Solar White-Paper Part3 10

Solar Energy and Steam for Small Turbines and Engines
Junk Yard Mechanics at its Best Series

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If you can make steam, you can make electricity.
MAKING STEAM FROM
SOLAR ENERGY
for
Small Steam Turbines and Engines
Part 3
Steam Safety
And
Introduction to the
Small Steam Turbine System
February 6, 2010
By
Robert Saunders
nwwpa@yahoo.com
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Copyright 2008, 2009, 2010 Robert D. Saunders Page 1 of 23
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Quotation:
“Steam is no stronger now than it was a hundred years ago but it is put to better
use”
Ralph Waldo Emerson quotes (American Poet, Lecturer and Essayist, 1803-1882)
http://thinkexist.com/quotes/with/keyword/steam/
Preface
This paper is related to an article entitled Slotted Disc Turbine Concepts, originally
published on the following website:
www.green-trust.org/steamturbine/steamturbine.htm
Caution. When steam is contained, as in a boiler or vessel, it can be very

powerful but tame, and when it gets loose it can become very very dangerous,
like a proverbial dragon.
Anyone familiar with, or who has ever worked in, a power plant has a very great respect
for two things; high voltage electricity and high pressure superheated steam. When a
leak develops in a superheated part of a boiler the resulting sound can be deafening, but
the location of the leak may not be easily discernable because superheated steam is not
visible. It can be difficult to know exactly where the leak is located.
At one time, when a mechanic needed to locate a leak he would approach the area
waving a wooden broom handle in front of him and when the handle got cut in half he
knew he had located the leak. Such a leak can begin with a pin-hole in a steel housing
that can quickly erode into a much larger hole, and that can be very dangerous.
The following articles are referenced here for readers who have not yet read Parts 1 and 2
of this series of articles:
www.green-trust.org/steamturbine/Solar_White%20Paper_Part%201.pdf
www.green-trust.org/steamturbine/Solar_White%20Paper_Part2_03.pdf
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1 Introduction..................................................................................................4
1.1 Making Hot Water..................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Making and Using Steam........................................................................................................................5
2 Steam safety.................................................................................................5
2.1 Boilers.....................................................................................................................................................5
2.1.1 The Mono-tube, Multi-tube and the Pressure Vessel Boiler...........................................................6
2.1.2 Steam Radiators, Home Heating and CHP Systems........................................................................7
2.1.3 Boiler Safety and Codes. ...............................................................................................................7
2.2 Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Components..................................................................................8
3 Introduction to the Small Steam Turbine System........................................8
3.1 The Closed Loop Steam Turbine System...............................................................................................9
3.1.1 The Cold Water Supply.................................................................................................................10
3.1.2 The Hot Water Supply Tank..........................................................................................................10
3.1.3 The Boiler and the Steam Generator.............................................................................................11
3.1.3.1 Dangers from a Boiler Failure................................................................................................11
3.1.3.2 Boiler Water Level.................................................................................................................11
3.1.4 The Super-heater............................................................................................................................12
3.1.5 The Boiler Feed Pump...................................................................................................................12
3.1.6 The Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)..................................................................................................12
3.1.7 The Turbine...................................................................................................................................13
3.1.7.1 Estimating Turbine Thermal Efficiency.................................................................................13
3.1.7.2 Other Steam Turbine Efficiency Concepts.............................................................................14
3.1.8 The Condenser...............................................................................................................................14
3.1.8.1 Using the Exhaust Heat..........................................................................................................15
3.1.9 The Steam By-Pass Valve.............................................................................................................15
3.1.9.1 The Water By-Pass Valve.......................................................................................................15
3.1.10 The Purge Control Valve.............................................................................................................16
3.1.11 The Alternator and Generator Head............................................................................................16
3.1.12 The Controls................................................................................................................................18
3.1.13 Controls and Safety Devices for Small Systems.........................................................................18
4 An Example: Making Steam for 10 kW.....................................................19
4.1.1 Calculate Water Rate and Heat Needs Using 25% Thermal Efficiency........................................20
4.1.1.1 Physical Size Estimate for a 10 kW Solar Collector..............................................................21
4.1.1.2 Exhaust Steam Conditions......................................................................................................21
4.1.2 Calculate Water Rate and Heat Needs Using 100% Thermal Efficiency......................................22
5 Summary of Part 3......................................................................................23
5.1 Preview of Part 4..................................................................................................................................23
5.2 Notes to the reader:...............................................................................................................................23
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1 Introduction.
The purpose of this paper is to offer useful information for those readers considering or
planning to build a solar steam driven turbo-generator using a satellite parabolic reflector
or a series of trough reflectors. In review, Parts 1 and 2 provide some concepts about heat
and a few simple calculations to estimate the amount of useful energy that can be
collected from the sun and converted to steam. To determine the needs of the reader
consider and answer these questions:
• How much energy is available from the sun in your latitude?

