Hydro Power Generation

CHAPTER
NUMBER
1
INTRODUCTION OF POWER GENERATION
1.1 Electric Power Generation

Electricity generation is the process of converting non-electrical energy to
electricity. For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to
consumers. The other processes, electric power transmission and electricity distribution,
are normally car Periodic changes of water levels, and associated tidal currents, are due to
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the gravitational attired out by the electrical power industry .Electricity is most often
generated at a power station by electromechanical generators.
1.1.1 History:
Centralized power generation became possible when it was recognized that
alternating current power lines can transport electricity at very low costs across great
distances by taking advantage of the ability to raise and lower the voltage using power
transformers.
Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were run on water power
or coal, and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and petroleum with a small amount from
solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and geothermal sources.
1.1.2 Electricity Generation:

A "generator" and "motor" is essentially the same thing: what you call it depends
on whether electricity is going into the unit or coming out of it.
A generator produces electricity. In a generator, something causes the shaft and
armature to spin. An electric current is generated, as shown in the picture (lightning bolt).
Lots of things can be used to make a shaft spin - a pinwheel, a crank, a bicycle, a
water wheel, a diesel engine, or even a jet engine. They're different sizes but it's the same
general idea. It doesn't matter what's used to spin the shaft - the electricity that's produced
is the same.
A motor uses electricity. In a motor, the electricity comes in through wires

attached to the positive (+) and negative (-) terminals. The electric current causes the
armature and shaft to spin. If there's just a little current and it's a small motor, it won't do
very much work (i.e. it can only spin a small fan). If it's a large motor and it's using a lot
of electricity, it can do a lot of work (i.e. spin a large fan very fast; lift a very heavy load;
or whatever the motor is being used for). Electric generators are essentially very large
quantities of copper wire spinning around inside very large magnets, at very high speeds.
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A commercial utility electric generator -- for example, a 180-megawatt generator
at the Hawaiian Electric Company's Kahe power plant on Oahu -- can be quite large. It is
20 feet in diameter, 50 feet long, and weighs over 50 tons. The copper coils (called the
"armature") spin at 3600 revolutions per minute. Although the principle is simple (copper
wire and magnets), it's not necessarily easy!
Steam turbine generators, gas turbine generators, diesel engine generators,

alternate energy systems (except photovoltaic), even nuclear power plants all operate on
the same principle - magnets plus copper wire plus motion equals electric current. The
electricity produced is the same, regardless of source.
So where all the different do fuels come in? It's all a question of how to get (and
keep) the system moving (i.e. how to keep the copper wire spinning around).
In a steam power plant, fuels (such as petroleum, coal, or biomass) are burned to
heat water which turns into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the
copper wire (armature) inside the generator and generating an electric current.
A geothermal power plant is pretty much a steam power plant, since what comes
out of the earth is steam. Rainwater soaks into the ground and goes down, down,
down...far enough until it reaches a region which is really hot (in Hawaii, that's about
6000 feet). A well is drilled, the steam comes out, goes through a heat exchanger, and
spins a turbine... turning the copper wire (armature) inside the generator and generating
an electric current. By the time the steam has gone through the heat exchanger, it has
cooled off and become warm water. It is then re-injected into the ground.
In a gas turbine power plant, fuels are burned to create hot gases which go
through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature inside the generator and
generating an electric current.
In a nuclear power plant, nuclear reactions create heat to heat water, which turns
into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature
inside the generator and generating an electric current.
In a wind turbine, the wind pushes against the turbine blades, causing the rotor to
spin...turning the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric current.
In a hydroelectric turbine, flowing (or falling) water pushes against the turbine
blades, causing the rotor to spin...turning the copper armature inside the generator and
generating an electric current.
Consumers expect electricity to be available whenever they plug in an appliance,

turn a switch, or open a refrigerator. Satisfying these instantaneous demands requires an
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uninterrupted flow of electricity. In order to meet this requirement, utilities and non
utility electricity power producers operate several types of electric generating units,
powered by a wide range of fuel sources. These include fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and
petroleum), uranium, and renewable fuels (water, geothermal, wind, and other renewable
energy sources).
Coal was the fuel used to generate the largest share (51.8 percent) of electricity in
2000 1,968 billion kilowatt hours (kWh). This is over one and a half times the annual
electricity consumption of all U.S. households (1,141 billion kWh). Natural gas was used
to generate 612 billion kWh (16.1 percent), and petroleum accounted for 109 billion kWh
(3 percent).
Steam-electric generating units burn fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and petroleum.
The steam turns a turbine that produces electricity through an electrical generator.
Natural gas and petroleum are also burned in gas turbine generators where the hot gases
produced from combustion are used to turn the turbine, which, and in turn, spins the
generator to produce electricity. Additionally, petroleum is burned in generating units
with internal-combustion engines. The combustion occurs inside cylinders of the engine,
which is connected to the shaft of the generator. The mechanical energy provided from
the engine drives the generator to produce energy.
1.2 Methods of power generation:

1) Gas power.
2) Hydro power.
3) Diesel power.
4) Thermal power.
5) Nuclear power.
6) Solar energy.
7) Wind power.
8) Wave power.
9) Tidal power.
10) Biogas power.
11) Geo thermal power.
12) Coal gasification
1.2.1 Gas power generation:

Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of gas
turbines and steam turbines. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through
combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns
cleaner than other fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per
unit energy released. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces
about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning
coal. Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is thus the cleanest source of
power available using fossil fuels, and this technology is widely used wherever gas can
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be obtained at a reasonable cost. Fuel cell technology may eventually provide cleaner
options for converting natural gas into electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive.
Natural gas is a mixture of combustible gases formed underground by the

decomposition of organic materials in plant and animal. It is usually found in areas where
oil is present, although there are several large underground reservoirs of natural gas
where there is little or no oil. Natural gas is widely used for heating and cooking, as well
as for a variety of industrial applications.
1.2.2 Hydro power:
Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of

power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most
widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the
project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably different output level of the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants. Worldwide,
hydroelectricity supplied an estimated 715,000 MWe in 2005. This was approximately
19% of the world's electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and accounted for over 63% of
electricity from renewable sources.
Some jurisdictions do not consider large hydro projects to be a sustainable energy
source, due to the human, economic and environmental impacts of dam construction and
maintenance.
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Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water
driving a water turbine and generator. In this case the energy extracted from the water
depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's
outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in
water is proportional to the head. To obtain very high head, water for a hydraulic turbine
may be run through a large pipe called a penstock.
Pumped storage hydroelectricity produces electricity to supply high peak
demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low
electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher
reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine. Pumped storage schemes currently provide the only commercially
important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily load factor of
the generation system. Hydroelectric plants with no reservoir capacity are called run-of-
the-river plants, since it is not then possible to store water. A tidal power plant makes use
of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if
conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatch able to generate power
during high demand periods.
1.2.2.1 Advantages:
• Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free.
• No waste or pollution produced.
• Much more reliable than wind, solar or wave power.
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• Water can be stored above the dam ready to cope with peaks in demand.
• Hydro-electric power stations can increase to full power very quickly, unlike
other power stations.
• Electricity can be generated constantly.
1.2.2.2 Disadvantages:
• The dams are very expensive to build.
However, many dams are also used for flood control or irrigation, so building
costs can be shared.
• Building a large dam will flood a very large area upstream, causing problems
for animals that used to live there.
• Finding a suitable site can be difficult - the impact on residents and the
environment may be unacceptable.
• Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an
impact on plant life.
1.2.3 Diesel power:

A Diesel power station (also known as Stand-by power station) uses a diesel
engine as prime mover for the generation of electrical energy.
This power station is generally compact and thus can be located where it is
actually required. This kind of power station can be used to produce limited amounts of
electrical energy. In most countries these power stations are used as emergency supply
stations.
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1.2.3.1 Operation:
The diesel burns inside the engine and the combustion process causes rotational
mechanical energy that turns the engine shaft and drives the alternator. The alternator in
turn, converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
This type of electricity generating power station will probably be used a long time
into the future, due to a need for reliable stand-by electrical source for emergency
situations.
1.2.3.2 Advantages:
• Simple design & layout of plant.

• Occupies less space & is compact.
• Can be started quickly and picks up load in a short time.
• Requires less water for cooling.
• Thermal efficiency better that of Steam Power plant of same size.
• Overall cost is cheaper than that of Steam Power plant of same size.
• Requires no Operating staff.
• No stand-by losses.
• High running charges due to costly price of Diesel.

• Plant does not work efficiently under prolonged overload conditions.
• Generates small amount of power.
• Cost of lubrication very high.
• Maintenance charges are generally high.
1.2.4 Thermal / Power Generation:

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam
driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an
electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a
condenser; this is known as a Ranking cycle. The greatest variation in the design of
thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term
energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.
Thermal power generation has a central role to play in supplying electric power,
and we are striving for the development of power generation technology that is even
more efficient.
1.2.4.1 Steam power generation (LNG-Fired Station):
Steam power plant facilities constitute a means of power generation that uses the
expansion power of steam. Fuel is burned inside a boiler to heat water and generate
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steam. This steam is then used to drive turbines which in turn drive the power generators
to make electricity. This steam is suitable for the use of thermal energy of relative low
temperature (below 600°C).
1.2.4.1.1 Main parts of thermal power generation:
Fuel Tanks
Natural gas produced in such places as Malaysia, Brunei, Das Island, and Alaska
is converted onsite to liquefied natural gas (LNG) with a temperature of -162°C and a
volume that is 1/600th of the original gas, and transported in specially designed vessels.
After the LNG has been stored in tanks with a double-walled construction like that used
for a thermos flask, it is turned back into gas by a vaporizer and transferred to the boiler.
One kilogram of LNG generates heat equivalent to some 13,000 kcal.
Boilers
Boilers burn the fuel transferred from the tank and use the resulting heat to
convert water into steam. Inside the boilers are tens of thousands of water-carrying tubes.
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When combustion commences, the temperature inside the boilers rises to between 1,100
and 1,500°C, the water inside the tubes is turned into high-temperature and high-pressure
steam, and the steam is transferred to the steam turbines.
Turbines
The steam rotates the turbine blades at a high speed of 3,000 rpm. This turns the
power generator, which is directly connected to the turbines, and electricity is produced
as a result. This electric power is then delivered along power transmission lines and
through substations to the homes of customers. The steam is cooled by seawater in a
condenser, restored to water, and then returned to the boiler for reuse. This cycle of water
to steam to water is repeated over and over again.
1.2.4.2 Combined cycle (CC) Power Generation:

