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Systems Analysis & Design (Key-points Structure)

A mandeep S. Patti
Lecturer, PCTE

System
Introduction
Definition
Characteristics
Organization
Interaction
Interdependence
Integration
Central Objective
Elements
Outputs & Inputs
Processors
Controls
Feedback & Feedforward
Environment
Boundaries & Interface
Models
Schematic Models
Flow System Models
Static System Models
Dynamic System Models
Types
Physical or Abstract Systems
Open or Close Systems
Input from Outside
Entropy
Process, output, & cycles
Differentiation
Equifinality
Manmade Systems
Formal Information Systems
Informal Information Systems
Computer based information systems
Management Information Systems
Decision Support Systems
System Development Life Cycle
Recognition of Need
Preliminary Survey / Initial Investigation
State of Scope, Objectives, Performance Criteria
Feasibility Study
Technical / Behavioral / Economical Feasibility
Statement of New Scope & Objectives
Statement of the problem
Summary of Findings / Recommendations
Details of Findings / Recommendations
Recommendations and Conclusions
Analysis
Evaluation of Present System
Data Collection
Logical Models of Systems
Data Dictionary
Data-Flow Diagram
Design
General Design Specifications
Detailed Design Specifications
Output / Input / Files / Procedures
Program Construction Testing
Unit / Combined / User Acceptance Testing
Implementation
User Training
Training Program
User-Friendly Documentation
File / System Conversion
Post-Implementation
Evaluation
Maintenance
Enhancements
Project Termination
Changing Objectives / Requirements
Insufficient benefits from candidate System
Change in User Budget
Project greatly exceeds Time / Cost Schedule
Prototyping
Identify the user’s information / operating requirements
Develop a working prototype focusing most important issues
Allow user to use prototype, discuss & implement changes
Repeat the next version of prototype
System Analyst
Definition
System Analyst Skills
Interpersonal Skills
Communication
Understating
Teaching
Selling
Technical Skills
Creativity
Problem Solving
Project Management
Dynamic Interface
Questioning Attitude & Inquiring Mind
Knowledge of Computer & Business
Role of System Analyst
Change Agent
Investigator & monitor
Architect
Psychologist
Salesperson
Motivator
Politician
The Analyst / User Interface
Behavioral Issues
User Motivation
Analyst / User Differences
The Political Factor
Conflict Resolution
System Planing & Initial Investigation
Initial Investigation
Need Identification
Determining the User’s Information Requirements
Difficulties in Determining User’s Info. Req.
Changing requirements
Articulation of requirement
Heavy user involvement
Complex Interaction patter between User / Analyst
User Strategies to defend themselves
Kitchen Sink Strategy
Smoking Strategy
Same Thing Strategy
Problems in specifying user requirements
Humans are information processors
Human bias in date selections and use
Human problem solving behaviour
Strategies for determining information requirements
Asking
Questioning
Brainstorming
Group Consensus
Getting Information from the existing information systems
Data Analysis Approach
Decision Analysis Approach
Organizational Objective
Prototyping
Problem Definition and Project Initiation
Background Analysis
Fact Finding
Review of Written Documents
On-Site Observations
Interviews & Questionnaires
Fact Analysis
Input / Output Analysis
Data-Flow Diagram
Decision Tables
Structure Charts
Determination of Feasibility
Information Gathering
Kind of Information Needed
About Organization
Policies
Goals
Objectives
Organization Structures
User Staff
Authority Relationships
Job Functions
Information Requirements
Interpersonal Relationships
The Work Itself
Work Flow
Methods & Procedures
Work Schedules
Where does information originate?
External Sources
Vendors
Government Documents
Newspapers & Professional Journals
Internal Sources
Financial Reports
Personnel Staff
Professional Staff (Legal Counsel / EDP / Auditor etc.)