• How much energy do you need?
• What happens when the sun doesn’t shine?
• How much energy can you collect from the sun?
• How long does it take?
• How are you going to convert the energy to useful heat or work?
• How much will it cost?
• How much will you save?
There is a widespread misconception of what solar power is all about and how a solar
collector collects and concentrates energy. The first rule to remember is:
Concentrating solar heat does not increase the amount of energy collected.
It only squeezes that energy into a smaller space, as may be indicated by a rise in
temperature. This can be demonstrated when a magnifying glass is used to ignite some
flammable material. In this case, radiated energy from the sun is concentrated by
focusing the sun’s rays on a small spot where it is absorbed and converted to heat energy,
thus raising the temperature of the material receiving the energy to the point where it
ignites. The amount of energy available across the surface of a parabolic collector is
fixed at any point in time and does not change regardless of the resulting temperature at
the focal point of the collector.
As an example, consider the following. The power density of solar energy at certain
locations on the surface of the earth is one kilowatt per square meter (1 kW/m^2). A
round three-meter parabolic reflector has a cross section area of about 7 square meters
facing the sun and therefore can collect about seven kilowatts (seven kilowatt-hours per
hour, 7kWh/h), but only intermittently at best. Solar energy is only available when the
sun shines, depending on location, season of the year, local weather and time of day.
Solar energy is by nature only available on an intermittent basis, but it can be stored, e.g.,
in a battery or by other means, for use at a later time.
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1.1 Making Hot Water.
If the objective is to heat water, e.g., for domestic purposes, consider the following. In a
day of bright sunshine, a 3-meter concentrator might collect 23,884 Btu per hour, or
approximately 250,000 Btu per day. That is enough heat to raise the temperature of
approximately 300 gallons of water from 40 degrees F to 140 degrees F. Alternatively,
less water can be heated to a higher temperature. If stored in an insulated tank, that
would be sufficient for most home hot water needs. However, such systems are not very
efficient. If the overall efficiency of the system is 50%, the result would be only 150
gallons of hot water. This is still sufficient for many homes and if more water is needed,
two concentrators can be connected in parallel. If water at a higher temperature is
needed, additional concentrators can be added in series.
1.2 Making and Using Steam.
Making steam to drive a turbine or engine is a bit more complicated than just boiling
water. The steam at the intake to the turbine must be superheated, dry, hot enough, and
under high enough pressure to be able to convert heat energy to mechanical energy
sufficient to overcome the resistance of the turbine or engine load. If steam is made using
a single solar concentrator, and used directly to drive a steam turbine or engine with an
overall system efficiency of 25%, the maximum output power of the turbine or engine is
about 1.75 kilowatts.
Note. The exhaust steam must remain superheated and dry and never reach the
saturation level. Wet steam can result in severe damage to a turbine or to a steam
engine.
2 Steam safety.
2.1 Boilers.
For purposes of this discussion a boiler is defined as any closed container in which water
is boiled. Most boilers use either pressure vessels or tubes in which water is boiled, or a
combination of both.
Where a satellite dish is used to collect and concentrate solar energy, a pressure vessel
that forms the boiler is located at the focal point of the parabolic surface. In the case of a
parabolic trough, a tube running along the middle of the reflector, inside which water is
boiled, is the boiler portion of that solar concentrator. In either case, the device at the
focal point or foci is commonly referred to as a receiver.
In all cases where a boiler is in operation, there is pressure in the system. The amount of
pressure depends on several factors, but temperature is arguably the most important.
Also important is the volume of the portion of the boiler that contains the steam. Where
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water is boiled to make steam, the combination of the volume, the pressure and the
temperature together defines the amount of energy contained in the steam within the
boiler. Boilers that make superheated steam require a separate super-heater section to
raise the steam temperature.
At the risk of oversimplification and for purposes of this discussion, according to

Charles’ Law, the following relationship exists between pressure, volume and
temperature for an ideal gas. In a closed vessel with a given volume, V, and a given
weight of gas, the absolute pressure of a gas is proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas:
P1/P2 = T1/T2
Where T is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and T’ is the temperature as