Combined cycle power generation is a method of generating electric power that
combines gas turbine power generation with steam turbine power generation. By
employing a 1,100°C class gas turbine in the high-temperature section and by effectively
recycling the exhaust energy of this section in the steam system, the thermal efficiency
can be boosted to 43%. Furthermore, several small-capacity individual units are
combined to configure a large-capacity power generation facility, and startup and
shutdown operations can be easily tailored to the fluctuation in demand.
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For this reason, by adjusting the number of operating units under middle and low
outputs, the facility can be run at all times with the same high efficiency as with the rated
outputs. This, together with other features, makes combined cycle power generation an
excellent system in terms of mobility and thermal operating efficiency.
TEPCO turned its attention to the above-mentioned benefits of combined cycle power
generation at the early date of 1986 and introduced it to the Futtsu Thermal Power
Station, where a combined total of 2,000 MW are generated by Group1 and Group 2.
1.2.4.3 Class of Combined Cycle Power Generation ACC (Advanced
Combined Cycle):
With advanced combined cycle (ACC) power generation, the inlet gas
temperature of the gas turbine is raised to 1,300°C, higher temperature and pressure
levels are established as in the steam conditions in the steam turbines, and a reheating
cycle is also employed to improve the thermal efficiency. These enhancements increase
the thermal efficiency of ACC power generation to 50%.
Since TEPCO introduced this kind of ACC power generation facility to its Yokohama
Thermal Power Stations in 1996, it has brought these facilities on-line in its Chiba
Thermal Power Station, Futtsu Thermal Power Station Group 3, and Shinagawa Thermal
Power Station.
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1.2.4.4 Class of Combined Cycle Power Generation MACC (More
Advanced Combined Cycle):
This system is based on the ACC power generation system and achieves even
higher efficiency and capacity by raising the inlet gas temperature of the gas turbine to
even higher levels. By raising the temperature to 1,450°C through such technical
innovations as the development of heat-resistant materials for the gas turbines and gas
turbine steam cooling, the thermal efficiency has been improved to 53%.
In the future, this technology is destined to become the keystone of thermal power
generation not only because of its ability to conserve fuel through the improvements in
the thermal efficiency and its effect of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide discharged
but also because the larger capacities take full advantage of the scale, which makes it
possible to lower construction costs.
Future plans call for TEPCO to introduce the 1,450°C class of combined cycle
power generation to its Kawasaki Thermal Power Station and Futtsu Thermal Power
Station Group 4.
1.2.5 Nuclear power:

A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are initiated,
controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the
chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a second and is uncontrolled causing an explosion.
The most significant use of nuclear reactors is as an energy source for the
generation of electrical power (see Nuclear power) and for the power in some ships (see
Nuclear marine propulsion). This is usually accomplished by methods that involve using
heat from the nuclear reaction to power steam turbines.
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1.2.5.1 How it works:
In an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a

uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission
products) and free neutrons.
The physics of operating a nuclear reactor are explained in Nuclear reactor physics.
1.2.5.2 Electrical power generation:

The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be
converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to
use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a steam turbine
that generates electricity.
1.2.5.3 Advantages:
• Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so it's not expensive to make.
• Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect.
• Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel.
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• Produces small amounts of waste.
• Nuclear power is reliable.
• Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous.
It must be sealed up and buried for many thousands of years to allow the
radioactivity to die away.
For all that time it must be kept safe from earthquakes, flooding, terrorists and
everything else. This is difficult.
• Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety - if it does
go wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.
People are increasingly concerned about this - in the 1990's nuclear power was the
fastest-growing source of power in much of the world. In 2005 it was the second
slowest-growing.
1.2.6 Solar energy:

Solar technology converts sunshine into useful thermal energy, and subsequently into
electricity, by way of parabolic mirrors that concentrate the solar energy onto solar
thermal receivers containing a heat transfer fluid. The heat transfer fluid is circulated and
heated through the receivers, and the heat is released to a series of heat exchangers to
generate super-heated steam. The steam powers a turbine/generator to produce electricity
delivered to a utility’s electric grid. A central computerized tracking facility enables
optimal absorption of the sun’s energy by automatically adjusting the alignment of the
parabolic mirrors. From the moment the sun rises until it dips over the horizon, all of its
rays are captured and converted into usable energy.
With a back-up of alternative fuels, a solar plant can operate beyond daylight hours.
1.2.6.1 How does Photovoltaic work?
1. al Connection can be net metering as illustrated, or gross metering.

2. Low voltage DC electricity is generated by the solar array
3. The DC electricity is fed to the Inverter which changes it to 240V AC
4. Appliances in the house use solar electricity direct from the Inverter
5. Any excess electricity flows through a meter and is sold to the electricity grid at
the applicable 'Feed In' tariff
Electricity also flows back from the grid through the meter as per norm
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Solar cells convert sunlight into electricity and are made of semi-conducting
materials such as silicone. When sunlight is absorbed, the solar energy knocks
electrons loose from their atoms, and the electrons flow through the material
producing low voltage electricity.
This process of converting light (photons) to electricity (volts) is called the
PHOTOVOLTAIC effect.
When the thin silicone wafers, or cells, are wired together their combined
electrical output is increased. So different sized panels are produced depending
on the number of cells contained therein and they are commonly sized by their
output of Watts.
Because PV panels are modular and can be connected together easily, they are
often referred to as ‘solar modules’. Two types are commonly used, Mono-
crystalline and Poly-crystalline. Mono-crystalline cells perform better in low
light conditions.
A Photovoltaic system from All Solar Systems can provide some or all of your
home’s electricity needs. We install 1 kilowatt 1.5 kilowatt up to 5 kilowatt systems.
Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert
sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is
still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power
due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in
cost and multifunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now
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commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental
systems. Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where
there is no access to a commercial power grid or as a supplemental electricity source for
individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and
photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns,
have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is
growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey.
1.2.6.2 Advantages:
• Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.
• In sunny countries, solar power can be used where there is no easy way to get
electricity to a remote place.
• Handy for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and
battery chargers, or for helping your home energy bills.
• Doesn't work at night.
• Very expensive to build solar power stations.

