1.

0 Problem

Problem Scenario

One fine day, Masni went for an outing. On her way back, the weather was very hot. As
she was crossing the flyover, she heard a train coming but she couldn’t see any. She
continued walking until she reached restaurant Abuya where she could see a train going
toward Slim River. Her body was sweating and when the wind blew she felt the pleasant
air soothing her body. She continued walking until she reached her house 10 minutes
later. She boiled a kettle of water and prepared the instant noodles she just bought. The
smell of the noodles has made her mouth watery and couldn’t wait for the noodles to
cool. She quickly put a spoonful of noodles into her mouth. It tastes meated, savoury
and hot, but she continued eating until finished. She drank a glass of cool orange
Sunquick but she cannot taste the drink well.

As an animal physiologist, explain the above phenomena.

2.0 Fila Chart

FACTS IDEAS LEARNING ISSUES ACTION PLAN

• Masni went for an • Masni went to a 1. Sense of touch 1. Assessing Internet
outing shop to buy instant • How do we feel hot? to get the information
• Weather very hot noodles. • What caused Masni about :

• Heard train coming • She went out in the to sweat during hot • Senses that
but couldn’t see afternoon, because day? involved in human
any. the weather is very • What makes Masni • The
• See the train when hot. feel cool when the physiological
she reached • Masni didn’t bring wind blows after she processes
Restoran Abuya an umbrella. sweated heavily? involved in human

• The train is going • Masni is a short

towards Slim River girl. 2. Sense of hearing 2. Referring human

• Her body was • The flyover • How do we hear physiology books on

sweating. blocked Masni’s sounds? the chapters that

view from seeing • How do we know involved sense.

• When the wind
blew, she feels cool. the train coming. that the sound is

• She walked to her • Restoran Abuya is from the train?

house. situated near to the

flyover. 3.Sense of sight
• She reached her
house10 minutes • Masni has to go for • How do we see

later. a long journey to things?

reach the shop. • Why did Masni hear
• She boiled a kettle
of water and • She was sweating the sound first before

prepared instant because the she sees the train?

noodles weather was very

hot. 4.Sense of taste
• The smell of the
• Suddenly the • Why do we feel
noodles makes her
weather becomes hungry?
mouth watery.
windy. • How do we feel
• She can’t wait the
• Masni was wearing hungry?
noodles to be cool.
a short-sleeved • How do we taste?
 blouse.
• Her house is not
too far from the
shop.
• She was so
hungry. Her
stomach has
already making
sound.
• What are the
• The smell of the
• She ate the noodles receptors that can
noodle must be
at an instant. taste the meaty,
very nice.
• The noodles taste • It could be a
savoury and hot?
meaty, savoury and • What makes the cold
chicken soup
hot. orange Sunquick
noodles.
• She continued to tasteless?
• She ate very fast.
eat until finish.
• The noodles must
• She drank a glass 5.Sense of smell
be very hot.
of cool orange • How do we smell?
• She did not even
Sunquick. However • Why our mouth
blow the noodle
she can’t taste the become watery
before eating.
drink. when we smell food
• She didn’t even
at hungry times?
chew her food.
• The Sunquick
drinks must be
very cold.
• She put too much
water in the drink.
• Her tongue was
numb due to the
hot and cold food
and drink
3.0 Synthesis

3.1 Sense of touch

3.1.1 Structure of skin
Skin is very well known as the largest vital organ, which comprise about 16 percents
of a person’s weight. It is an essential organ because of its crucial functions in
human physiology including protection, temperature regulation, sensory reception,
biochemical synthesis, and absorption. It acts as both barrier and regulator which
influence the internal and external factors in our body.
There two main layers of skin; epidermis and dermis.

i. Epidermis
This is the outermost layer. In most parts of the body the epidermis is about 0.1
mm thick but on the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands it can be 1mm
thick or more.

ii. Dermis
The dermis lies immediately underneath the epidermis and is about four times
thicker. It contains numerous specialised supporting tissues as well as blood
vessels, sensory nerves, hair roots and sweat glands. Hair arises from root
structures called follicles that run the whole depth of the dermis. The hair shaft
travels through the epidermis to appear on the skin surface. Along the side of
each hair follicle is attached a small gland that produces an oily type of sweat
that coats the hair. In the deep dermis there are different types of sweat gland
that connect to the surface of the skin through narrow, spiral-shaped sweat ducts
which looked like tiny pores on our skin.

One of the important functions performed by the skin is receiving

information from the outside environment through sensory receptors. The skin
contains numerous sensory receptors which are pain, heat, cold, touch, and
pressure.
3.1.2 Skin as a temperature regulator

During the hot weather, Masni felt very warm. Heat is a sensation that occurs when
the temperature of the environment is higher than 30ºC. The sensitive nerves, the
heat receptor of the skin detect a difference between the temperature at the skin
surface and temperature deeper in the body. In the hot day, the temperature of the
skin increases as the heat energy flows into the skin. Internal body temperature (core
temperature) is controlled through several processes, including the combined actions
of sweat production and the rate of blood flowing through the network of blood
vessels within the skin. For an example, in Masni situation, when she was in a hot
environment, skin vessels open up, potentially increasing skin blood flow to as much
as a third of the total output of blood from the heart. Thus, the skin will eventually
turns into a heat radiator.

Masni also feel the heat sensation during hot day because of the sun through
radiation. The sun is so hot that it radiates most of its light in visible wavelengths,
and these photons heat the Earth (including the people on it). When photons strike
Masni’s skin, some of them are reflected. The photons that are not reflected are
absorbed. The absorbed photons transfer their energy to the skin, increasing its
temperature, thus resulting to the sensation of heat.