System Documentation / Manuals
User Staff
Reports & Transaction Documents
Information Gathering Tools
Review of existing documentations
Literature
Procedures
Forms
On-site Observation
Types
Natural or Contrived
Obtrusive or Unobtrusive
Direct or Indirect
Structured or Unstructured
Benefits
Interviews
Art of Interviewing
Arranging the Interview
Guidelines for Successful interview
Set up Stage
Establish Rapport; put interviewee at ease
Phrase questions clearly
Be a good listener
Avoid Arguments
Evaluate outcome
Types
Structured
Unstructured
Benefits
Flexibility
Ensuring Validity of Response
People enjoy being interviewed
Effective in eliciting information about complex subjects
Watching sentiments on complex subjects
Drawbacks
Long Preparation time
Expensive
Questionnaires
Types
Fill-in-blanks Questions
Dichotomous (yes / no type) Questions
Ranking scales Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
Rating scales Questions
Questionnaire Construction
Formulations of reliable and valid questions
Procedure
Decide what data to be collected
Decide type of questionnaire to be used (open / close)
Outline the topics for Questionnaire
Edit Questionnaire for Technical Defects
Final Editing
Benefits
Economical
Large respondent coverage
Standardized wording
Respondent’s confidence
Less pressure for immediate response
Drawbacks
Reliability of Data from respondents
Reliability-Validity issues
Structured Analysis
Problems with Tradition Approach
SDLC provide very little quality control
Analyst is quickly overwhelmed with the business / technical details
Present Analytical tolls have limitations
English Narrative Descriptions – too vague
Dependence on Physical implementation rather on logical requirements
Problem relate to system specifications
Goals of Structured Analysis
Use Graphics wherever possible
Differentiation between logical and physical system
Structure Analysis Tools
Data-Flow Diagram
DFD Symbols
Square – source / destination
Arrow – Data in motion
Circle – Process
Open Rectangle – Data Store
DFD Construction
Processes should be named
Name of Data sources / Designations should be in capital letters
Lower level process should be numbered
Direction from top to bottom and from left to right
Data Dictionary
Data Definition
Field – Smallest unit of data
Segment – Groups of Smallest data items
Logical Record – Entity processed at a time
Database – Largest grouping
Data Elements
Data Structures
Data Flow & Data Stores
Structured English
Decision Trees
Decision Tables
Parts of Decision Tables
Stub
Condition Stub
Action Stub
Entry
Condition Entry
Action Entry
Feasibility Study
Types
Economic Feasibility
Technical Feasibility
Behaviour Feasibility
Steps
Form Project Team and Appoint a Project Leader
Prepare System Flow Charts
Enumerate Potential Candidate Systems
Identify Features of Candidate Systems
Evaluate Performance and Cost Effectiveness of each Candidate System
Weight System Performance and cost data
Select the best candidate system
Prepare and report final project directive to management
Feasibility report
Contents
Cover Letter
Table of Contents
Overview of purpose and scope
Detailed findings
Economic justifications
Recommendations & Conclusions
Appendixes
Oral Presentation
Informing
Confirming
Persuading
Cost Benefit Analysis
Introduction
Data Analysis
What is done?
How is it done?
Who does it?
Where is it done?
Cost and Benefit categories
Hardware costs – Computer / peripheral cost
Personnel costs – EDP staff
Facility costs – physical site e.g. wiring, flooring etc
Operating costs – day to day operations
Supply costs – consumable products e.g. paper, ribbons etc.