measured in degrees Fahrenheit:
T = T‘ + 460
For more on the Ideal Gas Law see the following website:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law
The operating size of a boiler is usually measured by its output in terms of lbs/hr, tons/hr,
Horsepower, etc. The following website further explores boiler topics:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire-tube_boiler
Note: Any reader even thinking about building or installing a boiler in a dwelling
is urged to check local, county, state and federal regulations before doing
anything else. Otherwise a local expert or inspector should be consulted first.
2.1.1 The Mono-tube, Multi-tube and the Pressure Vessel Boiler.
While almost all steam boilers are made up of tubes and headers, it is possible to create a
boiler from a single pressurized container. A mono-tube boiler suggests a boiler
containing a coil made from a single tube. A multi-tube boiler suggests a number of
tubes connected in parallel between plates or headers.
The old fashioned pressure cooker with a weight mounted on its top to act as a pressure
relief valve is an example of a boiler consisting of a single pressure vessel. Although the
pressure cooker has been widely replaced by the much safer microwave oven, it is still
used in some homes because of its efficiency and ease of use.
When a pressure vessel fails, there is often an explosion in which all the contained energy
is almost instantaneously released with resultant collateral damage. When a coil or tube
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fails, there is a relatively gradual release of energy and much less chance for an explosion
resulting in collateral damage.
Note. For a number of case studies of steam turbine accidents, the reader is
encouraged to search google for steam turbine accidents.
2.1.2 Steam Radiators, Home Heating and CHP Systems.
The discussion and links in this section are not directly related to steam turbines, but
might be valuable to the reader contemplating building or installing a CHP system.
www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A533819
The following white paper discusses several important topics for steam heat applications,
including home heating and heat distribution systems.
www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12580
The following website covers more technical details for designing a home heating system
using steam for heat distribution.
www.engineeringtoolbox.com/steam-heating-systems-d_474.html
Here is another technical dissertation that readers who have read and understood Part 1
and Part 2 should be able to understand.
chestofbooks.com/architecture/Modern-Buildings-Construction-V3/Chapter-VII-Steam-
Heating-Apparatus.html
Also see the following How steam Technology works:
science.howstuffworks.com/steam-technology7.htm
2.1.3 Boiler Safety and Codes.
Because of public safety concerns with the operation of steam boilers, there are local,
county, state and federal codes governing the building and operation of boilers.
Insurance companies are concerned where boilers exist in properties they cover.
www.edgeta.org/steamsafety.htm
The term mono-tube generally refers to a tube construction configured in the shape of a
coil. Designs including a small pressure vessel with a maximum capacity of five gallons
may be included for parabolic satellite dish applications. In all cases only low pressure
superheated steam should be considered. One reason to limit designs to the use of low-
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pressure steam is that certain required components are readily available from local
hardware stores or from catalogs. The following article consists of several sections and
offers the reader more information on commercial boiler and home heating systems.
homerepair.about.com/od/heatingcoolingrepair/ss/trblsht_boiler.htm
2.2 Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Components.
Two main reasons for choosing off-the-shelf components are cost and availability. This
concept and the acronym COTS are related to Department of Defense (DoD) principles of
procurement on some programs.
As an example, the standard household hot water heater always has a safety valve or
Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) attached to the tank and vented through a hose connection
to the floor or to a drain. This common PRV is set to open at 150 psi or at 250 degrees F.
Commercial hot water tanks are pressure tested to some higher pressure (generally to 300
psi) to assure an adequate margin of safety. Likewise, for superheated steam at 100 psi, a
temperature specification of 600 degrees F is the maximum temperature attainable in the
common kitchen oven. Hardware rated at these temperatures and pressures are usually
available locally.
steamtraction.farmcollector.com/Steam-Engines/Boiler-Safety.aspx
www.hvacwebtech.com/boilers.htm
3 Introduction to the Small Steam Turbine System.
Control
Functions
Solar
Steam
Collector
Turbine / Engine
Concentrator
Functions
Functions
Figure 1 System Functional Block Diagram
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3.1 The Closed Loop Steam Turbine System.
Figure 2 illustrates a block diagram of a small closed loop steam turbine system. The
discussion in this section is mainly limited to small steam systems while larger steam
systems are to be discussed in a later article. A distinction is made between a small
system with an output equal to or less than 10 kW and a larger system with an output
greater than 10 kW. In some circles, these are referred to as micro-turbines.
Cold Water
Supply
Hot Water
Feed
Supply
Pump
Tank
Purge
Solar PRV
Control
Receiver #2
Valve
Super Steam
Condenser
Heater Turbine
Fan
By-Pass
PRV
Control Alternator
#1
Valve
Figure 2 System Block diagram - Small Steam Turbine
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3.1.1 The Cold Water Supply.
Cold water can be obtained from many sources such as from a municipal water supply, a
drilled or dug well, from a river or lake or even from collected rainwater. In any case, the
water supplied to any steam turbine should be as clean as possible, free from
contaminants and from dissolved minerals. In a closed system, any additional water
needed by the turbine is considered to be make-up water, required to replace water lost
through PRVs or leaks of one sort or another. Generally, this water can be expected to be
cold and will require heat to bring its temperature up close to the boiling point.
Note. If the supply is from a municipal source, from a well, etc., it is likely to be
pressurized, which means the entire system will have some pressure at all times.
3.1.2 The Hot Water Supply Tank.
It is suggested that a common 55-gallon household hot water heater can make a suitable
hot water storage tank. A typical commercial domestic hot water tank is pressure tested
and rated at a pressure of 300 PSI. Typical tanks have a 55-gallon capacity, and have
four standard pipe threaded (NPT) penetrations. The two connections located on the top
of the tank are for connecting the hot and cold water pipes. The hot water connection at
the top of the tank can be connected to provide normal hot water for domestic use and for
the feed pump. The upper one, located on the side of the tank, is for a PRV connection,
and the lower one is for a drain connection. A one-way valve is built into the cold water
intake pipe as illustrated.
In the arrangement shown for a turbine system, the upper PRV penetration requires a tee
fitting to connect the output from the condenser to the tank. The PRV that came with the
tank must be reconnected to the tee fitting, or replaced with a new PRV.
The lower drain connection can be fitted with a second tee fitting as an alternate
connection to the boiler feed pump. The drain valve can then be reconnected to the tee to
perform its original function when draining the tank.
[Note for the junk-yard mechanic] It is frequently possible to obtain a

