International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction in the hotel industry

Jen-Te Yang *
Department of Hotel Management, National Kaohsiung Hospitality College, P.O. Box 608, Kaohsiung City (800), Taiwan, ROC

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The purpose of this study is to investigate the antecedents (i.e., role ambiguity and conflict, burnout,
Job satisfaction socialization, and work autonomy) and consequences (i.e., affective and continuance commitment,
Organizational commitment absenteeism, and employee turnover intention) of employee job satisfaction. Data obtained from a
Turnover intention sample of 671 respondents drawn from 11 international tourist hotels in Taiwan were analyzed with the
LISREL program. According to the results, role conflict, burnout, socialization, and work autonomy, but
not role ambiguity, significantly predicted job satisfaction. In addition, job satisfaction significantly
contributed to psychological outcomes in terms of organizational effectiveness (i.e., greater affective and
continuance commitment and lower employee turnover intentions).
ß 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
In the competitive and people-oriented business environment
characterizing the modern hospitality industry, frontline
employee performance represents a crucial component of service.
Better employee performance yields greater guest satisfaction and
loyalty. Moreover, frontline employees in the hospitality industry
seem to be underpaid and to suffer job-related stress (Weatherly
and Tansik, 1993; Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006). An appropriate
quality of service includes employee attitudes and behaviors that
meet customer expectations. Consequently, employee job satisfac-
tion is a necessary contributor to meeting such expectations (Rust
et al., 1996; Kim et al., 2005; Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006).
The literature on job satisfaction covers an enormous territory
with ambiguous boundaries, apparently as a result of the growing
interest of academic researchers and managers in three perspec-
tives on this domain. The first views job satisfaction as an
antecedent of organizational outcomes, e.g., business performance
(Iffaldano and Muchinski, 1985; Schyns and Croon, 2006),
employee turnover (Williams and Hazer, 1986; Griffeth et al.,
2000; Lam et al., 2001a,b; Martin, 2004; Silva, 2006; Schyns and
Croon, 2006), and organizational commitment (Chatman, 1989,
1991; Chatman and Barsade, 1995; Harris and Mossholder, 1996;
Lowry et al., 2002; Lam and Zhang, 2003; Martin, 2004; Taris et al.,
2005; Li, 2006; Silva, 2006). The second treats job satisfaction as an
outcome of organizational conditions, e.g., leadership (Williams
and Hazer, 1986; Schriesheim et al., 1992; Podsakoff et al., 1996;
* Tel.: +886 935 927 138; fax: +886 7 238 3553.
E-mail address: jenteyang@Mail.Nkhc.Edu.Tw.
Sparks and Schenk, 2001; Schyns and Croon, 2006), social support
(Frone, 2000; Liden et al., 2000; Schirmer and Lopez, 2001; Schyns
and Croon, 2006), and task characteristics (Seers and Graen, 1984;
Williams and Hazer, 1986; Stepina et al., 1991; Dodd and Ganster,
1996; Schyns and Croon, 2006). The third examines job satisfaction
in terms of the temperament of employees, which is affected by
individual traits (Judge et al., 1998, 2000; Dormann and Zapf, 2001;
Judge and Bono, 2001; Schyns and Croon, 2006).
1.2. Previous studies of job satisfaction in hospitality
Previous studies on the antecedents and consequences of job
satisfaction in the hotel industry have examined antecedents in
terms of individual, organizational, and job-related factors.
Much of the literature regarding individual factors in the
hospitality industry has identified salary, benefits, and marital
status as contributors to employee turnover (Iverson and Deery,
1997; Pizam and Thornburg, 2000). For Chinese managers, job
satisfaction was affected by the work environment, the nature of
the job itself, and the rewards associated with the job, but not by
manager characteristics (Lam et al., 2001a,b). Rewards, particularly
those related to job security, emerged as an influential factor
relating to job satisfaction. This study also indicated that high
levels of job satisfaction resulted in low levels of turnover
intentions among managers. Aziz et al. (2007) studied fast food
restaurants and found that satisfaction with financial rewards
minimized absenteeism and hence turnover rates. Martin (2004)
and Silva (2006) applied a psychological perspective to a sample
drawn from the hotel industry, using a correlation analysis to
identify significant relationships among job satisfaction, organiza-
tional commitment, employee turnover, and personality traits.
Carbery et al. (2003) applied a hierarchical regression analysis to a
sample of 89 hoteliers and showed that individual affective

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doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.11.002
610 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
commitment accounted for a significant amount of variance in
turnover intentions, that job satisfaction did not explain managers’
levels of commitment to a significant extent, and that job
satisfaction and affective, but not continuance, commitment were
important factors in predicting the turnover intentions of employ-
ees. These findings were also echoed by Iverson and Deery (1997).
Second, at the organizational level, organizational support and
socialization have been identified as crucial factors influencing
individual behavior. Cho et al. (2009) empirical study demon-
strated that perceived organizational support and commitment
negatively influenced individual intentions to leave, but only the
former positively affected intentions to stay. Young and Lundberg
(1996) proposed that organizational socialization significantly
contributed to newcomers’ job performance, job satisfaction, and
organizational commitment and hence to their intentions about
leaving the organization. The study indicated that role ambiguity,
role conflict, and job burnout could be minimized by well-
organized orientation and training programs during the early stage
of employment, and that this approach would increase the level of
job satisfaction. A similar study also showed that socialization
difficulties negatively affected the organizational culture with
respect to employee turnover (Iverson and Deery, 1997). Tepeci
and Bartlett’s (2002) empirical study went one step further,
implying that organizational socialization resulted in increased job
satisfaction and intentions to remain in an organization. Sub-
ramaniam et al. (2002) empirically showed direct and positive
relationships between variables measuring decentralized struc-
tures and organizational commitment among managers.