Solar cells cost a great deal compared to the amount of electricity they'll produce
in their lifetime.
• Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny climate. In the United Kingdom,
solar power isn't much use for high-power applications, as you need a large area
of solar panels to get a decent amount of power. However, technology has now
reached the point where it can make a big difference to your home fuel bills...
1.2.7 Wind power:

Wind-powered turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with
other methods of producing power.
The Sun heats our atmosphere unevenly, so some patches become warmer than
others.
These warm patches of air raise, other air blows in to replace them and we feel a
wind blowing.
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We can use the energy in the wind by building a tall tower, with a large
propeller on the top.
The wind blows the propeller round, which turns a generator to produce electricity.
We tend to build many of these towers together, to make a "wind farm" and
produce more electricity.
The more towers, the more wind, and the larger the propellers, the more
electricity we can make.
It's only worth building wind farms in places that have strong, steady winds,
although boats and caravans increasingly have small wind generators to help keep their
batteries charged.
The best places for wind farms are in coastal areas, at the tops of rounded hills,
open plains and gaps in mountains - places where the wind is strong and reliable. Some
are offshore.
To be worthwhile, you need an average wind speed of around 25 km/h.

Most wind farms in the UK are in Cornwall or Wales.
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1.2.7.2 Advantages:
• Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.
• Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
• The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.
• Wind farms can be tourist attractions.
• A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.
• The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind.
• Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive.
• Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is unsightly.
• Can kill birds - migrating flocks tend to like strong winds. However, this is rare,
and we tend not to build wind farms on migratory routes anyway.
• Can affect television reception if you live nearby.
• Can be noisy. Wind generators have a reputation for making a constant, low,
"swooshing" noise day and night, which can drive you nuts.
Having said that, as aerodynamic designs have improved modern wind farms are
much quieter. A lot quieter than, say, a fossil fuel power station ; and wind farms
tend not to be close to residential areas anyway. The small modern wind
generators used on boats and caravans make hardly any sound at all.
1.2.8 Wave power:
Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the sea. Waves are a
powerful source of energy.
The problem is that it's not easy to harness this energy and convert it into
electricity in large amounts. Thus, wave power stations are rare.
There are several methods of getting energy from waves. One of them
works like a swimming pool wave machine in reverse.
At a swimming pool, air is blown in and out of a chamber beside the pool, which
makes the water outside bob up and down, causing waves.
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At a wave power station, the waves arriving cause the water in the chamber to rise
and fall, which means that air is forced in and out of the hole in the top of the chamber.
We place a turbine in this hole, which is turned by the air rushing in and out. The turbine
turns a generator.
A problem with this design is that the rushing air can be very noisy, unless a
silencer is fitted to the turbine. The noise is not a huge problem anyway, as the waves
make quite a bit of noise themselves.
Example:
Another company is called Renewable Energy Holdings. Their idea for

