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Vedic Religion
Vedic Deities
Of the various deities to whom hymns are ad-
dressed in the Ṛg Veda Saṃhitā, Agni (Fire) and
Indra (God of Storms and Lightning) each receive
about 200 hymns, suggesting their high status
among the gods of the Āryan pantheon. There
are hymns to Sūrya (the Sun), Dyaus-pitṛ (God of Bronze mask of the deity Indra, recognized by his horizon-
the Heavens), Vāyu (the Wind), and Varuṇa (God tally positioned third-eye (National Museum, Patan, Nepal).
The Upaniṣads
The oldest Upaniṣads, which may have been
composed as early as the eighth century CE, are
appended to the Āraṇyakas or partially embed-
ded within them. There are as many as eighteen
An ascetic in a deeply forested isolated meditation retreat principal Upaniṣads, “principal” because they are
(Madhya Pradesh). appended to the previously mentioned genres of
held to be dangerous and to be studied in secret Vedic literature, namely the Vedic Saṃhitās, the
while adhering to an ascetic lifestyle. As such, Brāhmaṇas, and the Araṇyakas. Of these eigh-
they are eventually associated with the forest- teen, the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaṇisad (attached
dweller (vanaprastha) stage of life prescribed by to the White Yajur Veda) and the Chāndogya
orthodoxy. However, the concerns of the texts Upaniṣad (attached to the Sāma Veda) are the
may actually derive from the ritual practices of earliest, and composed in Vedic Sanskrit prose.
nomadic warriors who herded cattle and dwelt The expression Vedānta is often used when re-
apart from village communities. The Āraṇyakas ferring to the Upaniṣads and their teachings,
emphasize symbolic speculation on the nature since they form “the end or concluding sections
of rituals rather than exclusive attention to the (anta) of revealed Vedic literature.” Other prin-
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cipal Upaniṣads include the Īśa, Śvetāśvatara,
Kena, Kaṭha, Jābāla, and Māṇḍukya Upaniṣads.
They appear to have been composed in subse-
quent centuries, some in verse, and others in
classical Sanskrit prose. There are over a hun-
dred other “lesser Upaniṣads,” some of which
were composed only a few hundred years ago.
These reflect the concerns of specific philosophi-
cal schools, such as those of Sāṅkhya or Yoga,
or have sectarian orientations towards particular
deities, such as Śiva or Viṣṇu.
Actually, tradition holds that any text with se- A father acting as guru, teaches his son how to recite a
cret teachings is an Upaniṣad, but scholars clas- Sanskrit scripture, evoking the Upaniṣadic style of sitting
next to one’s teacher.
sify them according to their style and thematic
content. The term “upaniṣad” is said to derive become a cornerstone of the Indian philosophi-
from the classic image of a student sitting (ṣad) cal tradition that subsequently develops.
down (ni) beside (upa) a spiritual mentor. The The primary concern of the Upaniṣads is with
format of many of the Upaniṣads reflects this ter- the nature of Absolute Reality (Brahman), the true
minology since they are framed as conversations nature of the individual self (ātman), and the re-
between a disciple (śiṣya) and teacher (guru). lationship between Brahman and Ātman. This fo-
Although there are considerable variations in cus reflects a trend prefigured in the Āraṇyakas,
the content of the Upaniṣads, they are generally to uncover an underlying principle of coherence
classified as texts of speculative philosophy, and that unifies the apparent diversity of the created
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world. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, which bridg- sacrificial fire (I.2.7). The implication is that what
es the two genres of Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣad, ex- appears to unskilled eyes as merely the immola-
emplifies this in its cosmological interpretation of tion of an animal, to those who have the insight
the Vedic horse sacrifice (aśvamedha). What is to recognize it, is “verily” (vai) the revelation of a
significant is not the performance of the rite, but mystery. A hidden power, the veritable source of
an intuitive grasp of the relationships that connect all “selves” in creation, took up form in the par-
particulars from the realm of human ritual action ticular manifestation of the sacrificial animal. In
to the fullness of the universe. So, the Upaniṣadic the act of sacrifice, the particular form of the hid-
sage proclaims that Dawn itself, both the goddess den power is released, and reunited with itself.
in Vedic myth and the natural phenomenon, is the Those who realize this truth become one with
head of the sacrificial horse. So, too, the Sun is that power and transcend the realms of life and
the horse’s eye; the wind, his breath; the sacrifi- death. Generally, the Upaniṣadic sages refer to
cial fire, his open mouth; the seasons, his limbs; that unseen power, principle, or reality as Brah-
the stars, his bones; plants and trees, his hair, man or the Self (ātman).
and so on. When the horse shakes himself, there
is thunder; when he urinates, it rains; and Speech Ātman and Brahman
itself is his voice (Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad I.1.1).
