Battery Modeling.

g is an excerpt from the HEVsim Technical Manual. It reviews the history of battery modelling for HEV applications.

1.0 OVERVIEW OF BATTERY MODELS

There are many types of batteries and many factors that affect battery performance. To predict the performance of batteries, many
different mathematical models exist. None of these models are completely accurate nor do any include all necessary performance-
effecting factors.
Factors that affect battery performance include:
• State of charge (SOC)
• Battery storage capacity
• Rate of charge/discharge
• Temperature
• Age/shelf life
1.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL BATTERY MODELS
The simplest models are based solely on electrochemistry. These models ignore thermodynamic and quantum effects.
Consequently, while these models can predict energy storage they are unable to model phenomena such as the time rate of
change of voltage under load. Nor do they include temperature and age effects.
1.1.1 Peukert Equation
The Peukert relationship states that the discharge current of a battery decreases with increasing "constant current" discharge time.
Specifically (Bumby, J. R., P. H. Clarke, and I. Forster, U of Durham (UK), "Computer modelling of the automotive energy
requirements for internal combustion engine and battery electric-powered vehicle", IEE Proceedings, Vol 132, Pt. A, No. 5, Sept
1985, pp. 265-279):
I^n * Ti = constant
Where
• I = discharge current [amp]
• N = battery constant (n=1.35 for typical lead-acid batteries)
• Ti = time to discharge at current I [seconds]
The Peukert relationship can be written to relate the discharge current at one discharge rate to another combination of current and
discharge rate:
C1 = C2*(I2/I1)^(n-1)
Where
• C = discharge rate
• Subscripts 1 and 2 refer different discharge-rate states
From this relationship the state of charge (SOC) at a constant discharge rate is:
SOC = 1 - (I*TIME)/C
For non-constant discharge rates the above equation must be modified and evaluated in small time steps:
DeltaSOC = I2*TIMESTEP/3600/C1*(I2/I1)^(n-1)
In the above equation, it is assumed that a given combination of current and discharge rate (C1 and I1) is known. Given the current
at the present time step (I2), the corresponding discharge rate is calculated using equation for C1 and plugged into a incremental
form of equation for SOC - yielding the above equation for DeltaSOC.
1.1.2 Shepherd Model Equation
The Shepherd model is perhaps the best known and most often used battery model for HEV analysis. The model describes the
electrochemical behavior of the battery directly in terms of voltage and current. It is often used in conjunction with the Peukert
equation to obtain battery voltage and state of charge given power draw variations (Moore, Stephen and Merhdad Eshani, Texas
A&M, "An Empirically Based Electrosource Horizon Lead-Acid Battery Model", Strategies in Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Design,
SP-1156, 1996, pp.135-138 and Unnewehr, L. E. and Nasar, S. A., Electric Vehicle Technology, John Wiley, pp. 81-91, 1982):
Et = Eo - Ri*I - Ki*(1/(1 - f))
Where
• Et = battery terminal voltage [volts]
• Eo = open circuit voltage of a battery cell when fully charged [volts]
• Ri = internal (ohmic) resistance of the battery [ohms]
• Ki = polarization resistance [ohms]
 • Q = battery capacity [ampere-hour]
• I = instantaneous current [amps]
• f = integral of I*dTIME/Qo = accumulated ampere-hours divided by full battery capacity.
The fractional state of charge is then found via Peukert's equation.
1.1.3 Modifications to the Shepherd Model
Modifications to the Shepherd model usually consist of adding terms to describe certain aspects of battery performance. The
Lindstorm model adds an improved internal resistance calculation. The Wood model incorporates secondary equations to describe
overcharging and gas generation, along with a self-discharge term (Moore 1996).
1.1.4 Unnewehr Universal Model
Shepherd based his research on constant current discharges at low current levels. His equation tries to find the cut-off point
beyond which the terminal voltage decreases very rapidly. In electric vehicles, batteries are not usually used at these extreme
states of depth of discharge. Unnewehr and Nasar (Unnewehr and Nasar, 1982) suggest simplifying the Shepherd equation as
Et = Eo - Ri*I - Ki*f
The open circuit voltage or no-load battery terminal voltage for this model is simply
Eoc = Eo - Ki*f
Unnewehr and Nasar go on to define an equivalent internal resistance function
R = Ro - KR*f
Where
• Ro = total internal resistance of a fully charged battery
• KR = experimental constant
This equation attempts to model the variation in Ri with respect to SOC.
Bu combining this equation with Power=V*I, one cane create the following relation to calculate current during discharge:
I = (Eoc - SQRT(Eoc2 - 4*R*P)) / (2*R)
And during charge as:
I = (-Eoc + SQRT(Eoc2 + 4*R*P)) / (2*R)
The max power, P, can be computed as:
Pmax = Eoc2/(4*R)
1.2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT BATTERY MODELS