generating wave power (called "CETO") uses underwater equipment on the sea bed near
the coast. Waves passing across the top of the unit make a piston move, which pumps
seawater to drive generators on land. They're also involved with wind power and bio fuel.
1.2.8.2 Advantages:
• The energy is free - no fuel needed, no waste produced.
• Not expensive to operate and maintain.
• Can produce a great deal of energy.
Depends on the viscous dissipation at the seabed and in turbulence. This loss of
energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since
formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation has increased from
21.9 hours to the 24 hours. we see now; in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its
rotational energy. While tidal power may take additional energy from the system,
increasing the rate of slowdown, the effect would be noticeable over millions of years
only, thus being negligible.
12.9 Tidal Power:
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1.2.9.1 Energy calculations:
Various turbine designs have varying efficiencies and therefore varying power
output. If the efficiency of the turbine "Cp" is known the equation below can be used to
determine the power output.
The energy available from these kinetic systems can be expressed as:
• P = Cp x 0.5 x ρ x A x V³
Where:
Cp is the turbine coefficient of performance
P = the power generated (in watts)
ρ = the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m³)
A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m²)
V³ = the velocity of the flow cubed (i.e. V x V x V
Tidal barrages have been built before, whereas this idea is untested so it'll be interesting
to see if it gets approved.
1.2.9.2 Advantages:
• Once you've built it, tidal power is free.
• It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.
• It needs no fuel.
• It produces electricity reliably.
• Not expensive to maintain.
• Tides are totally predictable.
• Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are not ruinously expensive to build
and do not have a large environmental impact.
• A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide
area - the environment is changed for many miles upstream and downstream.
Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can feed. There
are few suitable sites for tidal barrages.
• Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually moving in or
out.
1.2.10 Biogas power:
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Methane gas produced during digestion (the decomposition of organic materials
by microorganisms in anaerobic condition) in the sludge treatment process is
used as fuel of power generation. This power is then used at water reclamation centers.
Through this, it is possible to use energy efficiently, reduce power costs, and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
For bio mass power station making electricity, it's pretty much like a fossil
fuel power station.
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Sugar cane is harvested and taken to a mill, where it is crushed to extract the
juice. The juice is used to make sugar, whilst the left-over pulp, called "bag ace" can be
burned in a power station.
The station usually provides power for the sugar mill, as well as selling electricity
to the surrounding area.
2008: plans have just been announced by tree energy company Eon for a biomass-
fuelled power station Port buries, near Bristol. The fuel would be wood, brought in by
boat, and the station would produce 150MW of electrical power.
It is claimed that bio fuels will help us to reduce our reliance on fossil-fuel
oil, and that this is a good thing.
On the other hand, it is also claimed that it takes a huge amount of land to grow
enough crops to make the amount of bio fuels we'd need, so much so that it makes a big
dent in the amount of land available for growing food.
Who is right? Should we be using more bio fuels and less fossil fuel? Think about
the carbon dioxide - there are similar CO2 emissions from bio fuel-powered vehicles as
from petrol-powered ones.
It is claimed that growing plants to make bio fuels will take in that carbon dioxide
again. But biologists tell us that forests are not 'the lungs of the planet' after all - they give
out as much CO2 as they absorb as the plants respire. It seems that its plant plankton in
the oceans that takes in most CO2 and gives out most oxygen.
1.2.10.2 Advantages:
• It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.
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• The fuel tends to be cheap.
• Less demand on the fossil fuels.
• Collecting or growing the fuel in sufficient quantities can be difficult.
• We burn the bio fuel, so it makes greenhouse gases just like fossil fuels do.
• Some waste materials are not available all year round.
1.2.11 Geo thermal power:
Geothermal power generation is an environment-friendly power generation

system that capitalizes on geothermal resources that are domestically produced energy.
Geothermal energy is a top source of renewable energy, better than solar or wind. When the wind doesn’t
blow and the sun doesn’t shine, the heat from the volcano continues to produce a steady flow of power.
Geothermal resources are found in three types of locations: in shallow ground; in

the hot water and rock located a few miles beneath the earth’s surface; and even deeper
into the earth where molten rock reaches extremely high temperatures.
Today we drill wells into the geothermal reservoirs to bring the hot water and
steam to the surface. Geologists and engineers do a lot of exploring and testing to locate
underground areas that contain this geothermal resource, so we’ll know where to drill
production and injection wells. Once the hot water and/or steam travel up the wells to the
surface, they can be used to generate electricity or for other energy-saving purposes.
This heat, called geothermal energy, provides warmth and power without
polluting the environment.
The heat from Earth’s core continuously flows outward. When temperatures and
pressures become high enough, some of the surrounding rock melts, becoming magma.
30
Because it is lighter, the magma rises, moving slowly up toward Earth’s crust, carrying
with it the heat from below.
Sometimes the hot magma reaches the surface, where we know it as lava. Kilauea
Volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii, for example, has been actively spewing lava since
the 1980s. Most often the magma remains below Earth’s crust, heating nearby rock,
rainwater and seawater that have seeped deep into the earth. Some of this hot water
travels back up through faults and cracks and reaches Earth’s surface as hot springs or
geysers. Most of it stays deep underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This
natural collection of hot water is called a geothermal reservoir.
Once geothermal waters reach the surface, the steam is sent to the power plant
and used to drive generators to produce electricity, and the brine and gases are re-injected
back into the injection zone below the water table. Combined, Puma Geothermal
Venture’s five production wells normally produce an average of two million pounds of
geothermal fluid per hour. Like wells in other volcanic regions (Indonesia, Philippines
and Iceland), PGV’s wells are considered prolific in comparison to other types of
geothermal wells in the industry.
There are three types of power-generating plants: dry steam, flash steam and
binary cycle. Dry steam plants, first used in Italy more than 100 years ago, route the
steam directly to a power plant to produce electricity. Dry steam plants are used in places
such as The Geysers in California, where steam is close to the surface. Flash steam power
plants cause the fluid to rapidly vaporize, driving turbines that in turn drive a generator.
Binary-cycle plants are similar and the most advanced. Their closed-loop circulation
31
system means that no excess gases or fluids reach the open air. PGV’s power plant
utilizes the closed-loop binary system.
1.2.11.1 Advantages
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland
Geothermal power requires no fuel, and is therefore virtually emissions free and
insusceptible to fluctuations in fuel cost. And because a geothermal power station doesn't
rely on transient sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind turbines or solar panels, its
capacity factor can be quite large; up to 90% in practice.
It is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to
the size of the heat reservoir. While individual wells may need to recover, geothermal
heat is inexhaustible and is replenished from greater depths. The long-term sustainability
of geothermal energy production has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy
since 1913, at the Waunakee field in New Zealand since 1958, and at The Geysers field
in California since 1960.
Geothermal has minimal land use requirements; existing geothermal plants use 1-
8 acres per megawatt (MW) versus 5-10 acres per MW for nuclear operations and 19
acres per MW for coal power plants. It also offers a degree of scalability: a large
geothermal plant can power entire cities while smaller power plants can supply more
remote sites such as rural villages.
From an engineering perspective, the geothermal fluid is corrosive and, worse, is
at a low temperature compared to steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics
this low temperature limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy
during the generation of electricity. Much of the heat energy is lost, unless there is also a
local use for low-temperature heat such as greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating.
However, since this energy is almost free once the plant is established, the efficiency of
the system is not as significant as for a coal or other powered plant.
There are several environmental concerns behind geothermal energy.
Construction of the power plants can adversely affect land stability in the surrounding
region. This is mainly a concern with Enhanced Geothermal Systems, where water is
injected into hot dry rock where no water was before. Dry steam and flash steam power
plants also emit low levels of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and sculpture, although at
roughly 5% of the levels emitted by fossil fuel power plants. However, geothermal plants
can be built with emissions-controlling systems that can inject these substances back into
the earth, thereby reducing carbon emissions to less than 0.1% of those from fossil fuel
power plants. Hot water from geothermal sources will contain trace amounts of
dangerous elements such as mercury, arsenic, and antimony which, if disposed of into
rivers, can render their water unsafe to drink.
Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades,
locations may eventually cool down. For example, the world's second-oldest geothermal
generator at Waunakee has reduced production. It is likely that locations like these were
32
designed too large for the site, since there is only so much energy that can be stored and
replenished in a given volume of earth. If left alone, however, these places should recover
their lost heat, as the Earth's mantle and core have vast heat reserves. Geothermal and
biomass are the only two renewable resources which must be carefully managed in order
to avoid local depletion. An assessment of the total potential for electricity production
from the high-temperature geothermal fields in Iceland gives a value of about 1500 TWh
(total) or 15 TWh per year over a 100 year period. The electricity production capacity
from geothermal fields is now only 1.3 TWh per year.
1.2.12 Coal Gasification:
Is this a new technology?
Coal gasification is a well-proven technology dating back to the 18th century,