Thus the pantheon of Vedic deities, and their cor- The word “brahman” originally referred to a hal-
responding natural phenomena, are united and lowed power within the sacred utterances (mantra)
symbolically interpreted as parts of a unity. In of the Vedic ṛṣis, but by the time of the Upaniṣads
this case that unity is the sacrifice, again under- was used to signify ultimate reality itself. This is
stood as a whole, comprising both the sacrificial not to say that the Upaniṣads as a whole are con-
offering (i.e., the horse and his faculties) and the sistent in the way they depict Brahman. Vedānta
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philosophy, for instance, which is rooted in inter- although one, appears to have manifold forms.
preting the teachings of the Upaniṣads, has pro- Only the wise, who recognize the Supreme Lord
duced an assortment of schools that reflect the (i.e., Brahman) within themselves, attain eternal
variations in Upaniṣadic depictions of the nature joy (Katha Upaniṣad II. ii. 12). The Bṛhadāraṇyaka
of Brahman. Brahman can represent the under- Upaniṣad (I.4.10) also presents this perspective
lying essence of the material world. Brahman is when it points out that whoever knows “I am
mostly unseen, hidden to the senses, and even Brahman” (aham brahmāsmi) becomes all of re-
to rational thought. The Upaniṣads depict Brah- ality. Not even the gods can prevent it, for that
man as supreme (parā-brahman), and it is also person is then the very Self (ātman) of the gods.
designated as Nirguṇa Brahman (Brahman be- However, the gods are displeased with this for
yond attributes) and as Saguṇa Brahman (Brah- such an individual is freed from serving them.
man that can be characterized). Just as animals serve human beings, so too those
Brahman is consistently identified as intrin- who do not know the Self, serve the gods.
sically connected to the innermost being of all In the Chāndogya Upanisad (Chapter Four),
things in existence, including our selves. Thus a young man named Śvetaketu is instructed by
the Self (ātman) is often used as a synonym for his father Uddālaka Āruṇi in the knowledge that
Brahman, with which it is identified. In the Katha he did not receive despite 12 years of conven-
Upaniṣad, for example, the youth Naciketas con- tional Vedic education. Although he was proud
sults the Lord of Death, Yama, on the question of and arrogant, thinking himself to be well edu-
whether anything endures beyond the death of cated, Śvetaketu was surprised to discover that
one’s body. Yama delivers a teaching on Brahman he did not learn how that which is unperceived
and Atman, pointing out that the Supreme Lord may be perceived, and how the unknowable may
is the innermost Self (ātman) of all beings, who be known. Uddālaka explains to his son that just
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as a close examination of a pair of nail scissors appear to be different even though their source
can lead one to discover that it is actually made and destination is the ocean, so too creatures
of iron, discovering the underlying essence of imagine themselves to be separate beings, un-
seemingly diverse particular things is a vital be- aware of their true source in Being. Just as a tree
ginning. By knowing iron, one may then know the does not die when one of its branches is cut, the
nature of all things made of iron, since the partic- Self does not die, he explains, when the body
ular form that it takes is simply linked to a word dies. Asking Śvetaketu to break apart the tiny
that names it. Although this verbal designation seed of a fig (nyagrodha) tree, Uddālaka demon-
appears to give it a distinct existence, in fact it is strates that there is virtually nothing visible re-
really still just iron. So too, when the underlying maining, and yet the majestic tree exists precisely
essence of all things is known, all things that de- because of that subtle essence within the seed.
rive from that underlying essence may be known. Asking Śvetaketu to sip salt water from a glass
That underlying essence, Uddālaka calls Being, repeatedly, his father illustrates how, although
only one reality, without any other. All the various the salt is invisible, it permeates the water thor-
manifestations of the cosmos, Uddālaka explains, oughly. So too, he explains, the Self is not per-
from fire to water to plant life and the myriad ceived, although it is everywhere. Uddālaka em-
creatures in existence, from a lion to a mosqui- phasizes that finding a spiritual teacher enables
to, have their root in Being, have Being as their one to recognize their predicament of bondage
abode, and Being as their support. The whole to ignorance until they fully realize the Self.