Engineers have created many equivalent circuit models for batteries. The charge storing capacity of the battery is often
represented by a capacitor such as the Kleckner (discharge-only model) and the Zimmerman-Peterson models (Moore 1996).
Other models employ a capacitor in parallel with the "steady state battery" (voltage source in series with a resistor representing the
internal resistance) to limit the rate of change of battery voltage which a steady state model would not otherwise predict (Dobner,
Donald J. and Edward J. Woods, GM Research Laboratories, "An Electric Vehicle Dynamic Simulation", 1982, pp. 103-115). In
such a model the total current is the sum of the steady state current and the "capacitor" current. The steady state battery voltage as
a function of steady state current is obtained from tabulation of measured data. The "capacitor" current is calculated as the product
of the capacitance and dV/dTIME.
1) Thevenin Battery Model
This basic equivalent circuit (Salameh, Ziyad M., Margaret A. Casacca and William A. Lynch, U of Lowell, "A Mathematical Model
for Lead-Acid Batteries", IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversions, Vol. 7, No. 1, March 1992, pp. 93-97) consists of a voltage
source (at Voc) in series with a resistor (internal resistance) and a parallel combination of a capacitor and resistor (overvoltage
model). This model is not very accurate since all of its elements can change their value depending on the condition and state of the
battery.
2) Linear Electric Model
The linear electric model is a step above the Thevenin battery model (Salameh et al 1992 and Appelbaum, J and Weiss, R.,
"Estimation of Battery Charge in Photovoltaic Systems", 16th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, pp. 513-518, 1982). The
open circuit voltage, Voc, is applied across the voltage source and a capacitor. In series with this is a network of 3 capacitors and 3
resistors that models overcharge. In parallel to all these elements is a self-discharge resistor. Although more accurate than the
Thevenin model, the components must be "replaced" as the state of the battery changes.
Other researchers define a "linear" battery model as merely a resistor (internal resistance when fully charged) in series with a
voltage source. This model, of course, is one step below the Thevenin model.
Of the same complexity as this model is the Randles equivalent circuit used for lithium polymer batteries (Baudry, P. et al, "Electro-
thermal modelling of polymer lithium batteries for starting period and pulse power", Journal of Power Sources, Vol 54, pp. 393-396,
1995). The equivalent circuit consists of a resistor (Rel, ohmic resistance of the electrolyte and current collector) is series with a
parallel combination of a capacitor (Cdl, double-layer capacitance at the cathode/electrolyte and lithium/electrolyte interfaces) and
a Warburg complex impedance (arising from diffusion of lithium ions) in series with a resistor (Rct, charge-transfer resistance).
1.2.3 Nonlinear Electric Model
This model is a nonlinear modification to the Linear Electric Model (Salameh et al 1992). The ciruit is composed of five sections:
• The battery capacity is represented by a capacitor, Cb
• Parallel to Cb is a resistor representing self-discharge, Rp
• The open circuit voltage, Voc, is the voltage across Cb and/or Rp
• Overvoltage is modeled by a capacitor-and-resistor-in-parallel-network that is in series with Cb and Rp. The resistor in this
network, R1, is modeled as two opposing perfect diodes in parallel with one another, representing the differing values of
overvoltage resistance during discharge and charge modes.
• Internal resistance is modeled by R1 and by a two-diode-in-parallel-network, Rs, that is in series with the R1-C1-parallel
network and the Rp-Cb-parallel network. The internal resistance is the sum of R1 and Rs. Rs represents the electrolyte,
plate, and fluid resistance while R1 represents the resistance created by electrolyte diffusion. As with R1, Rs is modeled as
being two opposing diodes in order to account for variations between charge and discharge states.
The model is nonlinear in the sense that the elements Cb, Rs, Rp and R1 are not constants but are modeled as a function of
voltage. Additionally, Rp has a temperature dependent term multiplying it. Only C1 is constant.
The functional forms specifying the varying resistance and capacitance is determined through a set of experiments. The voltage-
dependent functionality is curve fit to an equation of the following form:
Element_value = K*exp{ [W*(Vm-Voc)] F }
Where
• K = constant (gain multiplier)
• W = width factor
• Vm = mean voltage level
• Voc = open circuit voltage
• F = flatness factor
The temperature dependence multiplier of Rp is modeled as:
TC = (R/Rref) ([Tref-T]/Tref)
Where
• TC = temperature compensation factor
• R = resistance at temperature T
• Rref = resistance at reference temperature
This model has been tested successfully in conjunction with both lead-acid and Nickel-Cadmium batteries.