3.1.3 Sweat

Masni was sweating during hot day because her body tries to maintain the internal
temperature that is usually 36.7ºC usually for a normal healthy person. This ability to
regulate the body temperature is according to a fixed set point. As her body
temperature rises, the hypothalamus (in the brain) sends a nerve signal to the sweat-
producing skin glands, causing them to release about 1-2 liters of water per hour,
thus produce a lot of sweats. The sensors in the thermoregulatory system are the
hypothalamus and the skin receptors (peripheral receptors) while the effectors are
the sweat glands, the skin capillaries. The hypothalamus also causes dilation of the
blood vessels of the skin, allowing more blood to flow into those areas, causing heat
to be convected away from the skin surface.

3.1.4 Cooling as the result of sweat

Sweat makes someone to feel cool when it evaporates from our body. Masni felt the
same especially when there is a wind. Evaporation is a process that acts in order to
removes excess heat. Wind cools the skin in two ways, firstly by disturbing the
insulating boundary layer of air and secondly by increasing the evaporation of
moisture from the skin that takes body warmth with it.

The skin has thin insulating boundary of air that can trap heat which acts as
an insulator. This thermal boundary layer surrounding the skin may be several
millimeters thick. When it is cold and the wind is blowing, the air feels colder than it
does when it is calm because the wind blows away the boundary layer. Cold air
replaces air warmed by the body at the skin surfaces.

This also explains by the convective heat loss where conduction of heat is
through an insulating boundary layer. When there is wind, the thermal resistance of
the boundary layer is smaller, the heat loss is higher, and the temperature of the skin
is closer to the air temperature. The body does not sense the temperature of the air
 but the temperature of the skin. Because skin temperature is closer to the air
temperature when it is windy, the wind causes it to feel colder.

3.2 Sense of hearing

3.2.1 Structure of ears

Despite of its one of the smallest parts of human body, it plays the major responsible
in our daily survival. It is a complex structure due to the intricate system of bone and
the presence of the hair follicles. Human ear is made up of three main sections: the
outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. Each part of the ear serves a specific
purpose in the task of detecting and interpreting sound.

i. Outer ear

This is the part that is visible on the heads, which is called the pinna. It is
responsible for collecting the sound vibrations. When a sound reaches, first place
it will travel to the eardrum. Before a sound vibration reaches the eardrum it
travels through a thin canal, which is covered with tiny hairs and wax. The hair
and wax in the ear canal help to keep out foreign debris such as dirt and bugs.
Briefly said, the outer ear is serves to collect and channel sound to the middle
ear.

ii. Middle ear

The eardrum is the beginning of the middle. The eardrum is made up of a

translucent fiber. Connected to the eardrum are three tine bones called the
ossicles. When sound waves reach the eardrum, the ossicles vibrate which
produce mechanical sound waves. These waves are transmitted to the inner ear.
As its positions in the center of the ear, it serves to transform the energy of a
sound wave from the outer ear into the internal vibrations of the bone structure of
the middle ear and ultimately transform these vibrations into a compressional
wave in the inner ear.

iii. Inner ear

 The inner ear consists of a cochlea, the semicircular canals, and the auditory
nerve. However, the main vessel is the cochlea. The inner surface of the cochlea
is lined with over 20 000 hair-like nerve cells called the Organ of Corti which
perform one of the most critical roles in our ability to hear. Each hair cell has a
natural sensitivity to a particular frequency of vibration. The nerve receptors send
messages to the brain about the sound such as the loudness and pitch.
Meanwhile, the brain is capable of interpreting the qualities of the sound upon
reception of these electric nerve impulses.

3.2.2 Mechanisms
Human ear serves as an astounding transducer where it converts sound energy to
mechanical energy to a nerve impulse which is transmitted to the brain. The ear's
ability to do this allows us to perceive the pitch of sounds by detection of the wave's
frequencies, the loudness of sound by detection of the wave's amplitude and the
timbre of the sound by the detection of the various frequencies which make up a
complex sound wave.

3.2.3 Sound and Memory

Another issue that has been thoroughly discussed is how Masni knows that the
sound is actually from the train before she could see it. It is learnt that memory is
involved in explaining this phenomenon. At the most abstract level, higher brain
areas act to interpret sound patterns based on expectations and experience . In
 detail, at the inner ear as discussed earlier consists of hair-like cells that are
connected to tiny nerve fibers that join together to make up the hearing nerve. As the
tiny hair cells move, they initiate electrical impulses that travel along the nerve fibers
and auditory nerve to the brain. The brain compares the electrical impulses it
receives to the sounds that it "knows", gives meaning to the sound, and human
knows where the sound came from.

For an example, we are able to recognize that the word "hello" as

pronounced by a young girl is the same "hello" as pronounced by an old man, even
though the sounds themselves are very different. We are able to identify the speaker
or from whom the sound came from. The brain makes the assumptions from the
context of surroundings. That enables our auditory systems to be incredibly flexible
and to accurately interpret sounds despite wide variation. From interpreting the
complex patterns of speech or sound to detecting minuscule spacing between
isolated tones, the range of capabilities in our auditory system illustrates the power of
the brain to comprehend and connect to the world.

By understanding the mechanisms described above, it is proved that Masni

could have seen the train with the sound before and this has been fixed in her mind.
Thus, Masni could remember the sound and recognise the sound actually came from
the train without seeing it even from far or blocked view.