although its uses have evolved significantly since then. Interest in coal gasification has
wavered in the U.S. during times when the price and availability of competing fuel
sources-oil and natural gas-were low. However, recent advancements in gasification
technology, increasing costs of oil and gas, growing concerns about energy security, and
a heightened awareness of climate change, have all led to a renewed interest in coal
gasification for electric power generation in the U.S. and many other countries.
Worldwide there are just four integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
plants running on coal today: one in Puerto llano, Spain, one in Belgium, Netherlands,
one near Terre Haute, Indiana, and one in Polk County, Florida. So while the technology
is not new, our experience with commercial-scale IGCC plants is limited. Fourteen will
also be advancing the technology. There is still much to learn, particularly about the
economics of operating a commercial-scale plant.
Future Gen will be an IGCC power plant. IGCC is an innovative technology that
combines modern coal gasification with a gas turbine and a steam turbine to produce
electric power. It is one of the most promising technologies available today for reducing
the environmental impacts associated with the use of coal for electricity production.
1.2.12.1 What are the advantages of IGCC technology?
Coal-fueled IGCC technology offers a number of potential benefits over conventional
pulverized coal plants. Depending on the final configuration of the IGCC plant, these can
include:
• Higher efficiency - The use of two turbines—a gas turbine and a steam turbine—
leads to higher system efficiencies
• Lower emissions - The gasification process enables improved removal of
naturally-occurring pollutants in coal, such as sulfur and mercury, resulting in
lower emission than conventional coal based power plants.
• Carbon sequestration potential - The IGCC process makes it easier to capture
carbon dioxide for carbon sequestration.
• Marketable byproducts - The byproducts associated with the gasification and
gas clean-up process may have commercial value in nearby industries.
33
• Hydrogen as an alternative fuel source - Hydrogen is gaining popularity as a
potential clean-burning fuel source of the future for vehicles and other industries.
The ability to produce hydrogen from coal for such future applications could
prove to be an important benefit of IGCC technology.
1.2.12.2 How do coal –based IGCC power plants work?

As illustrated in the figure below, IGCC power plants involve a complex chain of activities that start with a
carbon-based material—in the case of Future Gas, coal—and result in electricity that power our homes and businesses.
1. The coal gasification process begins with a controlled mixture of coal, oxygen,
and steam in a gasified. An air separation unit separates air into its component
parts to supply the gasified with a stream of oxygen.
2. Using a combination of heat and high pressure, the gasified converts the
constituents of coal into a synthetic gas, or "singes". This singes is comprised of
mostly hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO).
3. Byproducts captured in the gasified could have commercial value, depending on
local market conditions. For example, the Future Gen plant could produce an ash
material similar to what comes from a traditional coal plant. This ash may be used
as a filler material in construction projects and building products. Alternatively,
Future Gen may produce a glass-like material, known as "slag", which falls to the
bottom of the gasified. This slag may be used in road gravel.
4. The singes is then passed through a water gas shift reactor and reacted over a
catalyst with added steam to convert the majority of the CO into carbon dioxide
(CO2) and additional H2.
5. The singes will also have small amounts of other impurities (e.g. hydrogen
sulfide) which are removed during the gas clean-up process.
6. Hydrogen sulfide will be separated from the singes and converted to elemental
sulfur or possibly sulfuric acid. The sulfur byproducts may also have commercial
value in a variety of products (e.g. fertilizer), depending on local market
opportunities.
7. Most of the CO2 is removed from the singes leaving behind H2-rich singes.
8. One of the things that make IGCC plants more efficient is the combined use of a
gas turbine and steam turbine to produce electricity. The hydrogen-rich singes is
first fed into a gas turbine to generate electricity. The waste heat from the gas
turbine is used to power a steam turbine, which in turn creates more electricity.
Finally, much of the water used in this process will be recycled in the plant some
will be evaporated in a cooling tower
34
Chapter
Number
2
Hydro Power Generation
Water plays a very special part in the creation of electricity. Hydroelectricity –
when the power of falling water is turned into electricity has been used for
hundreds of years and is one of the most efficient ways to produce electricity. It's
also good for the environment because it is a renewable energy source that has
little environmental impact and does not emit greenhouse gases.
Hydroelectricity is an important part of NB Power's generation system. We
currently have 7 hydro stations throughout New Brunswick, which accounts for
half of all of NB Power's generation stations.
35
In a hydro station, water falls down a chute called the penstock and flows over
the blades of a turbine. The falling water turns the blades, which are attached to
the magnets by the generator shaft. The spinning blades turn the magnets, which
creates electricity in the wire coils.
2.1 Hydro Tour