Lam and Zhang (2003) surveyed 203 employees in the Hong
Kong fast-food industry about their jobs. A multiple regression
model showed that organizational commitment was correlated with
and predicted by variables reflecting training and development, job
characteristics (including the extent to which a job is challenging,
the sense of accomplishment associated with the job, the mean-
ingfulness of the work, the friendliness of co-workers, and job
security) and compensation and fairness. Job satisfaction was
correlated with the first two factors. Subramaniam et al. (2002)
found a direct and positive relationship between variables measur-
ing managers’ needs for achievement and their organizational
commitment to and use of a participatory budgeting process. Lowry
et al. (2002), drawing on a sample of 454 employees working in
registered clubs in Australia, show that job satisfaction significantly
affected organizational commitment and that formal training plans
as well as empowerment and flexible work hours were dominant
factors influencing job satisfaction. Iverson and Deery (1997) and
Silva (2006) presented empirical results showing that organizational
commitment was connected with employee turnover, as mediated
by job satisfaction. Kim et al. (2005) refined the aforementioned
statistical relationship by applying structural equation modeling.
Manageable levels of job stress should have a certain number of
positive effects on individual and/or organizational behaviors. The
most significant empirical studies in this regard were conducted by
Faulkner and Patiar (1997) and Iverson and Deery (1997). Zohar
(1994) and Brymer et al. (1991) claimed that stress included three
aspects of role conflict and ambiguity: workload, decision latitude,
and psychological stress. Faulkner and Patiar (1997) identified five
sources of the job stress suffered by front-office employees: ‘‘coping
with office politics, dealing with ambiguous situations, inadequate
guidance from superiors, under-promotion, and staff shortages’’ (p.
110). This empirical study implied that these five stressors should be
eliminated to stimulate individual adaptive behaviors. Recent
research conducted by Karatepe and Uludag (2007) with employees
of Northern Cyprus hotels found that work–family conflict did not
significantly contribute to job satisfaction or intentions to leave an
organization. Karatepe et al. (2006a,b) and Kim et al. (2009) found
that role conflict and ambiguity were significantly associated with
job satisfaction, given sex as a mediating variable. The study
conducted by Kim et al. (2007) implied that job burnout might
increase rates of employee turnover.
Employee turnover constitutes a critical issue for many
hoteliers and academics. Some hoteliers view turnover as a part
of the culture of the hospitality industry as a whole (i.e., a so-called
turnover culture). Hotel operations in Taiwan are also character-
ized by this sort of culture (Yang, 2008). Recent studies of the hotel
industry in Taiwan conducted by Yang (2008) demonstrated that
organizational socialization contributed to job satisfaction and
commitment and minimized newcomer turnover intention. This
study, applying a multiple regression analysis, showed that job
satisfaction affected affective commitment and hence influenced
turnover intentions. Yang (2009) indicated that newcomers
enjoyed observing and reading job-related information to learn
how to perform tasks, implying that organizational socialization
and job stress were correlated with job satisfaction.
1.3. Justification for and contribution of the study
Although many empirical studies have focused on issues related
to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and employee
turnover, many unanswered questions about the nature of job
satisfaction seem to remain. One such unanswered question
concerns the importance of different job factors, such as role stress
and job burnout, in determining satisfaction.
This empirical study attempts to explore the relationships among
several components of the antecedents and consequences of job
satisfaction. The main impetus for conducting this comprehensive
and holistic study derived from the need to narrow three theoretical
gaps. First, although prior studies have revealed the relationship
between antecedents (i.e., role stress, socialization, and burnout)
and consequences (i.e., organizational commitment and employee
intentions to leave an organization) and job satisfaction, few studies
have investigated the interactive effects of these variables within the
context of a more inclusive model. Second, a great deal of the
literature in the hospitality and tourism field shows a strong
relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commit-
ment, but few studies have examined this relationship by
distinguishing affective from continuance commitment. Third, no
empirical evidence about whether absenteeism mediates between
organizational commitment and intention to leave has been
presented.
This study will contribute to a growing body of research on job
satisfaction that illustrates the need to adopt a multi-faceted
approach to the study of employee turnover intentions. It will also
demonstrate the importance of considering not only the effects of
job characteristics on job satisfaction, but also the effects of job
satisfaction on organizational commitment, absenteeism, and
turnover intention.
1.4. Purpose of the study
The study focuses on interactions among employees in hotels in
Taiwan and empirically examines the effectiveness of an inte-
grated understanding of applied psychology that includes orga-
nizational socialization. The purpose of this research is to explore
(1) the effect of role stress, burnout, socialization, and work
autonomy on job satisfaction; and (2) the situational relationships
among job satisfaction, individual commitment to organizations,
absenteeism, and employee turnover intentions.
2. Hypotheses development
This study aims to recast our perspective on job satisfaction by
applying organizational theories pertaining to job stress, burnout,
 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
socialization, and work autonomy. These factors contribute to job
satisfaction, and hence to organizational effectiveness, in terms of
organizational commitment, absenteeism, and employee turnover
intentions.
2.1. Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction can be viewed as ‘‘the pleasurable emotional
state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or
facilitating the achievement of one’s job values’’ (Locke, 1969, p.
316). Early comprehensive empirical research conducted by Porter
and Steers (1973) and Muchinsky and Tuttle (1979) showed a
negative relationship between job satisfaction and employee
turnover intentions. Some studies (e.g., Steers, 1977; Wanous et al.,
1984; Lo and Lam, 2002) have found a significant relationship
between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Wil-
liams and Hazer (1986) demonstrated that job satisfaction could be
predicted by pre-employment expectations, perceived job char-
acteristics, leadership considerations, and age. Job satisfaction
significantly and positively contributed to the outcomes of
organizational commitment, which reduced employees’ intentions
to leave and subsequently resulted in decreased turnover.