3.3 Sense of sight

3.3.1 Structure of eye
One of the important sensory organs is the eye. Human eye is consists of three
coats, or tunics.

i. The outermost coat

It is consists of the cornea and the sclera. The sclera, or the white of the eye, is
composed of tough fibrous tissue. On the exposed area of the eye the scleral surface
is covered with a mucous membrane called the conjunctiva which helps to protect
the eye from becoming dry. The cornea, a part of the sclera, is the transparent
window of the eye through which light passes. The focusing of light begins in the
cornea. Behind the cornea is a watery fluid called the aqueous humor. This fluid fills
a curved, crescent-shaped space, thick in the center and thinner toward the edges.
The cornea and the aqueous humor together make an outer lens that refracts, or
bends, light and direct it toward the center of the eye.

ii. The middle coat

This layer contains the main blood supply to the eye and consists of the choroid, the
ciliary body, and the iris. The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye
through the pupil, an opening in the iris. The pupil becomes larger or smaller through
the movement of the muscle in the iris. Whereas, the choroid is a layer of blood
vessels and connective tissue squeezed between the sclera and the retina. It
supplies nutrients to the eye. The ciliary body is a muscular structure that changes
the shape of the lens.

iii. The innermost layer

It is the layer that contains the retina. The retina is a soft, transparent layer of
nervous tissue made up of millions of light receptors. The retina is connected to the
brain by the optic nerve. All of the structures needed to focus light onto the retina
and to nourish it are housed in the eye, which is primarily a supporting shell for the
retina. The retina has several layers, one of which contains special cells named for
their shapes rods and cones. Light-sensitive chemicals in the rods and cones react
to specific wavelengths of light and trigger nerve impulses. These impulses are
carried through the optic nerve to the visual centre in the brain.
3.3.2
Mechanisms

How could we be able to see objects has been a question too. Eyes are always
compared analogically with function of the camera. In another word, the eye is like a
camera. Light comes in through the cornea, a clear cover that is like the glass of a
camera's aperture. The amount of light coming in is controlled by the pupil, an
opening that opens and closes a little like a camera shutter. The light focuses on the
retina, a series of light-sensitive cells lining the back of the eye. The retina acts like
camera film, reacting to the incoming light and sending a record of it via the optic
nerve to the brain. Finally, we could be able to view things around us after the
impulse has been processed in the brain.

3.3.3 Relationship between vision and sound

Masni hear the sound of the train first before she was able to see the train. One of
the possible answer is that she might be a short girl which could not be able to see
the across the wall. Another answer that explains the condition above is that Masni
could most probably have reached at the end of the fly over by the time she heard
the sound of the train. This assumption is because the position at the end of the
flyover could have blocked Masni’s view from seeing the train which is still far behind
her. Masni could have reached the end is also because she able to see the train on
its way when she reached at Restaurant Abuya. In addition train usually moves very
fast and Masni did not take longer time to see the train. Thus, the possible location
that Masni most probably was walking is at the end position of the flyover rather than
at the starting of the journey or at the middle of the flyover.

This position however has blocked Masni’s view from the train because of the
unpermitted illusion known as the opaque illusion phenomenon where Masni could
not see through the walls of the fly over. An opaque object is neither transparent
 (allowing all light to pass through) nor translucent (allowing some light to pass
through). When light strikes an interface between two substances (for an example, in
this case is the wall of the fly over), in general some may be reflected, some
absorbed, some scattered, and the rest transmitted. An opaque substance transmits
very little light, and therefore reflects, scatters, or absorbs most of it. That is the
reason why light cannot pass through an opaque object. Consequently, human could
not see through an opaque wall as no light can pass through and reflect to the eye.
Masni is also included in the same situation which has prevent her from seeing the
train even though she is able to turn around or at the back.

There is also another factor that could the answer the question raised above.
As that day was a hot day, the temperature of the surrounding was higher than
usual. Temperature is also a condition that affects the speed of sound. Heat, like
sound, is a form of kinetic energy. Molecules at higher temperatures have more
energy, thus they can vibrate faster. Since the molecules vibrate faster, sound waves
can travel more quickly. The speed of sound in room temperature air is 346 meters
per second. This is faster than 331 meters per second, which is the speed of sound
in air at freezing temperatures. The formula to find the speed of sound in air is as
follows:

v = 331m/s + 0.6m/s/C * T

v is the speed of sound and T is the temperature of the air. One thing to keep
in mind is that this formula finds the average speed of sound for any given
temperature. The higher the temperature of the surrounding the higher would be the
speed of the sound. Because of this reason, Masni heard the sound first before she
sees the train.

3.4 Sense of taste

3.4.1 Structure of tongue and taste buds
Tongue is the organ that responsible to taste in animals including human beings. The
vital parts that are responsible for this ability are the taste cells. They are located
throughout the mouth and throat and cluster together to form taste buds. Isolated
 taste buds are scattered on the surface of the palate and throat, but on the tongue
they are grouped in specialized structures called papillae: mushroom-shaped
fungiform papillae in the front of the tongue, leaf-shaped foliate papillae protruding
from the sides, and circumvallate papillae arrayed in a chevron at the back of the
tongue. The tips of the taste cells reach toward a tiny opening on the tongue - the
gustatory pore - through which food chemicals can fall. Nerve endings for the taste
system and for the touch, temperature and pain system surround the base of the
taste bud cells.

3.4.2 Hunger
The question about hunger is discussed under the section of sense of taste is
because of the effects of hunger which makes Masni ate the instant noodles and
eventually raises many issues relating to the sense of taste. The learning issue what
causes Masni feel hungry and why she felt hunger became an issue because she
could not stand with the hunger that she actually walked over the fly over under the
hot sun and ate the instant noodles so fast before it could cool up?

Research shows that when the blood gets depleted of nutritive materials, a
message is sent to our brain by our body through nerves. The deficiency of nutritive
materials is caused in the blood by the consumption of energy in the routine work.
Whenever there is a deficiency of nutritive food substances in the blood, a message
goes to the ‘hunger centre’ of the brain. This centre is the lateral hypothalamus or
lateral hypothalamic area is a part of the hypothalamus which acts like a brake on
the activities of the stomach and intestines. This centre also acts like a brake on the
activities of the stomach and intestines. When the blood has sufficient nutritive
substances, the hunger centre stops the activities of the stomach and intestines.

