructed to set the aerodrome QFE until departing
the MATZ.