Procedure for cost / benefit determination
Identify the cost and benefits pertaining to a given project
Categorize of various costs and benefits for analysis
Tangible / intangible cost and benefits
Direct / indirect cost and benefits
Fixed / variable cost and benefits
Select the method of evaluation
Net Benefit analysis
Present value analysis
Net Present value
Payback analysis
Break-even analysis
Cash Flow analysis
Interpret the result of the analysis
Take action
System Design
Process of Design
Review the current physical systems
Prepares output specifications
Prepares input specifications
Prepares edit, security and control specifications
Specifies the implementation plan
Prepares logical design walkthrough of information flow, output, input, controls & implementation
plan
Reviews benefits, costs, target dates, and system constraints
Phases
Logical Design Phase
Physical Design Phase
Steps
Design the physical system
Specify input / output media
Design the database and specify backup procedures
Design physical information flow through the system and a physical design
walkthrough
Plan system implementation
Prepare a conversion schedule and a target date
Determine training procedure, courses, and timetable
Devise a test and implementation plan and specify any new hardware / software
Update benefits, costs, conversion date, and system contracts
Design Methodologies – attempt to do the followings
Improve productivity of analysts and programmers
Improve documentation and subsequent maintenance and enhancements
Cut down drastically on cost overruns and delays
Improve communications among the user, analyst, designer, and programmer
Standardize the approach to analysis and design
Simplify design by segmentation
Types
Structured Design
Top-down manner
Advantages
Critical interfaces are tested first
Early version of the design, are useful to resemble the real system
Structuring the design, per se, provides control and improves morale
The procedural characteristics define the order that determines processing
Functional Decomposition
Documentation tool
Hierarchy / Structure Chart
Elements
Module
Connection
Couple
Module coupling
Module cohesion
Form-Driven Methodology
The IPO Charts
HIPO and IPO Charts
Structured Walkthrough
User Involvement
Major Development Activities
Database Design
Program Design
System and program test preparation
User Interface Specification
Personnel Allocation
Audit Considerations
Processing Controls and Data Validation
Completeness Check
Consistency Check
Reasonableness Check
Sequence Check
Audi Trail and Documentation Control
Input / Output and Forms Design
Input Design
Input Data
Goals of Designing input data
Space allocation for each field
Field Sequence
Field Format
Source Documents
Input Media and Devices
Punch cards
Key-to-diskette
MICR
Mark-sensing readers
Optical Character Recognition
Optical bar code readers
Cathode-ray tube
Online Data Entry
Data Entry Approaches
Menu
Formatted Form
Prompt
CRT Screen Design
Same format throughout the project
Allow ample space for data
Use easy-to-use and consistent terms
Provide help / tutorial for technical terms / procedures
Output Design
Media devices
MICR readers
Line, matrix, and daisy wheel printers
Computer output microfilm
CRT screen display
Graph plotters
Audio response
Printed report standard suggestions
Name each output
Provide sample output layout
State field data type and constraints
Specify procedure for accuracy of output
Form Design
Classification of Forms
Action Forms
Memory Forms
Report Forms
Requirements of Form Design
Identification and wording
Maximum readability and use
Physical factor
Order of data items
Ease of Data Entry
Size and Arrangement
Use of Instructions
Efficiency Considerations
Type of report
Carbon paper as a Form Copier
Classification as per action encounter
Glide action
Hammer action
Methods of transferring impression between copies
One-time Carbon
Carbon-backed paper
No carbon required paper
Types of Forms
Flat Forms
Unit-Set / Snapout Forms
Continuous Strip / Fanfold Forms
No Carbon Required Paper
Layout Considerations
Form Title and Number
Data Classification and Zoning
Rules and Captions
Box Design
Spacing Requirements
Ballot Box and Check-off Designs
Form Instructions
Paper Selection
Cost Considerations
Use standard size and weight paper
Ordering in larger quantities at a discount
Discouraging the use of unnecessary color
Using standard locations for key captions and form title
Forms Controls is procedure for
Providing improved and effective forms
Reducing printing costs
Securing adequate stock at all times
File Organization and Data Base Design
File Structure
Byte
Data Item / Element
Record
Database
File Organization
Various Considerations
Inline with the activity and volatility of the information
Nature of the storage media and devices used
Cost of Media used
Inquiry requirements
File privacy, integrity, security, and confidentiality
File Organization Methods
Sequential Organization
Advantages
Simple to design
Easy to program
Variable length and blocked records
Best use of storage space
Limitations
Records cannot be added to middle of file
Indexed-Sequential Organization
Chaining
Advantages
Records can be inserted or updated in middle of file
Processing may be carried out sequentially or randomly
Limitations
Unique keys required
Processing occasionally slow
Periodic reorganization of file required
Inverted List Organization
Advantages
Used in applications requesting specific data on multiple keys
Limitations
Direct-Access Organization
Advantages
Records can be inserted or updated in middle of file
Better control over record a location
Limitations
Calculating address required for processing
Variable-length records nearly impossible to process
Data Base Design
Objectives of Data Base
Control redundancy
Ease of learning and use
Data independence
More information at low cost
Accuracy and integrity
Recovery from failure
Privacy and security
Performance
Key Terms
DBMS functions
Storing, retrieving, and updating data
Creating program and data independence
Enforcing procedures for data integrity
Reducing data redundancy
Providing security facilities
Reducing physical storage requirements
Logical and Physical Views of Data
Schemas and Subschemas
Data Structure
Types of Relationships
One-to-one
One-to-many
Many-to-many
Types of Data Structure
Hierarchical Structuring
Network Structuring
Relational Structuring
Entities and Attributes
Normalization
Types
First Normalization
Second Normalization
Third Normalization
Steps in Normalization
The Role of Data Base Administrator
Managing data activities
Managing database structure
Managing DBMS
System Testing & Quality Assurance
Type of System Tests
Unit Testing
Sequential / Series Testing
System Testing
String Testing
Positive Testing
Acceptance Testing
What do we test for?
