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Temperature effects
• Temperatures respond to inputs of energy. Where some of the radiant energy is
used in evaporation, less energy is available for heating.
• In the tropics, seasonal differences in temperature are small, and the diurnal
variation is more important. The sun never strays far from an overhead position at
noon.
Figure 1 (a) Reducing volcanic gases (with significant H2, CH4 and NH3) were
introduced into the atmosphere before core formation, when the mantle was rich in
metallic iron. (b) A weakly reducing mixture of volcanic gases has fed the atmosphere
for most of Erth history, after the Earth differentiated into core, mantle and crust.
Source: "Reprinted from Earth & Planetary Science Letters 237, Catling, D.C. and
Claire, ‘How Earth’s atmosphere evolved to an oxic state: A status report’, p.1-20, Figure
4, Copyright 2005 with permission from Elsevier
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0012821X).
Nevertheless life began about 3.5 billion years ago and consisted largely of bacterial
microanimals such as stromatolites that still survive in Australia. These bacteria would
release oxygen as part of their photosynthesis. Geological evidence indicates that after
about 2.4 billion years ago, the proportion of oxygen became more significant but we are
not really sure why.
Recent investigations have shown that between 2.4-2.3 billion and 0.8-0.6 billion years
ago there were significant increases in the levels of atmospheric oxygen. Interestingly
these coincide with phases of snowball earth (see Chapter 9) when the carbon cycle was
greatly disturbed. It is possible that these two factors may be related. Oxygen and
methane cannot coexist in large quantities so, as the proportion of oxygen increases, that
of methane will decrease. At this time, the sun was much less powerful than now,
estimates suggest about 25-30% fainter than today, so that to maintain temperatures, a
greenhouse gas like methane would be needed to sustain average temperatures. If the
methane was being destroyed through the presence of more oxygen then Earth could
plunge into a glacial state (see Chapter 9).
Unfortunately we still do not really understand how the proportion of oxygen increased to
its present levels. What is certain is that its increase was vital for the development of life
forms that we know in geological history and today. Together oxygen and carbon
dioxide played a vital role in maintaining the atmospheric composition and influencing
Earth’s climate.
4 Why do oceanic locations have smaller diurnal and annual temperature ranges than
continental sites?
5 Deserts have relatively low totals of net radiation. Why are they hot?
6 Explain why some areas are more important as sources of sensible heat than others.
Further reading
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (2003) Atmosphere, Weather and Climate, sixth edition,
London: Routledge. A popular textbook, now in its eighth edition, which covers the
whole field of climatology in considerable detail. Chapter 3 covers heat and energy in the
atmosphere but is not always easy to absorb.
Hartmann, D.L. (1994) Global Physical Climatology, San Diego, Cal.: Academic Press.
Chapters 2–4 provide a modern replacement of Sellers’s classic Physical Climatology. It
is pitched at quite an advanced level and includes recent data from satellites.
Hidore, J.J. and Oliver, J.E. (2001) Climatology: An atmospheric science, second edition,
New York: Macmillan. An elementary textbook which introduces the processes of
climate changes through time, especially chapters 2–4. Also looks at the human impact
on the energy budget.
Websites
http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/heat.htm
For more information about the basics of energy, energy transfer and Earth, this US
National Weather Service website provides a useful, well-illustrated resource.
There are also a large-number of educational websites where lecture courses on this
theme provide web information intended as a learning experience.
http://jwocky.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Official website for NASA’s Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer. Gives information
about the recent levels of ozone in the stratosphere and trends over time. Also includes
links to an electronic text about ozone, its properties and characteristics.
http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/erbe/ASDerbe.html
Another NASA site, this one is concerned with the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment.
Information is available about a wide range of aspects of long- and short-wave, and net
radiation.
http://www.ucar.edu/learn/index.htm
A teaching website that is intended to increase awareness of atmospheric science. Covers
a wide range of subject matter in an authoritative manner.