world has this subtle essence as its Self. His fa-
ther exclaims, “That is the True. That is the Self Śruti and Smṛti
(ātman). That is You (tat tvam asi), Śvetaketu.” The four genres of Vedic literature that are ap-
Uddālaka further explains that just as rivers pended to each other, namely the Saṃhitas,
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Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upaniṣads, are col- das were originally regarded as śruti, with the
lectively regarded as śruti. The term śruti, derives Atharva Veda only becoming a later addition to
from the Sanskrit verbal root “śru,” to hear. It is the category. Similarly, subsequent religious lit-
intended to evoke the idea that the contents of erature often strives to be included in the sacro-
these texts were divinely perceived (i.e., heard) sanct, revealed category. The Mahābharata epic,
or revealed to the ṛṣis. Thus the authorship of for instance, lays claim to being a fifth Veda,
this literature is purported to be some greater although this claim is not taken very seriously.
unseen power, channeled through the semi-di- However, the Bhagavad-gītā, which is part of the
vine perceivers (ṛṣi) with whom their teachings Mahābhārata, enjoys a remarkable authority and
are associated. All other religious literature is sanctity among contemporary Hindus, giving it
classified as smṛti, which derives from the San- the status of śruti in all but its official designation.
skrit verbal root “smṛ,” to remember. Thus smṛti Some Hindus would like to deem it an Upaniṣad
is literature that is held to have been composed to include it within the category of śruti.
by human beings and passed down as tradition And while the Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas enjoy
through the generations. Śruti and smṛti set up a the prestige of being śruti, their content is little
dichotomy between “revealed” and “traditional” understood by most Hindus and has marginal im-
religious literature, granting a special status and pact on their religious lives. The so-called “lesser
authority to what are loosely called the Vedas, Upaniṣads” could arguably be categorized as ei-
the Veda, or Vedic scripture. ther śruti or smṛti. The influence and authority of
Despite the distinction between śruti and some of these “lesser Upanisads” is greater on
smṛti, the categories are somewhat permeable. particular Hindu sects than the so-called “princi-
For instance, we note that for certain ortho- pal Upaniṣads.” An early classification scheme,
dox groups, only the Ṛg, Sāma, and Yajur Ve- found in a Dharma Sūtra text, claims that there
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are both Vedic and Tantric (or Āgamic) śrutis. However, despite being part of the written tradi-
This would appear to be reasonable, since the tion for centuries, particular families of Brahmins
Tantras and Āgamas have been arguably even have maintained the tradition of memorizing and
more influential in the fabric of Hinduism than reciting the Vedas. The Upaniṣads were only ren-
the Vedas. However, orthodoxy does not accept dered into written Latin in the early 19th century
Āgamic scripture as śruti. Thus while the conven- from 17th century Persian translations.
tional designation of śruti is a telling hallmark of
orthodoxy, smṛti literature plays no less of a role Other Vedic literature
in shaping the religious lives of Hindus. By the fifth century BCE, a variety of texts had
A significant feature of sacredness relates developed that were classified as primary and
to whether or not a text is transmitted orally secondary appendages (aṅga) to the Vedas. The
or in writing. Although we now tend to think of primary appendages are called the Vedāṅgas
“texts” as written objects, prior to the advent of and the secondary ones are the Upāṅgas. These
writing texts were memorized and transmitted appendages developed as adjuncts to the knowl-
orally. Śruti literature continues to be transmit- edge (veda) deemed necessary for the priestly
ted orally because committing it to writing is re- class, or were aids for the performance of priest-
garded as diminishing its sacredness. This does ly duties. They are often composed in the form
not mean that the Vedas were never written of sūtras (aphoristic verses). There are six cate-
down. The Brahmin scholar Sāyaṇa wrote valu- gories of Vedāṅgas. These are: 1) Śikṣā, literally,
able commentaries on the Vedic Saṃhitās and “instruction,” in the rules for proper pronuncia-
other Vedic literature in the 14th century, and tion of the Veda; 2) Vyākaraṇa, or “grammatical
many scholars think that written versions of the analysis,” such as the works of Pāṇini; 3) Chan-
Vedas may have existed by the 3rd century BCE. das or “prosody,” which explain the various me-
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ters used in Vedic recitation; 4) Nirukta, or “lexi- aligned with the cosmic order (i.e., dharmic).
con” of the meanings of Vedic terms, such as
that by Yākṣa; 5) Jyotiṣa, or “astrology”; and 6) Astrology
Kalpa, or explanations on ritual action. The Kalpa Astrology has played a significant role in Hindu
literature, or Kalpa Sūtras, followed the division- life from Vedic times, when its study was regard-
al scheme of the four Vedas and were append- ed as supplementary to the Vedas themselves.
ed to them. Thus the Kalpa Sūtras attached to The study of luminaries ( jyotiṣa) in the heavens
the Sāma Veda would be studied by Sāma Veda was deemed vital for determining the appropri-
Brahmins. Each Kalpa Sūtra has four parts: 1) ate times for conducting rituals. The celestial
Śrauta Sūtras, which dealt with elaborate public forces are known as graha, literally “graspers,”
rites; 2) Gṛhya Sūtras, dealing with life cycle rites semi-divine forces that affect human activities.