Online Response
Volume
Stress Testing
Recovery and Security
Usability Documentation and Procedure
Test Data
Artificial Data
Live Data
Test Plan - Activity Network for System Testing
Prepare test plan
Outputs expected from the system
Criteria for evaluating outputs
A Volume of test data
Procedure for using test data
Personnel and training requirements
Specify conditions for user acceptance testing
Prepare test data for program testing
Prepare test data for transaction path testing
Plan user training
Compile / Assemble programs
Prepare job performance aids
Prepare operational documents
Performance Criteria for System Testing
Turnaround Time
Backup
File Protection
Human Factor
Quality Assurance
Goals
Quality Factors Specifications
Correctness
Reliability
Efficiency
Usability
Maintainability
Testability
Portability
Accuracy
Error Tolerance
Expandability
Access Control and Audit
Communicativeness
Software Requirements Specifications
Software Design Specifications
Software Design Specifications
Software Testing and Implementations
Levels of Quality Assurance
Testing
Validation
Certification
Trends in Testing
Function Tester
Debug Monitor
Role of Data Processing Auditor
The Audit Trail
Implementation and Software Maintenance
Types
To replace a manual system
To replace existing computer system
Modify existing computer system
Conversion
Involves
Creating Computer-compatible files
Training the operating staff
Installing terminals and hardware
Activity Network for Conversion
Review of the project plan
Conversion portion finalized and approved
Files are converted
Parallel processing between existing and new system is initiated
Results of computer runs and operations are logged
Assuming no problems, parallel processing is discontinued
Conversion is completed and plans for post-implementation review are prepared
File Conversion
Creating Test Files
Predictable results
Previously determined outputs results to check
Printed results in seconds
Simplified error-finding routines
Forms and Display Conversion
Withdrawing Old Forms and Displays
Introducing New Forms and Displays
Conversion of Physical Facilities
Conversion of Administrative Procedure
Data Entry and Audit Control
User Training
Phases
Initial Training Period
Next analysis Period
Final Period
Ways to use in User Training
Providing Manuals
Training Demonstration
Resident Expert
Training Aids
User Manual
Help Screens
Data Dictionary
Job Aids
Combating Resistance to Change
Strategies to reduce resistance to change
Identify and discuss the deficiencies of the present system
Explain how the changeover will improve the qualify of life at work
Establish open communication channels between the user staff and technical staff
Invite and use employee participation in all phases of the conversion process
Post-Implementation Review
Request for Review
A Review Plan
Administrative Plan
User Objectives
Operating Costs and Benefits
Personnel Requirement Plan
Personnel Performance objectives compared with current performance
Training performance
Hardware Plan
Documentation Review Plan
Software Maintenance
Maintenance or Enhancement?