On the contrary when there is a lack of nutrition, the intestines and stomach
become active. This makes the sound of stomach grumbling. Hence we conclude
that deficiency of nutritive elements in the blood is the main cause of hunger. In the
position of Masni who has been really hungry, she did not mind to eat even instant
noodles as long as she has something to eat to satisfy her hunger. It seems to be
that her blood has depleted some nutritive elements, probably sodium since most of
sodium is released through sweating along her journey.

On the other hand, hormone too plays crucial role in stimulating hunger in
human. The fluctuation of leptin and ghrelin hormone levels results in the motivation
of the person to consume food. When someone eats, adipocytes trigger the release
of leptin into the body. Increasing levels of leptin results in a reduction of one's
motivation to eat. After hours of non-consumption, leptin levels drop significantly.
These low levels of leptin cause the release of secondary hormone, ghrelin, which in
turn reinitiates the feeling of hunger.

Homeostatic mechanism contributes to the feeling of hunger too. Glucostatic

explanation is based on the homeostatic theory which indicates that the body has
balanced states of equilibrium for each system. When out of balance, the body will
be pushed to restore balance. Therefore, when the blood sugar level drops, the
glucostatic receptors in the blood take a message to the lateral hypothalamus, which
is the feeding center of the brain. This causes certain neurons in the brain to fire in
unison, creating the sensation of hunger. Now the person will want to eat. When the
glucose level increases because the person is eating or has eaten the glucostatic
receptors in the blood then send a message to the Ventro-medial Hypothalamus (the
satiety or satisfaction center) and the sensation of fullness occurs.
3.4.3 Mechanisms
Taste is a form of chemoreception which occurs in specialized receptors in the
mouth. These receptors are known as taste cells, and they are contained in bundles
called taste buds, which are contained in raised areas known as papillae that are
found across the tongue. To date, there are five different types of taste receptors
known: salt, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami. Each receptor has a different manner of
sensory transduction. They are responsible in detecting the presence of a certain
compound and starting an action potential which ultimately alerts the brain. Receptor
molecules are found on the apical microvilli of the taste cells. The sense of taste is
conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves which are the facial nerve,
 glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve. The nerves bring particular message to
the brain as below:

i. Facial nerves
- brings messages from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue
ii. glossopharyngeal nerve
- brings messages from the throat area and the palate

iii. vagus nerve or trigeminal nerve

- carrying messages from the touch/temperature/pain system

All of these nerves bring their messages to the brainstem, where they
combine their signals in areas of the brainstem. As taste messages move further
through the brain, they join up with smell messages to give the sensation of flavour.
This is how Masni could be able to taste her instant noodles.

3.4.4 Food and taste buds

Umami means ‘savoury’ or ‘meaty’ in Japanese. Thus, the meaty and savoury taste
is actually means to the umami taste. It is thought that umami receptors act much the
same way as bitter and sweet receptors (they involve GPCR’s), but not much is
known about their specific function. It is thought that the amino acid L-glutamate
bonds to a type of GPCR known as a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR4).
This causes the G-protein complex to activate a secondary receptor, which ultimately
leads to neurotransmitter release. The intermediate steps are not known. The umami
taste, which signals the presence of the amino acid L-glutamate, triggers a
pleasurable response and thus encourages the intake of peptides and proteins. The
amino acids in proteins are used in the body to build muscles and organs, transport
molecules (haemoglobin), antibodies, and the organic catalysts known as enzymes.
These are all critical molecules, and as such it is important to have a steady supply
of amino acids, hence the pleasurable response to their presence in the mouth.

One of the possible factor that makes Masni could not taste the flavour of
Sunquick, is because of the temperature of the Sunquick which might be very cool.
This is because our taste perception could be influenced by the temperature of the
food. A new study reveals that our taste perception is enhanced as the temperature
of food and beverage products increases, explaining ice cream is sweeter when
consumed warm (when it melt). The study, which had published in Nature journal,
identified microscopic channels in our taste buds - termed TRPM5 - as being
responsible for different taste perception at different temperature.

According to the researchers, the reaction of TRPM5 in our taste buds is

much more intense when the temperature of food or fluid is increased, sending a
stronger electrical signal to the brain and resulting in an enhanced taste. The
clearest example for sweet taste is ice cream. As known, ice cream does not taste
sweet when it is frozen but only when it melts in the mouth. On the other hand,
melted ice cream is very hard to drink because it is extremely sweet. From this new
finding, it can be said that Masni could not taste the flavour of Sunquick because she
took this beverage in a very cold condition.

Another research by B. G. Green also states that his first experiment

revealed that cooling both the tongue and the taste solutions from 36°C to either
28°C or 20°C produced measurable reductions in the perceived intensity of the
sweetness of sucrose and the bitterness of caffeine. The temperature of Masni drinks
might be less than 20°C which in result reduces the intensity of sweetness that she
could taste.

Green in his second experiment also stressed that the temperature of the
tongue was the critical factor for producing the effects on sweetness and bitterness. If
temperature of the tongue is higher than 37°C, the protein that involved in tasting
sweetness will be denatured and the intensity to sweet flavour will decrease. Thus, it
is believed that the hot noodles might affect the temperature of Masni’s tongue and
eventually damage the protein. She might lose the ability to taste the Sunquick after
the protein in the tongue had just denatured.