Hydro electricity makes up more than 20 per cent of the total capacity of the
generation system. It's an important part of the system because it decreases
generation costs, while providing a renewable energy source that has little
environmental impact and does not emit greenhouse gases.
2.1.1 Nepisiguit Falls

NB Power purchased Nepisiguit Falls Generating Station in June 2007. The
station's first two units were built in 1921, with the addition of a third unit in 1929.
The Station has a total capacity of 10.8 MW.
36
2.1.2 Sisson
Although the Sisson Generating Station is small, its unique storage dam acts as
a regulator for water flowing to the Tobique Narrows Generating Station. The
storage reservoir at Sisson, 112 kilometres upstream from Tobique, is the largest
of the four storages in the Tobique River watershed. The water is supplied to the
Powerhouse through a 442 metre long steel penstock.
37
2.1.3 Grand Falls
The town of Grand Falls is situated on a plateau with the river flowing around it in
The form of a horseshoe. The natural falls and gorge are in the bend of the
horseshoe. The dam is at the top of the falls, with the water intake feeding a
pressure tunnel that runs under the town to the powerhouse. A number of
observation decks are located to give the best views of the falls and the gorge. A
natural trail stretching along the gorge also provides a good view of the falls.
38
2.1.4 Tobique
The Tobique Narrows Generating Station takes it name from one of the largest
tributaries of the upper Saint John River. The station was completed in 1953 and
has a capacity of 20 MW. A roadway sits atop the dam serving as a bridge. The
station has a fish ladder, a series of steps that allow Atlantic Salmon to swim
from the lower level of the dam to the waters of the Tobique and their spawning
grounds.
39
2.1.5 Beachwood
The 113 MW Beechwood Generating Station, located on the Saint John River
160 kilometres north of Fredericton, is a symbol of beauty and efficiency. The
floral clock located here is a popular tourist attraction. The clock is 9 meters in
diameter with a 4 meter minute hand and a 3 meter hour hand. It is run by power
from the dam and is operated by a motor in a small room underneath the clock.
The clock stands in a garden, which contains a collection of many native New
Brunswick trees.
40
2.1.6 Mactaquac
Mactaquac is the largest hydroelectric generating station in the Maritime
Provinces and is located 19 kilometres up the Saint John River from Fredericton.
"Mactaquac", a Maliseet word meaning "big branch", was the name given to the
stream that flows into the Saint John River, and now forms part of the Mactaquac
headpond. The headpond offers ample recreational activities throughout the
year. Fish collection facilities have been incorporated at Mactaquac to help the
river's salmon stocks.
41
NB Power purchased Nepisiguit Falls Generating Station in June 2007. The
station's first two units were built in 1921, with the addition of a third unit in 1929.
The Station has a total capacity of 10.8 MW.
2.1.7 Milltown
NB Power's first hydro plant was the Milltown Generating Station. The station is
located on the St. Croix River, which forms the south western international
boundary between New Brunswick and Maine. When originally built it 1881, the
plant contained a 500 horse power water wheel with equipment attached by the
traditional rope drive method. A new dam was built in the early 1900s.
2.2 Locations
Countries with the most hydroelectricity used China, Canada, Brazil, USA,
Russia, Norway, India, Japan, Sweden, and France. Hydroelelectricity is found
mostly in three states; California, Oregon and Washington. Although there are a
42
few other states that can create this form of electricity, these three states create
over
1/2 of the total power found by water.
2.3 Hydro electric- how it works
Hydroelectricity is made when a dam is built in a high water flow area. The water
then builds up behind the dam; a fan blows water into the turbine area, spinning
the turbine generating electricity. The energy is then wired to a powerhouse,
43
which sends it out to the millions of people waiting for it.
44
2.4HydroPowerGeneratin
The use of VSI Generators for hydropower generation will be extensive.
Generally, wherever induction generators are or would be installed, the VSI
Generator will displace the use of those generators. More importantly, the use of
VSI Generators will expand seasonal hydro generation output and provide
opportunities for development of hydro sources which otherwise would not be
tapped.
2.5 Displacement of Synchronous Generators

Synchronous generators are used where a large dam can be constructed to
ensure relatively constant water flow. This is necessary because with
synchronous generators the hydro turbine must be operated precisely and
constantly to deliver synchronous rpm to the generator. The VSI Generator can
use hydro resources without the need for elaborate gates and hydro governor
systems which add cost and reduce overall hydro efficiency.
2.6 Displacement of Induction Generators