1.2 FRACTIONAL DISCHARGE BATTERY MODELS

The fractional discharge model measures the battery incremental state of charge in energy terms as (Bumby 1985):
DeltaSOC = (Pdi/Edi)*(TIMESTEP/36000)
Edi = Pdi * Tdi
DeltaSOC = (TIMESTEP/Tdi)/36000
Where
• Pdi = incremental power density discharge of the battery
• Edi = battery energy density at power density Pdi
• Tdi = time the battery pack can discharge at the power density level Pdi [hours]
The third equation is a combination of the first two.
The relationship between power-density and energy-density is usually obtained through experimentation, specifically through a
series of constant-power discharge tests. The relationship between power-density and discharge time, Tdi, is then curve fit to a
quadratic (which can be written two different ways depending which variable is dependent on the other):
Pdi = exp[ A*(ln(Tdi)) 2 + B*lin(Tdi) + C ]
Tdi = exp{ 0.5*[ -B/A + SQRT( (B/A) 2 - 4*(C-ln(Pdi))/A) ] }
Where A, B and C are determined from the curve fit of measured data.
For lead-acid batteries, Chapman and Aston (Chapman, P. and M. Aston, "A generic battery model for electric and hybrid vehicle
simulation performance prediction", Electric and Hybrid Vehciles, SP-2, Int. J. Veh. Design, 1982, pp. 82-95) suggest that variations
in C can be used to represent changes in electrolyte temperature:
C = Ck + ln(1 + 0.012*(Tk - T))
Where
• C = the constant in Pdi and Tdi equations above at temperature T
• Ck = the constant in Pdi and Tdi equations at temperature Tk

1.3 DYNAMIC LUMPED PARAMETER BATTERY MODEL

The dynamic lumped parameter battery model (Bailey, K. E. and B. K. Powell, Ford Research Laboratories, "A Hybrid Electric
Vehicle Powertrain Dynamic Model", Proceedings of the American Control Conference, 1995, pp. 1677-1682) is based on a static
battery model that describes the instantaneous terminal voltage as a function of steady charge/discharge current. To this basic
model a first order voltage transient at incipient-steady-current discharge relation is added as well as a polarization capacitive
effect. The three underlying equations of this model are:
Rint * Cp * dEpc/dTIME = Voc + Rint/Rb*Etb - (Rb + Rint)/Rb*Epc
Rb*Ci*dEtb/dTIME = Epc - Rb*Itb - Etb
Etb = Voc - (Rb + K/SOC)*Itb
Where
• Rint = battery internal resistance [ohms]
• Cp = polarization capacitance
• Epc = voltage drop due to polarization capacitance
• Voc = battery open circuit voltage [volt]
• Rb = battery terminal resistance [ohm]
• Etb = battery terminal voltage
• Ci = incipient terminal capacitance
• Itb = battery discharge current [amps]
• K = a battery constant
• SOC = battery state of charge
For a lead acid battery, Powell et al (Powell, B. K., K. E. Bailey, and S. R. Cikanek, Ford Research Laboratories, "Dynamic
Modeling and Control of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Powertrain Systems", IEEE Control Systems, Oct 1998, pp. 17-33) replaces the
last equation above with:
Voc = 338.8 * (0.94246 + 0.05754*SOC)
Note that in the above equation, the constant multiplying SOC is misprinted in the Powell paper (and hence could be 0.005754 or
some other number).