The third factors that contribute to the question why Masni cannot taste the
Sunquick might because of her taste bud that had been damaged when she ate the
 hot noodle. The high temperature of the noodle make the tissue of her tongue
damage and the taste bud failed to function well. According to the expert medicals,
our tissue tongue which includes the taste bud can damage due to the burning and
consuming the food in very high temperature. Injured taste buds could not allow
Masni to taste well.

The three factors are the possible reasons of explaining the situation faced
by Masni who could not taste the cold Sunquick after ate the hot noodles. There are
the very cold drinks, the denatured of protein in tasting sweetness and the taste buds
that had been damaged due to the high temperature.

3.5 Sense of smell

3.5.1 Structure of nose
The structure of olfactory system consists of olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerved,
olfactory bulb, and lastly olfactory tract to central tract and central projection.

i. Olfactory epithelium

The olfactory epithelium consists of 3 cell types, basal, supporting, and olfactory
receptor cells. Basal cells are stem cells that give rise to the olfactory receptor cells.
The continuous turnover and new supply of these neurons are unique to the olfactory
system. In no other location in the mature nervous system do less differentiated stem
cells replace neurons. Supporting cells are scattered among the receptor cells and
have numerous microvilli and secretory granules, which empty their contents onto
the mucosal surface. The receptor cells are actually bipolar neurons, each
possessing a thin dendritic rod that contains specialized cilia extending from the
olfactory vesicle and a long central process that forms the fila olfactoria. The cilia
provide the transduction surface for odorous stimuli.

ii. Olfactory nerved

The small unmyelinated axons of the olfactory receptor cells form the fine fibers of
the first cranial nerve and travel centrally toward the ipsilateral olfactory bulb to make
contact with the second-order neurons. Conduction velocities are extremely slow,
 and support is provided in bundles by a single Schwann cell. The olfactory nerve is
the shortest of all the twelve cranial nerves and only one of two cranial nerves (the
other being the optic nerve) that do not join with the brainstem.

iii. Olfactory bulb

The olfactory bulb lies inferior to the basal frontal lobe. The olfactory bulb is a highly
organized structure composed of several distinct layers and synaptic specializations.
The layers (from outside toward the center of the bulb) are differentiated as follows;
glomerular layer, external plexiform layer, mitral cell layer,internal plexiform layer
,granule cell layer

Mitral cells are second-order neurons contacted by the olfactory nerve fibers
at the glomerular layer of the bulb. The glomerular layer is the most superficial layer,
consisting of mitral cell dendritic arborizations (glomeruli), olfactory nerve fibers, and
periglomerular cells. Periglomerular cells contact multiple mitral cell dendrites within
the glomeruli and provide lateral inhibition of neighboring glomeruli while allowing
excitation of a specific mitral cell dendritic tree. Each mitral cell is contacted by at
least 1000 olfactory nerve fibers.

The external plexiform layer contains the passing dendrites of mitral cells and
a few tufted cells, which are similar in size to mitral cells. Some of the granule cell
dendrites in the plexiform layer contact mitral cell dendrites through a specialized
dendrodendritic synapse, which also is termed a reciprocal synapse (vesicles seen
within both presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes).

Tufted cells also receive granule cell input through dendrodendritic and
dendrosomatic contact. Pyramidal mitral cells are the largest neurons in the bulb and
are located in a narrow band between the external and internal plexiform layers. The
granule cell layer contains multiple small round neurons that lack axons. Long
dendritic processes of the neurons reach the more superficial layers and inhibit mitral
 cells and tufted cells. Small distal processes make contacts with the exiting mitral cell
axons.

iv. Olfactory tract to central tract and central projection.

Mitral cell axons project to the olfactory cortex via the olfactory tract. Medial fibers of
the tract contact the anterior olfactory nucleus and the septal area. Some fibers
project to the contralateral olfactory bulb via the anterior commissure. Lateral fibers
contact third-order neurons in the primary olfactory cortex (prepyriform and
entorhinal areas) directly. Third-order neurons send projections to the dorsomedial
nucleus of the thalamus, the basal forebrain, and the limbic system.

The thalamic connections are thought to serve as a conscious mechanism for

odor perception, while the amygdala and the entorhinal area are limbic system
components and may be involved in the affective components of olfaction.
Investigations of regional cerebral blood flow have demonstrated a significant
increase in the amygdaloid nucleus with the introduction of a highly aversive odorant
stimulus, and this has been associated with subjective perceived aversiveness.

The anterior olfactory nucleus receives collateral fibers from the olfactory
tract and projects to the contralateral olfactory bulb and anterior olfactory nucleus via
the anterior commissure.

The region of anterior perforated substance contains cells that receive direct
mitral cell collaterals and input from the anterior olfactory nucleus, amygdaloid
nucleus, and temporal cortex. This area ultimately projects to the stria medullaris and
the medial forebrain bundle.
3.5.2 Mechanisms
When something has a smell, it releases volatile molecules that float through the air
to our nose. These molecules are able easily evaporate in the air and are therefore
able to move easily and quickly. In Masni’s case, the volatile molecules from the
smell of instants noodle, entered her nostrils and bind with the cilia or
chemoreceptors in her nose. Cilia are the little hairs that increase the surface area of
nose and so as increase the smell perception. Once the volatile molecules bind to
the cilia in her nose, it will trigger the neurons that connect with the cilia. Each of
these neurons is called an olfactory receptor, and the thousands of them (an
average of 10,000) contained in the nose each perceive a different odor.