Recent research on the restaurant industry conducted by Lam et
al. (2001a,b) reported that the relationship between job satisfac-
tion and job tenure fit a U-shaped model. When people entered an
organization and/or job, job satisfaction decreased when job
expectations were not met. At times, ‘‘reality shock’’ (Hughes,
1958) occurred. After such an experience, employees adjusted
their expectations according to the reality of the job. During the
course of this transition, job satisfaction increased when job-
related expectations were reached. Rayton’s (2006) empirical
research revealed that perceived levels of job reutilization and
higher levels of work involvement, pay satisfaction, managerial
support, and career opportunities were significant determinants of
employee job satisfaction.
2.2. Role stress
All employees, from senior managers to frontline personnel, can
suffer from job stress (Ross, 1997). Human resources managers
face a great challenge in attempting to ameliorate employee job
stressors (Ngo et al., 2005). Ngo et al. (2005) characterized role
stressors in terms of role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, and
work–family conflict. These stressors can lead to such personal
reactions as employee burnout, job dissatisfaction, and intentions
to leave an organization.
According to Karatepe and Sokmen (2006), role conflict refers to
situations characterized by incompatible demands in which
employees feel obliged to attend to different individuals (e.g.,
managers, colleagues, and customers) simultaneously; on the
other hand, role ambiguity also refers to the experience of not
having (or receiving) the information necessary for pursuing job-
related tasks in the workplace.
Much relevant research (e.g., Brown and Peterson, 1993; Almer
and Kaplan, 2002; Perrewe et al., 2002; Siu et al., 2002; Firth et al.,
2004; Ngo et al., 2005; Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006) has empirically
confirmed the association of a variety of work stressors, including
role ambiguity and role conflict, with lower job satisfaction,
increased job-associated tension and anxiety, less affective commit-
ment, lower work involvement, and poor job performance (Sohi,
1996; Karatepe and Sokmen, 2006), leading to intentions to resign.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 1. Role ambiguity negatively affects job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2. Role conflict negatively affects job satisfaction.
611
2.3. Burnout
Gill et al. (2006) defined burnout as ‘‘a syndrome or state of
physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion, as well as cynicism
towards one’s work in response to chronic organizational stressors’’
(p. 471). Pienaar and Willemse (2008) demonstrated that burnout
might be caused by unfair pay systems, imbalance between pay and
work-related effort, and lack of organizational support, career
advancement, and recognition by superiors. In addition, frontline
hospitality employees sometimes encounter difficult interactions
with demanding customers, and such experiences can also lead to
emotional exhaustion and/or psychological burnout.
Many empirical studies (e.g., Leiter and Maslach, 1988; Firth
and Britton, 1989; Cordes and Dougherty, 1993; Turnipseed, 1994;
Wright and Bonett, 1997; Etzion et al., 1998; Maslach and
Goldberg, 1998; Van Dierendonck et al., 1998; Gillespie et al.,
2001; Hsieh and Chao, 2004; Gill et al., 2006; Pienaar and
Willemse, 2008) have reported that burnout results in additional
negative effects on individuals, including reduced satisfaction and
lower levels of productivity. Burnout also impacts the organization
and management by eliciting employee mistrust and discouraging
teamwork. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 3. Burnout negatively affects job satisfaction.
2.4. Socialization
Louis (1980) defined socialization as ‘‘a process by which an
individual comes to appreciate the values, abilities, expected
behaviors, and social knowledge essential for assuming an
organizational role and for participating as an organizational
member’’ (pp. 229–230). Socialization aims to alleviate the feeling
of emotional vulnerability (e.g., job uncertainty, ambiguity, anxiety,
and stress) by strengthening the social interactions between
newcomers and colleagues to accelerate newcomers’ learning and
adjustment to a new environment (Kennedy and Berger, 1994).
Jones (1986), Allen and Meyer (1990), Baker (1992), and
Anakwe and Greenhaus (1999) indicated that greater socialization
was associated with higher employee job satisfaction, which in
turn resulted in greater individual commitment to the organiza-
tion and lower levels of turnover intention. The longitudinal study
conducted by Ashforth and Sak (1996) found that socialization was
positively correlated with job satisfaction, organizational commit-
ment, and organizational identification as well as negatively
associated with role ambiguity, role conflict, stress, and turnover
intentions. Consistent with the aforementioned findings, the
following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 4. Socialization positively affects job satisfaction.
2.5. Work autonomy
Work autonomy has been defined as ‘‘the desire in some
workers not to be bound by other people’s rules, by conventional
procedures, by working hours and dress codes’’ (Ross, 1997, p. 43).
A study of the nature and effectiveness of organizational climates
conducted by Ross (1997) found that role stress was significantly
positively related to job autonomy but not to overall job
satisfaction. Thus, stressful situations led to the stagnation of
individual careers. Iverson and Deery (1997) and Pizam and
Thornburg (2000) empirically showed the contribution of work-
group autonomy to employee job satisfaction, leading to the
following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 5. Work autonomy positively affects job satisfaction.
612 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
2.6. Organizational commitment
Mowday et al. (1979) defined commitment as ‘‘an active
relationship with the organization such that individuals are willing
to give something of themselves in order to contribute to the
organization’s well-being’’ (p. 226). Organizational commitment
can be divided into continuance commitment and affective
commitment (Mowday et al., 1982). Hrebiniak and Alutto
(1972) defined continuance commitment as ‘‘a structural phe-
nomenon which occurs as a result of individual–organizational
transactions and alterations in side-bets or investments over time’’
(p. 556). Mowday et al. (1982) defined affective commitment as
‘‘the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and
involvement in a particular organization’’ (p. 27).