1.4 OTHER BATTERY MODELS

Engineers have created other types of battery models, trying to model certain aspects of battery behavior.
1.4.1 Hydrodynamic Model
The hydrodynamic model uses an analogy between the charging and discharging of a battery with the hydrodynamic filling and
draining of a double tank reservoir (Leontopoulos, C., M .R. Etemad, K. R. Pullen and M. U. Lamperth, Imperial College (London),
Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., Vol 212, Part D, 1998, pp. 357-368). The two tanks are of unequal size, and the input/output to the tank
system lies within the smaller tank. Fluid can flow between the two tanks based on their separate fluid levels. If the flow between
the two tanks is less than the output demand, the small tank will empty before the large tank; this simulates a battery being unable
to meet high rates of power demand. During recharging, the volume of fluid stored in the small tank will define the pressure at the
inlet and hence the rate at which the battery can be charged.
1.4.2 Finite Element Type Models
Finite chemistry and other finite element models have been devised for battery simulation. Some divide each cell into a number of
finite elements while others (Gu, W. B., C. Y. Wang, and B. Y. Liaw, "The use of computer simulation in the evaluation of electric
vehicle batteries", Journal of Power Sources, 75, 1998, pp. 151-161) use each cell as an individual element. These physiochemical
models typically model current flow and potential distributions in the cell, species transport (migration, diffusion and advection),
density-driven flow in elctrolyte, electrodes surface passivation, and gas evolution in overcharge. These computer simulations are
complex and CPU-intensive.

1.5 USING TABULATED BATTERY DATA

Tables of battery performance can be used to predict battery parameters over a wide range of conditions. The following describe
the methods by which these tables are used to predict battery performance.
In their Hybrid Electric Vehicle Analysis (HEVA) code, NASA Lewis Research Center makes use of plots of battery SOC (state of
charge) versus Voc (open circuit voltage) and SOC versus internal resistance. Some researchers use separate SOC versus
resistance curves for charge and discharge (Merkle, Matthew A., 1997, "Variable Bus Voltage Modeling for Series Hybrid Electric
Vehicle Simulation", Master's Thesis, Virginia Tech) noting the wide variation between those two states. Their method is iterative.
Estimates are made of the voltage at the end of the current time step, V1, based on the voltage at the start of the time step, V0,
and similarly for the internal resistance.
Vavg = 0.5*(V0 + V1)
Ravg = 0.5*(R0 + R1)
IR = (Vavg/2/Ravg) 2 - Pbat/Ravg
Iavg = Vavg/2/Ravg - SQRT(IR) if IR > 0
Based on the guess for the current, Iavg, a new value for Vavg is calculated as:
Vavg_new = Vavg - Iavg*Ravg
SOC1 = SOC0 - P*TIMESTEP/(3600*C*V)
Where
• C = battery capacity [amp-hour]
• TIMESTEP [seconds]
The process is repeated with the updated values of Vavg until the value of SOC1 varies less than 0.01% between iterations.