When a chemoreceptor is triggered, an electrical impulse is passed to the

brain through olfactory neurons and via afferent nerve fiber the impulse will pass to
olfactory bulb and then pass to the brain, where specific odors will then be classified
into specific odors inside the brain. The olfactory bulb which is part of the brain that
changes sensation into perception is also one part of the limbic system, and the nose
is closely related to this system and therefore triggers behavior, memory and mood.
In this situation the smell trigger Masni to quickly eat the noodle right after she
smelled the aroma of that noodle without thinking to wait for the noodle to be cooled
first. This is one of interesting factor about smell is that is it is specifically linked to
parts of the brain that deal with emotion.

Another interesting factor is each receptor is encoded by a specific gene, so if

a person is missing that certain gene they will not have the receptor to bind to that
certain odor, and therefore they won’t be able to smell certain items. For example,
if a person were missing the gene that coded for the receptor that sensed esters
 (organic molecules released from flowers), they would not be able to perceive the
smell of flowers. So Masni had the receptor to smell the aroma of instant noodle
and that is why she can smell it.

3.5.3 Relationship between saliva and smell

Mouth becomes watery due to the secretion of saliva. Saliva is produced largely by three
major pairs of salivary glands that are located outside of the oral cavity and
discharge saliva through short ducts in the mouth. Saliva is composed of about
99.5% H20 and 0.5% electrolytes and protein. The continuous spontaneous secretion
of saliva, even in the absence of apparent stimuli, is brought about by constant low-
level stimulation by the parasympathetic nerve endings that terminate in the salivary
glands. This basal secretion is important in keeping the mouth and throat moist at all
times. In addition to this continuous, low-level secretion, salivary secretion may be
enhanced by two types of salivary reflexes, the simple and the acquired salivary
reflexes.

The simple or unconditioned salivary reflex occurs when chemoreceptors and

pressure receptors within oral cavity respond to the presence of food. On activation,
these receptors initiate impulses in afferent nerve fibres that carry the information to
the salivary centre, which is located in the medulla of the brain stem, as are all the
brain centres that control digestive activities. The salivary centre in turn sends
impulses via the extrinsic autonomic nerves to the salivary glands to promote
increased salvation.

With the acquired or conditioned salivary reflex, salivation occurs without oral
stimulation. Just thinking about, seeing, smelling or hearing the preparation of
pleasant food initiates salivation through this reflex. ‘Mouth-watering’ occurs in
anticipation of something delicious to eat. This reflex is a learned response based in
previous experience. Inputs that arise outside the mouth and mentally associated
with the pleasure of eating act through the cerebral cortex to stimulate the medullary
salivary centre.
 The salivary centre controls the degree of salivary output by the means of the
autonomic nerves that supply the salivary glands. Unlike the autonomic nervous
system elsewhere in the body, sympathetic and parasympathetic responses in the
salivary glands are not antagonistic. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic
stimulation increase salivary secretion, but the quantity, characteristics and
mechanisms are different. Parasympathetic stimulation, which exerts the dominant
role in salivary secretion, produces a prompt and abundant flow of watery saliva that
is rich in enzymes. Sympathetic stimulation, by contrast, produces a much smaller
volume of thick saliva that is rich in mucus.

Follow up in Masni’s case, her mouth automatically produce saliva after she
smelled the odour of the instant noodles even when she has been preparing the
noodles. The pleasant physical appearance and meaty smell of the noodles
stimulates the secretion of the saliva in Masni’s mouth.

Conclusion

There are five areas that have been identified in Masni’s problem scenario; senses of touch,
senses of hearing, senses of sight, senses of taste and senses of smell. To be more detail, 14
learning issues were used as the guidelines to find explanation of what had happened to Masni
in the problem scenario.

Overall, the problems involve the description of homeostasis and sensory organs in
order to understand the situation faced by Masni. From the moments she sweats until the
moments she couldn’t taste the cold Sunquick juice involve the response of her sensory organs
towards the stimulus from the surrounding. For an example, she sweated because of the hot
weather that causes her to stimulate the production of sweats.

For every area of senses that has been discussed, the structure of the sensory organs
was not missed out also. This is due to the importance of having the knowledge of the structure
first before we could explain the process or mechanisms that take place within the organs. Clear
picture of the organs also needed to enhance understanding of the phenomenon discussed
above.
 Finally, Masni’s scenario could be explained and proved through several research and
exploration. Discussions and exchanging ideas among group members have enhanced the
good flow of the findings and also have covered all the issues that have risen.

4.0 Reflection

4.1 Group reflection

After the Problem-based learning (PBL) session that we had, we could conclude that PBL is
the ‘solving problem together’. Group discussion was seems very important. Everyone plays
important role as each one of us need to contribute something. As like human parts of body,
each one of us is important to the group, the body. Even the loss or handicap of one part will
affect the others badly. The facilitator, Dr. Syakirah had been our guidance and supporter
throughout the PBL session.

My group members have involved actively and very well in the aspects of
cooperation and work management. Exchanging and viewing ideas on solving the problem
given was fun as we had learned a lot and also sometimes came out with weird ideas and
assumptions. Each member determined and committed to their work. We hardly find
excuses to escape from completing the task given.

Solving Masni’s problem was a great relief and proud to be claimed as we had work
and contribute together. Group discussion can be enhanced by abiding the rules and
regulations that have been amended at the beginning of the session. Everyone knows their
role and the importance of their contribution towards the success and the benefits of the
group. Thus, PBL session was a thrilling adventure for us for the adventure we had gone
through and the exposure we had gained.

4.2 Self-reflection
By : Lim Chai Yen (D20051021934)

Problem-based Learning (PBL) has been a new approach of learning in today’s way of
teaching and learning where the teacher or lecturer only acts as the facilitator for the
student’s progression in their learning activity. PBL session in Animal Physiology is not
something new for me as I have experienced the session before with different group
members in other subject. The little exposure was found useful for me as I could carry out
the PBL session without any hesitation.