Michaels and Spector (1982) concluded that lack of job
satisfaction and organizational commitment increased the possi-
bility for employee turnover intentions and consequently led to
increased turnover. A substantial body of research (e.g., Wong et
al., 2002; Feather and Rauter, 2004; Yao and Wang, 2006) using
Meyer and Allen’s model of organizational commitment has
reported that affective commitment is the best predictor of
individual attitudes towards job satisfaction and turnover inten-
tions and behaviors. Yao and Wang (2006) distributed ques-
tionnaires to employees of 14 high-tech companies in Beijing and
found that affective commitment was highly associated with
individual attitudes toward job satisfaction and turnover inten-
tions. The logic underlying this finding holds that that increased
organizational commitment should result in decreased employee
absenteeism and the deceleration of any intentions to leave
organizations.
On the basis of these findings, the following hypotheses are
proposed:
Hypothesis 6. Job satisfaction positively influences affective com-
mitment.
Hypothesis 7. Job satisfaction positively influences continuance
commitment.
Hypothesis 8. Affective commitment negatively influences absen-
teeism.
Hypothesis 9. Continuance commitment negatively influences
absenteeism.
Hypothesis 10. Job satisfaction negatively influences absenteeism.
2.7. Employee turnover intentions
According to Tett and Meyer (1993), turnover refers to ‘‘the
termination of an individual’s employment with a given company’’
(p. 262). They also define turnover intention as ‘‘the last in a
sequence of withdrawal cognitions, a set to which thinking of
quitting and intent to search for alternative employment also
belongs’’ (p. 262).
Beadles et al. (2000) and Watrous et al. (2006) claimed that
employee turnover might be either functional, if leavers performed
poorly, or dysfunctional, if they performed well. Employee
turnover leads to operational disruption, consequently limiting
organizational performance.
Mueller and Price (1990)’s empirical investigation of the
antecedents of the turnover intentions of nurses indicated that
job satisfaction was less strongly correlated with turnover
intention than with organizational commitment. In addition, path
analysis indicated that job satisfaction did not directly influence
turnover intentions. Herrbach et al.’s (2004) study of job
satisfaction and affective commitment used hierarchical regres-
sion analysis to reveal the mediating effect of individual attitudes
on the relationship between employee turnover intentions and
organizational image (or reputation). The results of this study are
consistent with those of previous research conducted by Ashforth
and Mael (1989), Van Knippenberg and Van Schie (2000), Smidts et
al. (2001) and Dutton et al. (1994). However, Herrbach et al.’s study
(2004) testing the moderating effect of individual attitudes on the
aforementioned relationship did not statistically confirm the
hypothesis. Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 11. Affective commitment negatively influences turn-
over intention.
Hypothesis 12. Continuance commitment negatively influences
turnover intention.
Hypothesis 13. Job satisfaction negatively influences turnover
intention.
2.8. Absenteeism
Pizam and Thornburg (2000) explored the observation that job
stress and work conditions affected individual absenteeism. The
symptomatic significance of absenteeism would seem to reflect
limited job satisfaction and hence relate to the level of voluntary
employee turnover. This observation was also reinforced by those
emerging from the study conducted by Subramaniam et al. (2002).
Autry and Daugherty (2003) conducted research on person–
organization fit and job satisfaction in warehouse employees and
revealed that job satisfaction was negatively associated with
absenteeism, turnover intentions, and withdrawal behavior, and
positively associated with training and rewards. Recently, Kur-
uuzum et al. (2008) found that higher levels of job burnout among
139 middle-level hotel managers were associated with higher
levels of absenteeism and lower levels of job satisfaction. Thus:
Hypothesis 14. Absenteeism is positively related to turnover
intention.
3. Research design
3.1. Hypothesized framework
The research model depicted in Fig. 1 postulates a relationship
among the antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction.
Despite a great deal of research on job satisfaction, considerably
less attention has been given to integrating the variables into a
coherent picture by exploring their mutually causal relationships.
In lieu of the hypothesized relationships, prior empirical studies
have noted that four contributors influence job satisfaction. First,
empirical evidence (e.g., Babin and Boles, 1996, 1998; Boyar et al.,
2003; Brashear et al., 2003; Netemeyer et al., 2004; Karatepe and
Sokmen, 2006, to name a few) has shown that greater role stress
(i.e., role ambiguity and conflict) was associated with decreased
job satisfaction, further increasing employee turnover intentions.
Second, many studies (e.g., Gill et al., 2006; Gillespie et al., 2001;
Turnipseed, 1994; Pienaar and Willemse, 2008) have indicated that
burnout influenced job satisfaction and hence negatively affected
employee absenteeism, turnover intention, and behaviors. Third, a
number of studies (e.g., Feldman et al., 1998; Klein and Weaver,
2000; Cooper-Thomas and Anderson, 2002) have shown that
organizational socialization, which enables newcomers to develop
competence and to adapt to their new roles, resulted in improved
organizational outcomes. Fourth, work autonomy has been found
to be correlated with job satisfaction (Ross, 1997).
According to Mobley (1977), Williams and Hazer (1986),
Griffeth et al. (2000) and Schyns and Croon (2006), job satisfaction
 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
Fig. 1. Hypothesized framework.
can be viewed as an antecedent of such organizational outcomes as
employee turnover. Many empirical studies have shown that the
antecedent to organizational commitment was job satisfaction
(Reichers, 1985; Mathieu and Hamel, 1989; Brown and Peterson,
1994; Kim et al., 2005; Yang, 2008, 2009) and its consequences
included lower levels of employee absenteeism and turnover
intentions (Mobley, 1977; Shaw, 1999; Reilly and Orsak, 1991; Kim
et al., 2005).