discarded water heater tank from a local plumber, because plumbers have to pay
someone else to dispose of such tanks. The integrity of the tank may be intact, but
the temperature controls may have failed in such a way as to require replacement
of the entire unit. Such tanks are usually pressure tested at 300 psi and should be
so stamped. The inside of the tank may need to be cleaned before use in the
system.
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3.1.3 The Boiler and the Steam Generator.
A typical boiler or steam generator designed to produce steam for driving a turbine
consists of two sections. One section includes the portion of the boiler that contains hot
water, where the water is turned to steam. The other part heats the steam to a superheated
condition. Steam that is not superheated is considered to be saturated steam, or wet steam
that contains liquid water. Wet steam is very undesirable for any turbine operation.
Steam that does not contain liquid water is considered to be dry steam or superheated
steam. All boilers and steam systems are protected from over pressure by safety devices
such as pressure relief valves as discussed below.
3.1.3.1 Dangers from a Boiler Failure.
A boiler might consist of a single pressure vessel or container in which water is boiled, or
it might consist of an array of straight or bent tubes, or a single tube formed into a coil, or
a combination of both. The single coil type is referred to as a mono-tube boiler. The
tube type boiler is generally preferred over the pressure vessel because of one very
important reason. Whenever a pressure vessel fails, there is inevitably a very destructive
explosion due to the sudden release of all the energy contained in the steam. When a
boiler tube fails, steam is released, but at a slower rate and less damage can be expected.
Nevertheless, any steam that gets loose can be extremely dangerous and life threatening.
Anytime a steam leak is suspected, consider it an emergency, shut off the fuel, evacuate
the area, blow down the boiler, and wait until the boiler cools before reentering the area.
3.1.3.2 Boiler Water Level.
Any boiler in operation must always have water in it, and must never be allowed to
become dry. If a boiler becomes dry and heat is not cut off, the metal may become red
hot. If water is introduced to the boiler in this condition, the metal may fail and cause a
possible explosion.
One problem with any boiler is to know how much water it contains at all times. The
common indicating device is a mechanical, visual glass indicator mounted on the side of
a boiler. This problem might be compared to knowing how much fuel is in an
automobile gas tank at any time. The fuel tank in an automobile contains a remote sensor
and the dash contains a needle gauge or a light and some times an audible indicator. In
modern vehicles the remote sensor signal, along with many other signals, are also sent to
an on-board computer mounted somewhere under the dash.
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3.1.4 The Super-heater.
For purposes of this discussion the super-heater is considered an integral part of the
boiler. In a large power plant the super-heater consists of a separate set of tubes and a
header located near the top of the boiler where the temperature within the boiler is the
highest. The purpose of the super-heater is to raise the temperature of the steam to the
operating temperature required by the turbine to produce a desired output. Because steam
in a closed vessel containing liquid water cannot exist at temperatures above the boiling
point, the super-heater must be separate from the portion of the boiler containing liquid
water. This section must also have the capacity to provide the volume of super-heated
steam required by the turbine.
3.1.5 The Boiler Feed Pump.
Where water is heated to steam in a boiler, a pressure exists. The pressure increases as
the temperature of the steam increases. As the steam in the boiler is released to turn the
turbine, more water must be fed into the boiler to maintain a continuous flow of steam.
A certain water level must always be maintained and never allowed to go below a
dangerous level. The boiler feed pump forces water from its low-pressure hot water
supply tank into the boiler by exerting a pressure greater than the pressure of the steam in
the boiler. This pressure however must not exceed the operating point of the pressure
relief valve (PRV#1).
In the current example, 647.4 lbs or 78 gallons of water must be forced into the boiler
every hour with a pressure not exceeding 150 psia. Therefore the boiler feed pump must
be capable of pumping at least 78 gallons per hour at a pressure of 150 psi.
[For the junk-yard mechanic] Check out small pressure pumps and rotary
valves and let the author know if you think this is a subject for a future paper.
3.1.6 The Pressure Relief Valve (PRV).
There are at least two places where pressure relief valves are needed. One is at the output
or within the boiler section, PRV#1, and the other is at the top of the hot water supply
tank, PRV#2.
Note. The boiling point of water increases as the pressure in the boiler increases.
This is true in modern automobiles, where the water cooling system is under
pressure and the water temperature is above 212 deg F, and where the radiator cap
performs the function of a pressure relief valve.
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For information on another type of high pressure valve called a poppet valve, see the
following website:
www.answers.com/topic/poppet-valve
The following website shows different types of standard pressure relief valves and offers
the reader an idea of the cost for such valves.
www.lowes.com/lowes/lkn?action=howTo&p=Repair/WaterHtrMaintaince.html
The following article offers a discussion of valuable safety features and consideration of
steam boiler safety valves.
www.tpub.com/content/construction/14259/css/14259_236.htm
3.1.7 The Turbine.
The turbine is a device that converts one form of energy to another form of rotational
mechanical energy. That is a simple, stripped down definition of a turbine. Turbines
have been around for centuries. Wind turbines are probably the best known that have
been used and relied upon for energy.
The steam turbine of interest in this paper is the bladeless slotted disc turbine. To
differentiate it from the Parsons, Tesla, de Laval and other turbines, it can hereafter be
referred to as the Saunders Turbine. This is a unique concept among turbines and is the
subject of Part 5 of this series of articles.
3.1.7.1 Estimating Turbine Thermal Efficiency.
Note. There have been several accepted methods for determining the efficiency of
steam turbines over the years.
The definition of a turbine’s thermal efficiency, as provided by one of the authors of the
Katmar Turbine Steam Consumption Calculator, is as follows.
“A turbine is defined as operating at 100% efficiency when it extracts the energy