Primary Activities of a Maintenance Procedure
Reducing Maintenance Costs
Maintenance Management Audits
Software System Audit
Software Modification
Hardware/Software Selection and the Computer Contract
Computer Industry
Hardware Suppliers
Software Suppliers
Service Suppliers
Computer Manufactures
Service Bureaus
Facilities Management
Software Industry
Types
Cross-Industry Application Software
Industry-Specific Software
Software Attributes
Concurrence of operation
Resource and information sharing
Modularity
Multiplex operation
Software Industry Growth Reasons
Programmer Shortage
Hardware / Software Cost Reversal
Economies of scale
Procedure for Hardware / Software Selection
Define System Capabilities
Cost reduction
Cost avoidance
Improved service
Improved profit
Specify the problem magnitude
Assess the competence of the in-house staff
Consider Hardware and software as a package
Develop a schedule for the selection process
Provide user indoctrination / training
Selection Phases
Requirements analysis
System specifications
Request for Proposal
Complete statement of the system specification, programming language, price range, terms
and time frame
Request for vendor’s responsibilities for conversion, training and maintenance
Warranties and terms of license or contractual limitations
Request for financial statement of vendor
Size of staff available for system support
Evaluation and validation
Role of the Consultant
Vendor Selection
Post-installation review
Software Selection
Criteria for Software Selection
Reliability
Functionality
Capacity
Flexibility
Usability
Security
Performance
Serviceability
Ownership
Minimal Costs
Develop and conversion cost
Delivery Schedule
Cost and frequency of software modifications
Usable life span of the package
The Evaluation Process
Sources for Evaluation
Benchmark Program
Experience of other users
Product Reference Manual
Evaluation of Proposals
Performance Evaluation
Hardware
System Availability
Compatibility
Cost
Performance
Uptime
Support
Usability
Software
Backup
Conversion
System Development
Financial Considerations in Selection
Rental Option
Lease Option
Purchase Option
Used Computer
Computer Contract
The Art of Negotiation
Strategies and Tactics
Good Guy and Bad Guy Approach
Give and Take Approach
Trade-Offs
Be prepared to drop some issues
Contract Checklist
Hardware
Software
Nonperformance / failure to meet specifications
Costs of modification or integration
Bankruptcy of the vendor
Delivery and Acceptance
Warranties
Finances
Guarantee of Reliability
Minimum hours of usable time per day
Mean time between failures
Maximum time to repair
Project Scheduling and Software
Why do systems fail?
Conflicting Objectives
User’s lack of Involvement or Corporation
Inexperienced project management
What is Project Management?
Functions
Estimating resource requirements
Scheduling takes and events
Providing for training and site preparation
Selecting qualified staff and supervising their work
Monitoring the project’s program
Documenting
Periodic evaluating
Contingency planning
Project Management requires
Top Management commitment
Active user participation
A Long-range plan
A Framework for Project Management
Understand the problem
Specify project responsibilities
Select a project manager
Establish ground rules and ser performance standards
Select the right project
Define the tasks
Crisis Elimination through Planning
Planing Tools
Gantt Tools
Identify the activities and tasks in the stage
Determine the tasks for each activity and the estimated completion time
Determine the total estimated time for each activity
Plot activities on a Gantt chart
Review and record progress periodically
Program Evaluation and Review Technique – PERT
Event Calculations
Project Management Software
Communicating with the program
Project Organization
Project Team
Skills required in Computer System Development Projects
Systems Analysis
Detailed System Design
Program Design
System Testing
Conversion
Cost Justification
Planning and Estimating
Hardware / Software Estimating
Leading Teams
Reporting Structure
Management Style
Project Manger
Qualities
Flexibility and Adaptability
Communicate and Persuade
Commitment to planning
Understanding technical problems and design details
Understand the Motivation and Interest of project staff
Security, Disaster / Recovery, and Ethics in System Development
Definitions
System Security
System Integrity
Privacy
Threats to System Security
The Personal Computer and System Integrity
Risk Analysis
Nature of Risk
Unauthorized disclosure of employee data
Theft of information
Legal sale of computer time
Complete loss of database
Computer facility destroyed
Control Measures
Identification
Something you know
Something you are
Something you have
Access Controls
Encryption
Audit Controls
System Integrity
Recovery / restart Requirements
System Failures and recovery
Types
Catastrophic Failure
Logical Failure
Structural Damage
Disaster / Recovery Planning
Plans
Fortress Approach
Cold Backup Service
Warm Backup Service
Mutual Backup Service
Private Cold Site
Private Warm Backup Site
The Plan
The Team
Planning Tasks
The Manual
Ethics in System Development
Ethics Codes and Standards of Behavior

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