As the leader for my PBL group, I had a big responsible in managing the group as
well as the members during the session. Members’ cooperation and performance has
delighted me so far. We were open to criticize and comments on the others views or ideas
during the session. This has been an active and healthy sessions as one correct the other.
Everyone seems to play important roles during PBL session because each one of us
responsible to report for the particular information or the results from the given learning
issues.

During the discussion, we managed to apply the proper mannerism of table talking
especially in listening attentively, asking questions, commenting and answering questions. I
was in charge of editing the whole complete report for this session after everyone hand in
their own report to me. The task was seemed quite hard for me as I have to rearrange the
whole content and check every single sentence to make sure it has the connection with the
previous section. In addition, I have to ensure that all the learning issues has been
answered and written in the final report even we had the discussion before.

Finally after all the discussions, I get the whole picture of the actual factors that
contribute to the situation faced by Masni in the problem scenario and how all that has taken
place. This PBL scenario mostly related to our sensory system which involves daily life
circumstances which we might not aware of it. What had happened to Masni was actually
what are the daily phenomenon happened to us. Thus, by solving and explaining the
phenomenon in Masni’s situation, I could understand why are certain things happen in our
body, for an example, sweating, hunger and mouth-watery. This has been a lesson for me
 also to actually take care of my body so that it can react well when there is a stimulus in the
environment. The PBL session has benefits me a lot rather than giving me troubles.

By: Kholidah bt. Ramle (D20051021977)

This is my first PBL in a Biology course. I found that learning through PBL is very interesting.
I was assigned to search information for four learning issues: How do we feel hungry? How
do we taste? What are the receptors that can taste meaty, savoury and hot? And why our
mouth become watery when we smell food?

I tried to search most of the information through the internet. When I get an answer, I’ll try to
validate the answer by searching other websites. If the websites provide the same answer,
agrees with one another, I took the answer as to solve the learning issues.

Searching for the answers was not an easy task. I learned a lot by doing mistakes,
especially in choosing the right key word when I googled for the answer. Nevertheless, I end
up with extra information and knowledge about the topic, especially when I bumped into
websites with things I have never realized or ever think about.

I could say that self-studying is quite fun. But it actually depends on how much we push
ourselves to be independent to seek information on our own. A bigger thing to consider is I
am very much thankful to be blessed to have internet facility at my place, so it wasn’t too
hard for me to take some time and google around seeking for more information. But to those
who didn’t have internet, I have to say that self-studying is not a good news for them.

Apart from relying to the information in the internet, I have referred to some books as to
ensure the reliability of the information. The explanations in the books are much more
reliable and concise, very much helpful to me. Having the forum in MyGuru2 was a good
way to communicate with other members. We can exchange ideas, sharing our findings and
see what others had found out.

Working in a group really needs the cooperation from each member. If one member failed to
do his part, the whole group will be affected. I have no problem working with them all. We
 had two meetings in just one week, excluding the one in the class. Our first meeting was
through internet conference. It was my idea. Everyone seems so busy with their own work,
so I thought having an internet conference could reduce the time consumed than meeting
face to face. Again, internet plays a major role in controlling the meeting. There’s so many
things happened along the conference. We just managed to discuss three learning issues
before deciding to meet the other day in a real meeting. We can’t help to continue the
conference when someone keeps missing from the conference due to the low internet
connection.

I am very much thankful that each of the members managed to do their part, understands
other’s problems and be responsible enough with the timing and meeting. It has been a
great time working in this group and I really hope each and every one of us has learned a lot
through this PBL session.

From my point of view, I see PBL as a great way to learn. It is time consuming but it is more
fun than just letting our ears open and take whatever the lecturer said in the front. PBL is
really an active way of learning, but it really depends on the cooperation from everyone. If I
am to learn or cover all the learning issues by myself, it would be really tough. I always
enjoy learning through discussions as it makes me realize where I am, where I am lacking
at, what I need to improve and most of all helping me and everyone else to gain knowledge,
striving our very best throughout the learning process.

By : Masitah binti Alias (D20051022036)

For this PBL scenario, my task was to find information on learning issue relating to the
sense of smell and taste. The two main sources of reference were online journals and
books. I have used the Oxford Journal website extensively as a research point and was able
to find literatures that allowed me to respond to the problems given, especially the learning
issue about the tasteless Sunquick. The journal I found useful was one titled “Thermal
Taste”, published by the Oxford University which discussed the factors that influence the
sweet-tasting perception. Researchers at the Oxford University studied the influence of
thermal factor on the relationship between the sense of taste and chemical reaction. The
conclusion of the research was that our sense of taste is heightened by the increase in the
food temperature. My second reference was a book called “Human Physiology: From Cell to
System, Fifth edition” One of the chapters described the structure of the olfactory system
and its involvement in the human smelling mechanism. The chapter explained how the
human can smell and discriminate between smells. The main factors that influence the
human sense of smell are humidity and temperature.

Each group member has been assigned to individual sections of the learning issue.
The results of each member are presented to the group and the group made a concerted
decision on the solutions given. The group also discussed areas of improvement relating to
the solutions. The group met regularly, and each member gave equal contribution and was
committed to achieving the objective of the exercise. In order to make sure that all members
get the information and know the issue need to understand, each member will explain their
findings to the other group members.

To reflect myself along my involving in solving the problem in PBL scenario, mostly
the task teach me how to get information either from books or internet. Also teach me how
to select information that really suitable and can be used to solve the learning issue that had
developed. Besides that, from this task, I can practice how to read the information and
journal in fast way, and at the same time I can get all the important facts and information
that can be use to solve the learning issue.