from the minimum quantity of steam possible. Or put the other way around –
when the turbine extracts the maximum theoretical quantity of energy per lb of
steam. This occurs at the point where entropy of the exit steam is the same as the
inlet steam, i.e., there is no increase in entropy. It is termed isentropic operation.
The efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of the actual flow of steam to that which
would occur under isentropic (100% efficiency) conditions.”
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Note. The Katmar Turbine Steam-Consumption Calculator, v2.2 can be

downloaded from the following website:
www.katmarsoftware.com/turbine.htm
3.1.7.2 Other Steam Turbine Efficiency Concepts.
The notion of steam turbine efficiency can be difficult to comprehend and to accept. The
following bulleted topics are introduced here for the benefit of the reader.
• To appear knowledgeable about steam, always refer to steam conditions, steam

properties or steam quality, etc., when discussing steam. Temperature and pressure
have little meaning when used alone in describing the characteristics of steam.
• The term efficiency, when referring to steam turbines, is also referred to as the
performance value of steam turbines.
• A measure of turbine efficiency is referred to as thermal efficiency, or thermodynamic
efficiency.
• A commonly used measure of efficiency is the mechanical energy or shaft energy out
divided by the net energy-in, e.g., kWh per Btu.
• The water rate: lbs of steam required to generate a kilowatt-hour or a horsepower-
hour of energy … is not very useful when used alone to describe turbine performance.
• Rankin-cycle efficiency: available heat per lb / total heat input per lb
• The thermal efficiency: percentage of the total heat input of the steam consumed by
the turbine which is converted into work.
Note. For a somewhat exhausting discussion of thermal efficiency, see the

following website:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_efficiency
3.1.8 The Condenser.

The function of a condenser is to remove excess heat from the exhaust steam and to
convert the unused steam back to a liquid state. If the turbine is 25% efficient, then it
might seem like a pure waste to throw away or lose 75% of the energy. However, the
efficiency in a CHP system can be very high where the exhaust heat is fully utilized.
Commercial power plants that generate electricity used by consumers face the same
problem of getting rid of exhaust heat. Some of it is used internally in places like pre-
heaters and re-heaters. However, most large power plant facilities are located along the
shores of oceans, lakes, and rivers. One purpose for this is to be able to transport fuel in
barges. Another advantage is to have a place to dump excess heat from the condensers.
[Note for the junk-yard mechanic] One or two truck or automobile radiators
with fans from a local auto junk yard may provide an inexpensive condenser.
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The following website offers a detailed explanation for condensers typically used in
power plants. The author introduces the reader to the term Latent Heat of Condensation.
www.engineersedge.com/heat_exchanger/large_steam_condenser.htm
Note. The reader is encouraged to search the internet for more discussions about
the system components discussed in this paper. However, it is the intent of this
author to keep things simple wherever possible.
3.1.8.1 Using the Exhaust Heat.
Most of the exhaust heat can be saved if it can be used to heat a living space, a swimming
pool or for some similarly important purpose. In such cases the system is known as a
cogeneration system, or in some circles a combined heat and power, CHP, system . Such
an example is found in the heating system in an automobile.
The radiator in an automobile performs a function similar to the condenser in a steam

system. Excess heat from the engine block is carried to the radiator by circulating water
and in this case one objective is to remove as much heat as necessary to prevent the water
from boiling.
[Note for the junk-yard mechanic]. It is possible to use a discarded automobile