(saṃskāra) and household rituals; 3) Dharma The nine grahas or nava-graha are: Sūrya (the
Sūtras, on moral prescriptions for householders; Sun), Candra (the Moon), Maṅgala (Mars), Budha
and 4) Śulva Sūtras, concerning the measure- (Mercury), Guru or Bṛhaspati (Jupiter), Śukra (Ve-
ment and construction of ritual spaces, demon- nus), Śani (Saturn), and Rāhu and Ketu (North
strating aspects of early mathematical sciences. and South nodes of the moon, related to the
The Upāṅgas are traditionally grouped as fol- points where the lunar orbit intersects the solar
lows: 1) Purāṇa, or “antiquities,” which are myth- ecliptic). Rāhu and Ketu are thus not “planets”
ological texts with pseudo-historical content; 2) or even heavenly bodies like the Sun and Moon,
Nyāya, or treatises on “logic”; 3) Mīmāṃsā, which but astronomical points in space. When the Sun
refers to textual interpretation or “investigation” and the Moon simultaneously fall on Rāhu and
of the Vedas; and 4) Dharma Śāstra, or the co- Ketu a solar or lunar eclipse occurs. This exem-
dices on behavior regarded as appropriate and plifies the grasping power of these celestial phe-
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nomena, which periodically “swallow” the Sun or tion to shriek at the heavens to repel the demon
the Moon. Like Western astrology, Hindu astrol- from his act of revenge.
ogy recognizes the same 12 signs of the Zodiac. Rāhu and Ketu stand as an example that
However, it adds a system of 24 lunar mansions challenges the simplistic application of scholarly
(nakṣatra), which enriches the sophistication of categories in the study of religious phenomena.
its interpretations. Hinduism is replete with such phenomena. For
A Hindu myth, widespread across many parts one, Rāhu and Ketu belong to a branch of Hin-
of Asia, tells how the gods and demons cooper- duism, astrology, which many would not classify
ated briefly to churn the ocean of milk and ex- as traditionally “religious.” But the grahas form a
tract “nectar of immortality.” The gods were the vibrant component of Hindu religion. Many Hindu
first to drink of this nectar, but a demon dis- temples have nava-graha shrines, which receive
guised himself as a god and sat among them. regular attention, particularly on Tuesdays and
Just as he sipped the nectar, the Sun and the Saturdays. Tuesday is said to be ruled by Mars,
Moon, between whom he was seated discovered and Saturday by Saturn, both of which, like Rāhu
his disguise. Viṣṇu immediately hurled his discus and Ketu, are pernicious grahas. Offerings are
and severed the demon in two. Unfortunately, made to the grahas, and other deities may also
it was too late, for he had tasted the elixir of be worshipped to solicit their aid in warding off
immortality. His fierce, four-armed upper part is inauspicious planetary influences. Auspicious-
Rāhu, and his dragon-tailed lower half is Ketu. ness and inauspiciousness are weighty catego-
Burning with anger and thirsting for vengeance, ries in many spheres of Hindu belief. Astrological
Rāhu and Ketu tries to devour the Sun and Moon considerations play an important role in deter-
whenever they come near, leading to partial or mining the appropriate periods in the year for
total eclipses. During eclipses, it is still a tradi- weddings and times in the day that are most
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auspicious for the performance of religious ritu- ancient, and coexists with its mythic exposition.
als. Astrological charts are routinely consulted Immature studies by outsiders have often failed
when determining whether marriageable part- to penetrate the complex layers and multiplicity
ners are suitable. Hindu astrology is also closely of meanings embedded in the symbols of the
paired with gemology, the fabrication of jewelry, Hindu tradition. It is instructive to remind our-
and the bodily sciences. For instance, an astrolo- selves of this in our exploration of Hinduism.
ger might prescribe wearing a necklace made of
crystal beads or a ruby set in a silver ring placed Āyurveda
on a particular finger of a particular hand in or- The traditional Hindu knowledge (veda) of life
der to circumvent inauspicious influences. (āyus), forms a body of literature sometimes
Rāhu and Ketu also demonstrate that jyotiṣa classified as an Upaveda, a supplement to the
includes the science of astronomy, for their “po- Vedas. Other Upavedas include treatises on the
sitions” are not based on visible heavenly bodies, fine arts and music, on politics, and warcraft.