1.6 MODELING SPECIFIC FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

Since many conventional battery models do not handle all the factors effecting battery performance, researchers have created
stand-alone models to predict the influence of these factors. Models for the factors of temperature, age and cycle history have been
developed.
1.6.1 Temperature Model
The impact that temperature exerts on battery capacity can be explained with a simple model of the battery electrochemistry. As
the temperature increases towards the peak-performance-operating temperature the electrolyte viscosity decreases, thus allowing
for increased diffusion of ions and hence increased battery capacity. As the temperature increases past this peak point, the battery
electrodes begin to corrode - thus leading to a reduced "active" electrode area and thus to fewer electrode reactions and reduced
battery capacity.
One model (Roan, Vernon P. and Anand Raman, U of Florida, "An Approach to Incorporating Age and Electrolyte Temperature
Effects on Performance Simulation of Electric/Hybrid Vehicle batteries", American Chemical Society, 1993, pp. 2.229-2.237) that
predicts this impact, starts with the general equation for battery capacity (Unnewhr, L. E. and S. A. Nasar, Electric Vehicle
Technology, John Wiley and Sons, 1982):
C = C25*(1 - ALPHA*(25 - T))
Where
• C = battery capacity at temperature T [Ah]
• C25 = battery capacity at 25 C [Ah]
• ALPHA = temperature coefficient [Ah/C]
• T = current battery temperature [C]
The temperature coefficient, ALPHA, which varies from battery to battery, is determined empirically from experiments. This
coefficient is typically formulated as being a quadratic function of temperature.
1.6.2 State of Charge
The state of charge (SOC) greatly influences battery performance. The open circuit voltage (Voc) generally decreases - nearly
linearly - with increasing SOC (Valvo, Michael, et al, "Development and Application of an Improved Equivalent Circuit Model of a
Lead Acid Battery", 1996 31st Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC), Volume 2, 1996). The internal
resistance (Ri) decreases slightly with increasing SOC at very low levels (<0.3 Full SOC), then remains relatively constant until the
SOC approaches its full state (> 0.6 Full SOC) at which point it increases rapidly (Valvo, 1996). This Ri vs SOC relationship was
also observed by Ekdunge (Ekdunge, Per, "A simplified model of the lead/acid battery", Jornal of Power Sources, Vol 46, pp. 251-
262, 1993) and at Virginia Tech (Merkle, 1997). Valvo represented the relation between internal resistance and SOC with a 5th
order polynomial. In an earlier work, Facinelli (Facinelli, W. A., "Modeling and Simulation of Lead-Acid Batteries for Photocoltaic
Systems", 1983 18st Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (IECEC), Volume 4, 1983) employed linear
relationships for both Voc and Ri. Facinelli used different curve fit parameters for charging and discharging conditions.
1.6.3 Cycle History
How cycle life varies with depth of discharge (DOD) has been modeled (McDonald, Alan T., "Reducing Battery Costs for Electric
Vehicles through Optimal Depth-of-Discharge:, EVC Symposium VI Proceedings, 1981) as:
LIFE = LIFEzero * exp(M*DOD)
Where
• LIFE = number of cycles in life at depth of discharge DOD
• LIFEzero = number of cycles in life obtained by extrapolating cycle-life data to zero depth-of-discharge
• M = slope of plot of natural logarthmic of LIFE/LIFEzero versus DOD
• DOD = depth of discharge
Analysis of experimental data for each battery leads to the determination of LIFEzero and M.
Logarithmic plots of DOD versus cycles-to-failure (Linden, David, Handbook of Batteries & Fuel Cells, McGraw-Hill, 1984, p. 13-19)
for various battery types (Lead-acid, Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Zinc, and Alkaline-MnO2) verify the form of the above relationship.
Numerous researchers in other fields, such as photovoltaic systems (Facinelli, 1983 who reports that other photovoltaic
researchers also found the same trend), reports a linear relationship between DOD and cycles-to-failure.
1.6.4 Battery Age
Corrosion is the main component behind decreased battery performance by age. This effect has been modeled (Roan 1993) as
being linear. For instance, if a battery specification states that the battery loses 15% of its operational life by the end of its 5 year
calendar life, then one supposes that every month the battery will lose 0.25% of its cycle-life and its capacity every month (0.25% =
15%/60 months).