or truck radiator with a working fan from a junk yard for the condenser in a small
steam turbine system.
3.1.9 The Steam By-Pass Valve.
The steam by-pass valve is a control device rather than a safety device, and can be either
a solenoid operated valve or a proportional valve. The purpose of this valve is to provide
a means for regulating the flow of steam through the turbine when relatively small
adjustments are needed in the output of the turbine. The by-pass valve, when used, routes
steam around, or bypasses, the turbine. This device can safely be omitted in a small solar
system.
3.1.9.1 The Water By-Pass Valve.
A water by-pass valve can be used to manually control the amount of water in the boiler
as described for the Stanley Steamer in the following interesting article:
www.stanleymotorcarriage.com/Parts/WaterAutoBypassValve.htm
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3.1.10 The Purge Control Valve.
For purposes of this discussion, the Purge Control Valve or Blow-down Valve is a safety
device, but it is also used to purge the steam lines of water and moisture at start-up or
shut-down times. It may also be used as a maintenance device as discussed in the
following website:
www.mckenziecorp.com/boiler_tip.htm
3.1.11 The Alternator and Generator Head.

Here are some basic things to consider:
• Engines produce high torque and run most efficiently at relatively low
speeds.
• Generators require relatively high torque and run at lower speed.
• Turbines produce relatively low torque and run most efficiently at high
speeds.
• Alternators require relatively low torque and run at higher speed.
In a rotating body, energy is proportional to the product of speed and torque. Therefore,
speed and torque can be traded off by including a gearbox between the motor and
alternator, or between the turbine and generator. In an automobile a system of belt
pulleys is used. The pulley ratio to the alternator is such as to keep the alternator
operating at idle engine speeds.
The following article compares the operation of generators and alternators for use with
wind power. The concepts and principles are also valid for steam turbines.
www.otherpower.com/otherpower_wind_alternators.html
The following articles are similar to the above except there are more detailed diagrams
for alternator circuit hookups for charging batteries.
www.alternatorparts.com/understanding_alternators.htm
eduhosting.org/windpics/altcomp.html
Where ever this paper is focused on the application of solar energy using small turbines
in the 1 to 3 kW range, the use of alternators is assumed.
[Note for the junk-yard mechanic] Rebuilt alternators can be purchased at local
automotive parts stores and used alternators can be found at local auto junk yards.
It is recommended that the minimum size alternator needed for a 10kW system
should be rated at 100 amps continuous and should have a built-in regulator.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3.1.12 The Controls.
The operation of any turbine system must be safe and requires some automatic control
devices that enable an orderly shut-down in a timely manner in case of emergency or
other malfunction. The heart of any large system is usually a controller with an integrated
computer processor.
3.1.13 Controls and Safety Devices for Small Systems.
The only control devices in the small system described above are two pressure relief
valves, PRV #1 and PRV #2, the by-pass valve and the purge control valve. The pressure
relief valves are mechanical and operate automatically. The purge control valve could be
manually operated but should be a remotely operated solenoid controlled device.
Although the need for safety devices is considered minimal, they are considered
absolutely essential. In small systems the lower operating pressures and temperatures are
not hazardous when reasonable safety precautions are followed. One of the greatest
hazards in any turbine system occurs when there is a loss of the load resulting in a
runaway turbine. A means must be included in the system to detect such a condition and
to automatically operate the purge control valve or blow-down valve as an emergency
shut-off procedure.
home.howstuffworks.com/home-thermostat1.htm
Note. Any reader interested in becoming certified in one or more areas of steam
turbine technology is encouraged to review the following website:
www.hpcnet.com/schedule/topic.html#tg401
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4 An Example: Making Steam for 10 kW.

As previously stated, the subject of steam properties is complicated, confusing and
tedious, especially if it is necessary to use published steam tables.
Using the Turbine Steam Consumption Calculator, Version 2.1 from Part 2, enter the
following:
Input data:
Inlet Steam Press (abs): 165 psia
Inlet Steam Temperature: 600 Fahrenheit
Exhaust Pressure (abs): 15 psia
Turbine Efficiency: 25 Percent
Turbine Power: 10 kW
Inlet steam properties:
Saturation Temperature: 365.9 Fahrenheit

Enthalpy: 1324.6 Btu/lb
Entropy: 1.7 Btu/lb-deg F
Exhaust steam properties:

Temperature: 467.9 Fahrenheit
Degree superheated 254.7 Fahrenheit
Steam consumption:
Specific: 64.72 lb/kWh