3.2. Sample design
The aforementioned hypotheses are examined by collecting
data from frontline employees in international tourist hotels in
Taiwan. According to statistics obtained from the Tourism Bureau
in Taiwan, that city had 61 international tourist hotels in 2007.
Because the size of the sample used in this study needed to be
narrowed, the focus of this investigation was limited to 11
properties that are globally managed or franchised by well-known
groups: Hyatt, Shangri-La, Westin, Four Seasons and Regent,
Sheraton, Four Points by Sheraton, Nikko, Prince, and Landis.
Questionnaires were delivered to human resources and depart-
mental managers who then distributed them to potential
respondents. However, the managers assured the author that
the respondents would be randomly chosen and the question-
naires would be completed anonymously. All levels of employees
were invited to participate in this study to collect information from
different perspectives and to enhance the statistical efficiency of
the sample. An average of 1500 survey forms was sent to each
hotel; depending on the size of the hotel, this figure represented
approximately 30% of the hotels’ full-time employees (this also
was discussed with the human resources and/or departmental
managers).
3.3. Developing the measure
The questionnaire included words commonly used in the hotel
industry and lay terms to explain theoretical concepts to minimize
the instrument’s contribution to errors. The questionnaire was
translated from English to Mandarin via the back-translation
technique (McGorry, 2000). The instrument was developed on the
basis of extant applicable and validated items (statements) using a
7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree). The questionnaire contained three sections.
Section one sought respondents’ perceptions of role conflict and
ambiguity, burnout, socialization, and work autonomy. The
measure developed by Rizzo et al. (1970) was applied to role
conflict (five items) and ambiguity (five items); for example: ‘‘I
613
have to buck a rule or policy in order to carry out an assignment;’’ ‘‘I
am certain about how I will be evaluated for a raise or promotion;’’
‘‘I work with two or more groups who operate quite differently;’’
and ‘I know exactly what is expected of me.’’ Second, the 22 items
of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey
(Maslach and Jackson, 1986) focused on individual feelings and
attitudes were used to measure burnout. Items related to
leadership included: ‘‘I feel emotionally drained from my work;’’
‘‘I feel I am working too hard on my job;’’ and ‘‘I feel fatigued when I
get up in the morning.’’ Third, socialization was measured by
adapting the measure used by Allen and Meyer (1990). Informants
responded to 10 items emphasizing relationships with co-workers.
Finally, the construct of work autonomy was measured with
Breaugh’s 8-item scale (1989), which included items such as ‘‘I
have generally been left alone to discover what my role should be;’’
‘‘I have received little guidance from experienced employees about
how I should perform my job;’’ and ‘‘My colleagues have gone out
of their way to help me adjust to working here.’’
Section two examined job satisfaction, organizational commit-
ment, absenteeism, and turnover intention. First, four items from
the measure developed by Autry and Daugherty (2003) were used
to measure job satisfaction. Representative questions included ‘‘I
feel fairly satisfied with my present job’’ and ‘‘I find real enjoyment
in my work.’’ Second, affective and continuance commitment were
measured by 16 items adapted from the measure developed by
Meyer and Allen (1984). These items are exemplified by ‘‘I talk up
this company to my friends as a great company to work for;’’ ‘‘I am
proud to tell others that I am part of this company;’’ ‘I work for the
company because it offers a good opportunity to realize my goals;’’
and ‘‘I work for the company because my job is challenging.’’ Third,
the measure of absenteeism consisted of a two-item scale
developed by Autry and Daugherty (2003): ‘‘I have been absent
from the job because I did not feel like going to work’’ and ‘‘I have
taken a day off to do something else.’’ Finally, employee turnover
intentions were measured with a three-item scale developed by
Meyer et al. (1993). Representative questions asked, ‘‘How
frequently do you think about leaving your current employer?’’
and ‘How likely is it that you will look for a job in another
organization?’’
The third section collected demographic data with respect to
sex, length of time in the current job (hotel, department), place in
the organizational hierarchy, and employment status.
4. Results
This study was designed to investigate the antecedents and
consequences of job satisfaction. The research hypotheses were
614 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619

examined using several statistical procedures: descriptive analy-
sis; reliability, validity, and correlation analyses; confirmatory
factor analysis; and an analysis of the simultaneous interrelation-
ships among variables using the linear structural relationship
(LISREL) program.
4.1. Demographic data
The survey was distributed to 1500 individuals working in
international tourist hotels in Taiwan. A total of 754 completed
surveys were returned, including 83 that were unusable. The
response rate after deducting the unusable questionnaires was
44.7%. Of the 671 respondents, 71.2% were female and 28.8% were
male. A majority (52.2%) of the respondents were 21–25 years of
age, 28.3% were 26–30 years of age, 8.3% were 18–20 years of age,
and the remainder of the sample were more than 31 years of age.
With respect to departments, the ratios for front-office, house-
keeping, restaurant service, kitchen, marketing and sales, and
administration (including human resources, finance, engineering,
etc.) were 22.3:15.9:20.7:12.8:15.1:13.2, respectively.
factor analysis by evaluating factor loadings and squared multiple
correlations. If the loading of each item was less than 0.5 (Hair et
al., 2006; Fornell and Larcker, 1981) and/or an item had dual
loadings that were less than 0.3, it was excluded from the study.
Factor loadings of all constructs in the research model were greater
than 0.7.