but on mathematical calculations grounded in as- Āyurvedic medicine is still widely practiced in In-
tronomical observations. Furthermore, the tales dia today, alongside with modern Western-styled
of the demons reflects a juxtaposition of astro- medicine. The three most highly regarded clas-
nomical science and mythic creativity. It is naïve sical texts of Āyurveda are the Caraka Saṃhitā,
to suggest that the mythic tale of Rāhu and Ketu the Suśruta Saṃhitā, and the Vāgbhaṭa Saṃhitā,
reflects a pre-scientific explanation of a natural each named after the physician-sages who codi-
phenomenon, which should disappear with the fied the teachings of ancient ṛṣis that are be-
“real” understanding of what was “actually” oc- lieved to have been originally transmitted from
curring during an eclipse. It is evident that the the gods. The works themselves date from the
“scientific” understanding of the phenomenon is 1st to the 7th centuries CE, but certainly are
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based on medical knowledge from preceding cooling, slimy, and rough substances. The three
centuries. guṇas are associated with the Sāṅkhya school of
Āyurveda differs from the host of other re- Indian philosophy. In its theories of matter and
gional and folk healing methods because it is atoms, Āyurveda also draws upon concepts de-
grounded in a complex philosophy and theory rived from Vaiśeṣika philosophy.
of bodily science. Illness (roga, vyādhi) is typi- A person’s bodily constitution is primarily
cally believed to be caused by an imbalance of categorized according to the doṣa that is domi-
humors of the body. There are three humors nant, although most people’s constitutions are
(tri-doṣa): phlegm (kapha), bile (pitta), and wind combinations of all three. Since the vāta or vāyu
(vāta), associated with the water, fire, and air doṣa (the air/wind humor) is believed to control
elements respectively. The Āyurvedic approach breathing, expulsion of wastes, and the move-
to healing consists in diagnosing which of the ment of thoughts, an imbalance can lead to wor-
humors are out of balance and then prescrib- ries and insomnia, or constipation. And because
ing primarily herbal medicine or dietary changes the kapha doṣa (the water/phlegm humor) is as-
to restore the balance. The study of Āyurveda sociated with bodily fluids, an excess can pro-
therefore requires an understanding of the var- duce congestion, or laziness. The pitta dosa (the
ious qualities (guṇa) inherent in substances in fire/bile humor) is believed responsible for diges-
the body (e.g., blood, bone, fat) and the created tion; thus imbalances can produce indigestion
world. While there are three fundamental guṇas, and ulcers.
there are twenty subcategories of these. The Internal imbalances are believed to be trig-
fundamental guṇas are the sattva (pure, lumi- gered by external causes, and Āyurveda also
nous), rajas (energetic), and tamas (dark, heavy). incorporates diagnoses based on pernicious
Among the subcategories are heat-producing, agents such as poisons (e.g., snake bites), injury,
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and affliction by a wide range of spirits (bhūta), Key Points in this Chapter
particularly for psychological illnesses. Besides
dietary modifications, treatments include surgi- • The Vedic Saṃhitās are the most esteemed
cal procedures, massage, fumigation, enemas, literary works of the Āryans.
baths and sweating. The preparation and wear- • The Atharva Veda contains hundreds of
ing of amulets, recitation of sacred phrases, and original hymns dealing with an assortment
of topics with differing concerns from the
the performance of special rituals are also among
other three Saṃhitās.
its therapeutic prescriptions.
• Some scholars speculate that most Vedic
Physicians and patients who are exploring ap- deities are male due to an Āryan patriarchal
proaches to healing beyond those convention- social structure.
ally associated with modern Western medicine • Indologist Max Müller speculated on the ori-
have been turning to some aspects of Āyurveda. gin of religion. However, such speculation is
A well-known current exemplar is Deepak Cho- currently unpopular due to lack of evidence
pra, whose teachings on psycho-physical health to support such theorizing.
combine non-dualistic Vedānta philosophical • The “cosmic order” was important to Āryan
perspectives with Āyurveda and Western medi- civilization, as was the degree to which all
cine. Various Indian institutions such as Banāras aspects of life were aligned with it.
Hindu University have been offering accredited • Sacrificial rites (yajña) were elevated in the
degrees in Āyurveda. Brāhmaṇas to an importance that surpassed
the gods, for it was believed that yajña itself
maintained the cosmic order.
• Tradition holds that any text with secret
teachings is an Upaniṣad. The Āraṇyakas,
Texts in Sanskrit
Ṛg Veda
Yajur Veda
Taittirīya Āraṇyaka
The Upaniṣads