Actual: 10.79 lb/min
For the above inlet conditions and a thermal efficiency of 25%, the difference
between the Inlet Steam Enthalpy and the Exhaust Steam Enthalpy is as follows:
H = H1 – H2 = 1324.6 Btu/lb – 1271.9 Btu/lb = 52.7 Btu/lb
This is the maximum possible amount of energy that can be extracted per lb of
steam by the turbine.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Note. psia stands for pounds per square inch absolute. To find the inlet gauge
pressure, psig, subtract the absolute pressure, psia, at the exhaust port of the
turbine from the absolute inlet pressure, psia. Use atmospheric pressure of 14.7
psia (or approximately15 psia) as a base line. See the following for a definition of
psig
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pounds_per_square_inch
4.1.1 Calculate Water Rate and Heat Needs Using 25% Thermal Efficiency.
Calculate the amount of water in gal/hr that needs to be converted to superheated steam:
W’ = 10.79 lb/min x 60 min/hr = 647.4 lb/hr
W = 647.4 lb/hr / 8.3 lb/gal = 78gal/hr
Note. In Figure 2, the typical hot water supply tank might have a capacity of 55
gallons. In a closed system, more than 55 gallons per hour can be produced by re-
circulating the water from the condenser. It can be assumed for this example that
the temperature of the water from the condenser, and thus the water in the hot-
water supply tank, is near the boiling point.
How much heat is required to convert 647.4 lb. of water at 212 deg F to steam?
From Part 1: Latent Heat of Vaporization for water = 970 Btu / lb
Therefore the estimated heat required to convert the amount of water needed to produce
the desired amount of steam is:
Hv = 970 Btu / lb x 647.4 lb/hr = 627,978 Btu/hr
How much more heat is needed to raise the temperature of the steam to 600 deg F?
From Part 1 it was estimated that the heat required to increase the temperature of steam is
0.5 Btu / lb/ deg F of steam. This estimate is oversimplified but allows the discussion to
continue. Therefore the heat needed to raise the steam temperature to 600 deg F is:
Hs = 647.4 lb/hr x 0.5 [Btu / lb-deg F] x (600 – 212) deg F = 125,596 Btu /hr
The total heat needed to raise the boiling water to 600 deg. F superheated steam is:
Ht = Hv + Hs
Ht = 627,978 Btu/hr + 125,596 Btu /hr = 753,574 Btu / hr
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4.1.1.1 Physical Size Estimate for a 10 kW Solar Collector.
Now that an estimate of heat needed to run a 10 kW turbine is known, the next step is to
estimate the size of the solar collector required to produce that amount of energy.
If at some point and time the solar power density is 1.0 kW/m^2, then there are 3412
Btu/m^2/hr available from the sun. Therefore the area of the collector required for this
example is:
A= Area of the collector.
A = 753,573 (Btu / hr) / 3412 (Btu / hr / m^2) = 221 m^2
Obviously, a 3-meter parabolic satellite dish with an area of approximately 7 square

meters is not adequate in this case. A trough collector described in Part 4 of this series
can be designed and built to satisfy this requirement.
4.1.1.2 Exhaust Steam Conditions.
The exhaust steam must remain dry and superheated and cannot be allowed to reach a
saturated condition. That means that the 970 Btu/lb of latent heat of evaporation is not
used during the operation of the turbine, but is removed by the condenser. Unless this
heat can be used in a co-generation or CHP environment, it can be considered wasted
energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4.1.2 Calculate Water Rate and Heat Needs Using 100% Thermal Efficiency.
The reader is encouraged to make the same calculations for 100% thermal efficiency
using the calculator, version 2.2. Version 2.2 of the calculator reports Exhaust Steam is
Wet if the exhaust steam is not dry, where version 2.1 reported Degrees Superheated. (hit
the OK button to continue)
Input data:
Inlet Steam Press (abs): 165 psia
Inlet Steam Temperature: 600 Fahrenheit
Exhaust Pressure (abs): 15 psia
Turbine Efficiency: 100 Percent
Turbine Power: 10 kW
Inlet steam properties:
Saturation Temperature: 365.9 Fahrenheit

Exhaust steam properties:

Entropy: 1.7 Btu/lb-deg F NB Same as Inlet
Temperature: 213.2 Fahrenheit
Quality 0.9617 1.0 = sat. vap.
Steam consumption:
Specific: 16.18 lb/kWh

Actual: 2.697 lb/min
For the above inlet conditions and a thermal efficiency of 100%, the difference between
the Inlet Steam Enthalpy and the Exhaust Steam Enthalpy is as follows:
H = H1 – H2 = 1324.6 Btu/lb – 1113.7 Btu/lb = 210.9 Btu/lb
Note the Inlet Entropy and Exhaust Entropy are equal. This is state for the maximum
possible amount of energy that can be extracted per lb of steam by the turbine. The
percentage of the maximum possible energy actually being extracted per lb of steam is:
Efficiency = 52.7 (Btu/lb) / 210.9 (Btu/lb) = 0.25 = 25%