As expected based on the correlation matrix, Table 1 shows
weak but significant relationships among the constructs addres-
sing role ambiguity (ROLEAM), role conflict (ROLECO), socialization
(SOCIAL), and burnout and work autonomy (WKAUTO). SOCIAL
and WKAUTO were moderately and positively associated with job
satisfaction (JOBSAT), but negatively associated with ROLEAM,
ROLECO, and burnout (Burnout). JOBSAT was highly and positively
correlated with affective commitment (AffCOM) and moderately
correlated with continuance commitment (ConCOM). AffCOM and
ConCOM were weakly correlated with absenteeism (ABSENT), but
JOBSAT was moderately and negatively correlated with ABSENT.
Finally, JOBSAT and AffCOM emerged as crucial determinants of
employee intentions with regard to leaving organizations (TURN-
INT).

4.2. Reliability, validity, and correlation analyses 4.3. Evaluating model fit

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics including the means,
standard deviations, reliability, and correlations for all variables.
Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to examine reliability, which was
higher than 0.7 for the individual constructs and 0.83 for the entire
questionnaire. According to Sekaran (1984) and Spector (1992),
anything greater than 0.7 constitutes an appropriate level of
internal consistency reliability. Cronbach’s alpha values for the
individual constructs (see Table 1) were higher than 0.7. In
addition, indicator (i.e., observed variable) reliability (Bagozzi and
Phillips, 1982; Fornell and Larcker, 1981) was examined on the
basis of the standardized loadings result of square multiple
correlation (SMC) and was greater than 0.5 for each item and 0.7
for each construct. The measurement model was assessed with
respect to composite reliability (CR) and variance extracted (VE) to
evaluate the loadings for each observed indicator. Fornell and
Larcker (1981) have suggested that the CR values should be greater
than 0.6, and the standardized VE values should be greater than
0.5.
Before distribution and completion of the questionnaire, its
content validity had been examined by three managers with at
least seven years of experience in the hotel industry and by three
academics specializing in organizational behavior and/or human
resource management. The questionnaire was revised on the basis
of their comments. In addition to content validity, the construct
validity of the items comprising the constructs was assessed by
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Diagnostic indices of the CFA
showed that the measurement model was acceptable. Convergent
validity was assessed according to the results of confirmatory
The LISREL program was used to explore the relationships
among the constructs within the structural model. This study
examined two competing models; Model 1 included a mediating
variable for absenteeism, whereas model 2 excluded this variable.
This design was based on the aforementioned observation that
increased job satisfaction and organizational commitment result in
reduced employee absenteeism and intent to leave organizations.
The following five observations were made prior to the
examination of overall model fit. First, the distribution was
relatively normal. Second, construct reliability, which achieved the
level of 0.7 in this study, was acceptable. In addition, indicator (i.e.,
observed variable) reliability, which was greater than 0.5 for each
item and 0.7 for each construct (Bagozzi, 1981; Fornell and Larcker,
1981), was examined on the basis of the standardized loadings
result of SMC. Third, the measurement model was assessed with
respect to composite reliability (CR) and variance extracted (VE) to
evaluate loadings for each observed indicator. In this study, the CR
values of all constructs in the model were greater than 0.6,
indicating an appropriate level of internal consistency reliability
within all constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The average VE of
the aforementioned constructs exceeded the common acceptance
level, 0.5, indicating that more than 50% of the variance observed in
the items was explained by the hypothesized factors (Fornell and
Larcker, 1981). Fourth, convergent validity was confirmed by
investigating factor loadings and SMCs in terms of the results of
confirmatory factor analysis. Factor loadings of all constructs in the
research model were greater than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2006). Fifth,
discriminant validity was confirmed by comparing the variance

Table 1
Reliability and correlation.

Mean S.D. a X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5

X1 Role ambiguity 2.78 1.06 0.73 –

X2 Role conflict 3.37 1.16 0.86 0.20** –
X3 Burnout 5.09 0.59 0.89 0.27** 0.23** –
X4 Socialization 4.94 1.11 0.82 0.40** 0.28** 0.28** –
X5 Work autonomy 3.97 1.03 0.72 0.40** 0.16** 0.26** 0.40** –
Y1 Job satisfaction 5.24 1.17 0.89 0.46** 0.31** 0.51** 0.56** 0.436** –
Y2 Affective commitment 5.35 1.23 0.90 0.46** 0.28** 0.45** 0.54** 0.48** 0.69** –
Y3 Continuance commitment 4.17 0.79 0.92 0.30** 0.16** 0.31** 0.31** 0.25** 0.46** 0.49** –
Y4 Absenteeism 3.02 1.54 0.88 0.25** 0.27** 0.63** 0.25** 0.18** 0.45** 0.38** 0.27** –
Y5 Turnover intention 3.23 1.46 0.73 0.34** 0.29** 0.53** 0.42** 0.29** 0.68** 0.69** 0.38** 0.45** –

Note: N = 671.
**
Significant at the 0.01 level.
 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
Table 2
Overall model fit indices.
Fit indices Recommended value
2
x /df 3.00
Goodness of fit index (GFI) 0.90
Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) 0.80
Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) 0.80
Normed fit index (NFI) 0.90
Non-normed fit index (NNFI) 0.90
Comparative fit index (CFI) 0.90
Note: N = 671.
shared between factors with the average VE measures of each
individual factor. The results show that the variance shared
between factors was lower than was the average VE measures of
each individual factor. Thus, the discriminant validity was
adequate. The measurement model shows that all factors reached
an acceptable level of reliability and convergent validity, enabling
further analysis to proceed.
4.4. Measurement model
A confirmatory factor analysis using LISREL 8.52 was used to
test the measurement model (i.e., to confirm the structure of
constructs) (Hair et al., 2006). According to the diagnostic indices
(Table 2), the measurement model demonstrates a fairly good fit in
that all of its model-fit indices surpassed common acceptance
levels. This suggests that the structural model represents a good fit.