While for the group, my contribution to the group is to find the answer for the learning
issue, explain the finding to the other and try to fulfil all the learning issue that need the
answers. All the information I got from the sources will be combine with the other and our
group leader will collect all the work we done. But what happen, I cannot submit it at the
estimate time, since I have other thing to do at the same time, so it seem I had influence
other member’s work. From the situation that had happen to me, what I must do to solve this
problem is try to manage my time and works and try to do the work as fast as I can do so I
can finish my work on the specified time. Mostly from this PBL group, lot of things that I can
learned, especially how to get involved with the group members that I never get together as
a group before, how to communicate in group to share the information and to give
suggestion. And lastly, my opinion towards this PBL activity is that this activity can increase
my understanding about PBL’s learning issue, improve my skills to find information and
 develop my communication skills. So I think this activity should be continued for the other
topics.

By : Syaidatul Elliana Bt Ali (D2005102951)

In this first PBL, I found out that I can work to find information by my own. Information
gathered is a lot and I also learned how to select the information based on the problem
given. Besides that, it helps me understand better because everything that is not clear
needs to be search until the answer is found. Self study is practiced and it works. The article
given in this PBL is clearly shows me what topic I am learning and also what to find.
Information is gathered from web site, articles and books. During PBL session, I do have
complication in doing learning issues but the problem is settled with guide and explanations
from my group members. I do learn to cooperate better with the others and helps in my
communication skills. For me, I do work in group well where all work is done in time and
discussions are conducted very well. I do hope in future I can master how to do PBL in more
effective ways.

My group so far did a good job in terms of cooperation, work management and
discussion conducted. All group members participated well and try to give the best. All tasks
given are completed on time and explained well to each member. We try to find information
and share them during our group meeting. Every detail regarding the information searched
are discussed with all members before decision are made. In the other hand, all the rules
made are obeyed. My hope for this PBL is I hope it can be done as a coursework from now
till on because it is one of the ways where we can learn better since we gather the
information by our own.

By : Tg Abd Ghafar b Tg Ahmad (D20051022010)

First of all, thanks to god because give a healthy body to me along finishing the PBL
session. A very thankful also I wished to Dr Syakirah because have given a lot of guidance
in order to me to do the discussion in group and make the report at last.
Not forgotten to wish thank you to all of my group members, Lim Chai Yen, Syaidatul Elliana
Ali, Masitah Bt Alias and Kholidah Bt Ramle that have helped me a lot and give very well
cooperation. Along our discussion, we have a lot of discussion since the task given need a
lot of research information. We did have a big problem along our task because in every
week we do have a meeting. But we have a little bit stress to find the most suitable time for
us to set the meeting because we are in different class at almost the subject that we took.

For me, I apologize to my entire group member for not attend the class where our group
having a lot of discussion that day. I am not attending to the class because of having a
seminar under our faculty, Faculty of Science and Technology. That seminar are held at
Institute Kefahaman Islam Malaysia ( IKIM ) and joined about three others student with four
lecturers for each department. I have an exclusion letter from the faculty and I have gave it
to our secretary for our group’s meting reports.

From our PBL session, I learned a lot of things that we did not have in our lecture class. The
first thing is, I learned to communicate among our group in other to solve the problems. This
communication makes me more confident to speech to other although there are not too
many people in front me and only in front of my group members.

Besides, I also learned to related what we learned in class with the daily works as the given
situation of problem based a situation that we have in almost days. From this relation, I now
realized to appreciate the knowledge and skills that I learned before this.
With what the learning issues that we have overcomes, I now more aware on certain things
that discuss in the problem such as not to come a hot meals because it may cause my
papillae damaged and we also encourage to drinks a lot of waters when the weather are hot
to replace the water lost.

A little bit testimonies for my friends. For Chai Yen, she was a person that has given the
most idea and summaries all our research information to be included in our report at soon.
Besides a hardworking person, she is a punctual person. In all our discussion, she is the
first person that comes to the meting. For Elliana, she also gives a lot of idea in our
discussion. She is a good presenter since she is good in English. For Kholidah, she gives us
a lot of idea to think it about. She also gives our discussion become in happy condition as
she is a cheerful person. Not forgotten to Masitah that given an idea for that task given to
 her. The way that she related to the daily life and the information given, have make my mind
open.

I want to say thank you one more time to Dr Syakirah and to all my group members for
sharing their ideas to me. I also want to apologize if there are any mistaken that I have
made in conscious or not. I hope that we can cooperate in other time if we are in the same
group again. Thank you.

References

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main=anat/auditory-phys5

A.Vokshoor. Anatomy of Olfactory System. Retrieved on 10th August, 2008 from

http://www.emedicine.com/ent/topic564.htm

B. G. Green and S. P. Frankmann (2006) Philadelphia Effect of cooling the tongue on the
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http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/4/609

Chill wind effects. Retrieved on 3rd August 2008, from

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/health_culture/wind_chill_effects.shtml

Do you know why we feel hungry. Retrieved on 4th August 2008,from

http://www.medicalquestionsanswers.com/do-you-know-why-we-feel-hungry

Gustatory System. Retrieved on 5th August 2008, from,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_system

How do we hear. Retrieved on 30th July 2008 from,

http://www.meniett.com/diagnose_how_we_hear.html

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http://www.allaboutvision.com/resources/anatomy.html

Hunger. Retrieved on 30th July 2008, from

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger

Margaret E. Smith, Dion G. Morton (2001). The Digestive System: Basic Science and Clinical
Conditions. Churchill-Livingstone

Senses of hearing. Retrieved on 4th August 2008, from

http://hes.ucf.k12.pa.us/gclaypo/senses/hearing.html

Sensory Ogans . Retrieved on 4th August 2008, from

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Umami. Retrieved on 3rd August 2008, from

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http://www.wisegeek.com/why-do-we-sweat.htm

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