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5 Summary of Part 3.
Note. This analysis is from one of the authors of the Katmar calculator:
“An important point to note, and what confuses many people, is that this
efficiency is the thermodynamic efficiency. It is very different from the
efficiency in terms of what energy in the steam finally ends up as useful work in a
shaft.
… we see that of the 1271.9 Btu/lb that was in the steam, , only 210.9 Btu/lb is
actually made available as shaft work, i.e., only 16.6% of the energy that was in
the steam ends up as shaft work.”
It is completely acceptable that the turbine in an experimental system is not expected to

operate at 100% thermal efficiency, but rather at some lower level, e.g., 25%. Such a
system is inherently simple, without sophisticated instrumentation to control its operation
based on efficiency. It is the overall ability to produce electricity from the sun that is
important. Efficiency becomes less of an issue when the fuel is free.
5.1 Preview of Part 4.
It has been shown that a 3-meter parabolic dish can be useful for making hot water.
Except as otherwise noted, it is probably not very useful for making enough steam to
make electricity by driving a turbine or other steam engine. Part 4 concentrates on the
analysis and design of trough collectors that can produce enough steam to drive a 10 kW
generator.
5.2 Notes to the reader:
1. Part 4 will focus on trough type solar collectors.

2. In Part 5 the structure and properties of the slotted disc turbine will be discussed.
3. In future articles, additional discussion of higher-powered systems using other fuels
will include the use of generators with turbines in the 5 kW to 10 kW ranges.
4. Comments from the reader regarding the material covered are welcome.
5. Any errors or omissions reported to the author would be appreciated.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Solar Energy and Steam for Small Turbines and Engines

Junk Yard Mechanics at its Best Series

If you can make steam, you can make electricity.

MAKING STEAM FROM

Caution. When steam is contained, as in a boiler or vessel, it can be very

• How much energy is available from the sun in your latitude?

1.1 Making Hot Water.

1.2 Making and Using Steam.

At the risk of oversimplification and for purposes of this discussion, according to

Where T is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and T’ is the temperature as

2.1.1 The Mono-tube, Multi-tube and the Pressure Vessel Boiler.

2.1.2 Steam Radiators, Home Heating and CHP Systems.

2.1.3 Boiler Safety and Codes.

2.2 Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Components.

3 Introduction to the Small Steam Turbine System.

Figure 1 System Functional Block Diagram

3.1 The Closed Loop Steam Turbine System.

Figure 2 System Block diagram - Small Steam Turbine

3.1.1 The Cold Water Supply.

3.1.2 The Hot Water Supply Tank.

[Note for the junk-yard mechanic] It is frequently possible to obtain a

3.1.3 The Boiler and the Steam Generator.

3.1.3.1 Dangers from a Boiler Failure.

3.1.3.2 Boiler Water Level.

3.1.4 The Super-heater.

3.1.5 The Boiler Feed Pump.

3.1.6 The Pressure Relief Valve (PRV).

3.1.7 The Turbine.

3.1.7.1 Estimating Turbine Thermal Efficiency.

“A turbine is defined as operating at 100% efficiency when it extracts the energy

Note. The Katmar Turbine Steam-Consumption Calculator, v2.2 can be

3.1.7.2 Other Steam Turbine Efficiency Concepts.

• To appear knowledgeable about steam, always refer to steam conditions, steam

Note. For a somewhat exhausting discussion of thermal efficiency, see the

3.1.8 The Condenser.

3.1.8.1 Using the Exhaust Heat.

The radiator in an automobile performs a function similar to the condenser in a steam

[Note for the junk-yard mechanic]. It is possible to use a discarded automobile

3.1.9 The Steam By-Pass Valve.

3.1.9.1 The Water By-Pass Valve.

3.1.10 The Purge Control Valve.

3.1.11 The Alternator and Generator Head.

3.1.12 The Controls.

3.1.13 Controls and Safety Devices for Small Systems.

4 An Example: Making Steam for 10 kW.

Inlet steam properties:

Saturation Temperature: 365.9 Fahrenheit

Exhaust steam properties:

Enthalpy: 1271.9 Btu/lb

Specific: 64.72 lb/kWh

H = H1 – H2 = 1324.6 Btu/lb – 1271.9 Btu/lb = 52.7 Btu/lb

W’ = 10.79 lb/min x 60 min/hr = 647.4 lb/hr

W = 647.4 lb/hr / 8.3 lb/gal = 78gal/hr

From Part 1: Latent Heat of Vaporization for water = 970 Btu / lb

Hv = 970 Btu / lb x 647.4 lb/hr = 627,978 Btu/hr

Ht = 627,978 Btu/hr + 125,596 Btu /hr = 753,574 Btu / hr

4.1.1.1 Physical Size Estimate for a 10 kW Solar Collector.

A= Area of the collector.

A = 753,573 (Btu / hr) / 3412 (Btu / hr / m^2) = 221 m^2

Obviously, a 3-meter parabolic satellite dish with an area of approximately 7 square

4.1.1.2 Exhaust Steam Conditions.

Inlet steam properties:

Saturation Temperature: 365.9 Fahrenheit