Thus, the path coefficients of the structural model can be
examined.
4.5. Structural equation model
Overall model fit was examined prior to examining the path
coefficients in the structural model. Following Hair et al. (2006),
the diagnostic indices evaluated in this study were the normed chi-
square (x2/degree of freedom), the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), the
adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), and the root mean square
error of approximation (RMSEA). Table 2 shows an adequate level
of overall model fit. These values were compared to the common
acceptance levels recommended by previous studies. Standardized
path coefficients of two competing models are illustrated in Figs. 2
and 3.
Fig. 2. Structure model 1.
615
Structural mode1 1 Structural mode1 2
2.79 2.44
0.90 0.90
0.82 0.84
0.085 0.081
0.90 0.90
0.93 0.91
0.91 0.92
Fig. 2 shows that all the endogenous variables except ROLEAM
were significantly related to the exogenous variable, JOBSAT.
Overall, 77% of the variance in JOBSAT was explained by the four
endogenous variables. JOBSAT emerged as a statistically significant
predictor of the AffCOM, ConCOM, ABSENT, and TURNINT
constructs. This indicates that job satisfaction was the most
critical variable in the organizational and managerial theory. In
addition, AffCOM and ConCOM significantly contributed to the
prediction of ABSENT, explaining 41% of the variance. Thus,
hypotheses 8–10 were accepted. The paths between TURNINT and
two variables, ConCOM and ABSENT (g = 3.15, t = 0.18, p > 0.05
and g = 0.03, t = 0.35, p > 0.05 respectively), were not statistically
significant, leading to the rejection of Hypothesis 14. The structural
model of TURNINT accounted for 69.0% of the variability, which is
highly significant.
Fig. 3, which removes the exogenous variable of ABSENT from
Model 1, illustrates a slightly different result from that presented
in Fig. 2. ConCOM showed a statistically significant influence on
TURNINT in Fig. 3 but not in Fig. 2 (g = 3.15, t = 0.18, p > 0.05). In
both Figs. 2 and 3, ROLEAM did not predict JOBSAT at a statistically
significant level (g = 0.11, t = 1.92, p > 0.05 and g = 0.11,
t = 1.85, p > 0.05, respectively).
Fig. 3 indicates that ROLECO, SOCIAL, WKAUTO, and Burnout
significantly contributed to the prediction of JOBSAT, explaining
75% of variance. Thus, Hypotheses 2–5 were accepted, and
Hypothesis 1 was rejected. The result of path coefficient analyses
show that JOBSAT explained a high 63% of the variance in AffCOM
and 21% of the variance in ConCOM. Hypotheses 6 and 7 were
supported. Overall, 62% of the variance in TURNINT was accounted
for by JOBSAT, AffCOM, and ConCOM. Therefore, Hypotheses 11–13
were confirmed.
616 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
Fig. 3. Structure model 2.
5. Discussion and recommendations
According to Murray-Gibbons and Gibbons (2007), job stress in
the hospitality industry has gradually increased during the last two
decades. The findings in this study underscore the contribution of
role conflict to lack of job satisfaction. However, in statistical
terms, role ambiguity was correlated with job satisfaction, which
might be contrary to the findings of previous studies. For example,
Grant et al. (2001) reported that role ambiguity decreased the job
satisfaction of frontline employees and thus accelerated turnover
intentions. The present study can explain this finding in terms of
the competition among international tourist hotels in the quality
of service, which renders employees extremely sensitive to
customer perceptions and expectations. More than many other
industries or segments of the hospitality industry, frontline
employees need to carefully monitor operational situations related
to quality and service, and these staff members often use
individual approaches to addressing customer needs. Thus, this
group of employees might not require a great deal of information
about how to pursue job-related tasks. In addition, differences in
national cultures might influence respondents’ perceptions about
role ambiguity with respect to operations. Also relevant in this
regard is whether international tourist hotels reflect local cultures
or a multi-national global culture.
Because role stress impedes job satisfaction, it needs to be
removed from the workplace. As negative stress accumulates,
employees experience reality shock, further affecting organiza-
tional outcomes with resultant impacts on absenteeism, intention
to leave, interpersonal difficulties, and poor performance. Role
conflict and ambiguity lead to job uncertainty, diminishing
individual creativity and exacerbating tendencies toward depres-
sion, thereby augmenting their dysfunctional effect on overall
organizational performance. This counterproductive effect on
organizational development can be diminished by implementing
a coping process. According to Pienaar and Willemse (2008), coping
refers to ‘‘cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce, or
tolerate demand’’ (p. 220). Individual learning of the ‘‘ropes,’’
organizational attempts to ameliorate individual distress, and
social support are examples of coping tactics. Job stress can be
alleviated by establishing assimilative and proactive socialization
programs (Pienaar and Willemse, 2008).
As the largest contributor to the structural equation for job
satisfaction, socialization was indeed significantly and positively
related to this key element. This finding echoes those of previous
studies (e.g., Ashforth and Sak, 1996; Anakwe and Greenhaus,
1999; Yang, 2008). In addition, this result implies that the
reduction of the negative stressors emerging during organizational
socialization, such as role ambiguity and conflict, is the respon-
sibility not only of employees, but also of organizations. Thus,
organizations need to develop effective socialization programs.
Socialization can proceed through training programs, the
development of mentorship programs, and the provision of
realistic job previews. First, training programs including orienta-
tion and on-the-job training facilitate adaptation to the work
environment and mastery of relevant tasks (Saks, 1995). Second, a
mentorship program (either formal or informal) enables employ-
ees to be guided and coached. Lam et al. (2002) noted that this
results in the reinforcement of individual commitments and
loyalties to organizations and decreases employee turnover rates.
Lo and Lam (2002) have suggest that providing mentorship for
newcomers will reinforce their commitment to the organization.
Third, realistic job previews should be provided to newcomers
during the employee selection process (Lo and Lam, 2002) so that
role shock can be minimized.
This study also found that employee burnout played as critical a
role as socialization in the development of job satisfaction,
implying that job satisfaction is doomed if burnout is not managed
well. This finding is also consistent with the existing literature
(Hsieh and Chao, 2004; Gill et al., 2006; Pienaar and Willemse,
2008). Job rotation is recommended to alleviate such sources of job
burnout as monotony and boredom with the daily operations
involved in hospitality. Indeed, job rotation is an effective approach
to diversifying skills and might decrease feelings of exhaustion and
cynicism.
The results of this study indicate that job satisfaction is a
powerful contributor to the affective commitment of individuals to
their current organizations. This might imply that the affectively
committed respondents in this study received support from their
superiors, given that Law et al. (1995) claimed that lower levels of
job satisfaction led to the reluctance of employees to approach
their superiors. This study also implies that respondents’ percep-
tion of greater psychological rewards (e.g., in terms of role clarity,
socialization practices, and work autonomy) might be a significant
determinant of employee job satisfaction. This contrasts with the
suggestion offered by McFillen et al. (1986) and Rayton (2006) that
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards determine job satisfaction. It is
important for management to identify employee needs and
expectations so that these can be considered in efforts to motivate
 J.-T. Yang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 29 (2010) 609–619
workers. By satisfying the job-related expectations of employees,
managers can reinforce workers’ attachment to their jobs and their
commitment to the organization (Steers, 1977; Williams and
Hazer, 1986).
Surprisingly, the structural equation showed that employee
absenteeism was not significantly correlated with turnover
intentions. This might appear contrary to general perceptions of
the impact of absenteeism on employee turnover intention.
However, only a limited number of empirical studies have
examined the relationship between absenteeism and employee
intentions to leave their current organizations. This study
attempted to investigate this issue in the hospitality industry
but found that absenteeism was not a significant predictor of
turnover intentions, possibly because absenteeism in this popula-
tion was not seen as an issue or was not sufficiently widespread in
this industry to impact organizational effectiveness. However, the
results show that greater job satisfaction and organizational
commitment would substantially reduce employee absenteeism in
the industry examined in the present study.
Affective commitment and job satisfaction emerged as the
predominant factors contributing to alleviating organizational
ineffectiveness (i.e., employee turnover intention). This is con-
sistent with previous research (e.g., Babakus et al., 1999; Karatepe
et al., 2006a,b) and reinforces evidence that lack of job satisfaction
and organizational commitment are negatively related to
employee turnover intentions in the modern hotel industry. This
implies that hoteliers need to heed such findings as well as attend
to the antecedents of role conflict, job burnout, socialization, and
work autonomy.
6. Conclusion
This study sought to provide academic researchers and
managers with evidence of the antecedents and consequences of
job satisfaction, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive
theory of organization and management in the hospitality field in
particular. This study examined the effects of four factors (i.e., role
conflict, burnout, socialization, and work autonomy) on job
satisfaction and explored the relationships among job satisfaction,
affective and continuance commitment, and employee turnover
intentions. Surprisingly, employee absenteeism did not emerge as
a mediating variable affecting intention to leave an organization,
even though the empirical evidence supported the premise that
high levels of job satisfaction were associated with decreased
absenteeism. In conclusion, individual job satisfaction is strength-
ened by diminishing stress and alleviating job burnout through
training, mentorship, and realistic job previews offered in the
context of socialization processes and encouraging work-related
autonomy. This study therefore contributes significantly to
understanding the psychological outcomes associated with
organizational effectiveness (i.e., greater affective and continuance
commitment and lower employee turnover intentions).
7. Implications
This study enriches the literature by providing empirical
evidence of the antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction
in the hotel industry.
7.1. Toward a theory of job satisfaction
Although job satisfaction has been the subject of many papers,
it is rarely defined in a systematic way. The present study
contributes to the literature not only by providing empirical
support for the frequently hypothesized contributions of role
stressors, work autonomy, socialization, and organizational
617
commitment to turnover intention, but also by offering a
systematic theory of organization. According to this theory, job
satisfaction is a function of organizational commitment, which is
itself an outcome of turnover intention. Organizational commit-
ment additionally involves systems that increase individuals’
participation in a specific organization. Turnover intention is seen
as a function of individual psychological reactions to a job. Finally,
individual propensities to be satisfied in a job are viewed as
dependent on role demand, job uncertainty, feelings of exhaustion
and cynicism, participation in socialization, and attitudes towards
autonomy in the workgroup. The foregoing suggests that effective
human resources practices directly influence employee job
satisfaction, intentions to stay, organizational commitment, and
consequently, organizational effectiveness.
7.2. Management practices
Because the environment of the hospitality industry is
characterized by competitiveness and diversity, reinforcing the
job satisfaction experienced by employees constitutes a crucial
component of maintaining a high level of customer service.
Implementation of an effort to reinforce job satisfaction requires a
multi-faceted approach. This study suggests that it might behoove
hoteliers to devote greater effort to organizational socialization
processes such as mentoring and (in)formal social activities. It is
equally important to develop a workplace conducive to autonomy
within work groups. This study also implies that effective
communication might alleviate role stress and job burnout. Such
communication can be viewed as one medium through which
organizational socialization is achieved (Law et al., 1995; Young
and Lundberg, 1996; Iverson and Deery, 1997).
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