Induction generators are currently used in locations where water flow cannot be
constantly adjusted to ensure constant turbine torque and in situations where
synchronous generators cannot be cost-justified, as is the case with small to
intermediate hydro developments of less than 15 megawatts. In these smaller
hydropower developments all over the world, which would otherwise employ
induction generators, a great potential for the deployment of VSI Generators
exist. In hydro applications there are several advantages, which the VSI
Generator has over the induction generator. Most importantly, the VSI Generator
will operate at various speeds without the need for water flow controls and
synchronizing equipment. With the VSI Generator, hydro plants can expand their
operating range and efficiency. The VSI Generator can enable a hydro plant to
generate power over more months of the year.
Moreover, whenever water resources are available that would otherwise over-
speed or under speed an induction generator, power can be produced through
the VSI Generator without incident. Furthermore, generator load capability can
be more economically matched to hydro turbine output to increase overall turbine
generator efficiency. With the VSI Generator, costly and complex synchronizing
equipment will also not be necessary. Thus, in a vast number of cases,
hydropower will provide superior cost effectiveness with the use of VSI
Generators. In addition, the number of hydropower applications can be
significantly increased through the use of the VSI Generator. Many low head
hydro sources such as paddle wheels, mining sluices and Pelt on wheels on
smaller rivers, streams and waterfalls which were previously untarnished can
now become cost effective sources of utility compatible power.
45
2.7 Problems faced by Hydroelectric Developers
Hydroelectric power theoretically, is one of the least expensive sources of electric
energy, because water (the prime mover) is free of cost and is also consistent.
However, with the fluctuations associated with water flow and the conventional
generation systems used, installation of a hydroelectric plant is a very expensive
and time-consuming venture. Consider the cost, with the price of land under the
reservoir, the cost of constructing a dam and its bypass, as well as the
maintenance of the reservoir, the dredging of silt that constantly is added by
sedimentation of the impounded water and environmental issues that result from
the damming of a river. These are major problems facing most of the
hydroelectric developers today.
With the use of the VSI Generator all of these costs become unnecessary
because there is no need for the impounding of water, the construction of the
dam and bypass and the maintenance of the lake. By having a project use just
the natural flow of the river; you can commence the operation and production of
electric energy immediately without the high cost and development time
associated with the construction of a conventional dam. By using turbines that
convert the moving water into mechanical energy, the VSI Generator will produce
electric energy without any other equipment. Furthermore, with the use of low
speed turbines you may install thousands of smaller units along the course of a
river without restricting its natural flow and also increase the electric output as the
demand continues to increase. This cannot be accomplished with the
conventional generator and the impounding of water because the amount of the
power is fixed to the capacity of the dam itself.
2.8 Hydel Generation

As a consequence of partition of the Indo-Pakistan Sub-Continent in 1947, India
and Pakistan became two independent sovereign states. Hydel generation
capacity of only 10.7 MW (9.6 MW - Malakand Power Station & 1.1 MW - Renal a
Power Station) existed in the territory of Pakistan. With the passage of time, new
Hydel Power Projects of Small and Medium capacities were commissioned
including the first water storage dam and power house at Warsaw due to which
country's Hydel capability raised to about 267 MW up till 1963. The Irrigation
System which existed at the time of partition in 1947 was divided between the
two countries without any regards to the irrigation boundaries which resulted in
an international water dispute which was finally resolved by signing of the Indus
Water Treaty in 1960 under the aegis of World Bank. The Treaty assigned three
Eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas and Sutlej) to India and three Western rivers (Indus,
Jhelum & Chenab) to Pakistan. It also provided construction of replacement
works called Indus Basin Projects (IBP) to compensate for perpetual loss of
Eastern Rivers' water. The works proposed under the Treaty included two
multipurpose dams i.e. Mangla Dam on Jhelum River and Tarbela Dam on Indus
River having the provision of power generation. These were commissioned in
46
1967 & 1977 respectively. However, their capacities were subsequently extended
in different phases.
2.9 Hydel Generation Capacities

The total capacity of 13 No. Hydel Stations as of today is 6443.56 ~ 6444 MW
which is 37.10% of total installed generation capacity of WAPDA. During
2007~2008, aggregate energy sharing during the year was 33.32%. The Hydel
Generation Capacity was reduced from 6463.16 MW to 6443.56 MW due to
decommissioning of Jabban Hydel Power Station after a fire incident in
November, 2006.
2.10 Seasonal Variations of Hydel Generation

The seasonal variations of reservoir levels and consequent reduction in Power
outputs of storage type hydel projects in Pakistan are very pronounced. Tarbela
with maximum head of 450 ft. experiences variation of 230 ft. while Mangla has
162 ft. variation against the maximum head of 360 ft.The lean flow period of
Tarbela reservoir is from November to June when the Capability reduces to as
47
low as about 1350 MW against the maximum of 3692 MW during high head
period i.e. August to September (15% permissible overloading on Units
1~10).Lean flow period of Mangla reservoir is observed from October to March
when the minimum generating capability is 500 MW. The capability rises to as
high as 1150 MW during 'high head' period (15% permissible overloading).
In all, WAPDA's Hydel generating capability varies between the two extremities
of 2414 MW and 6746.0 MW over the cycle of a year.
2.11Statistics
The next few pages provide information about the salient features of WAPDA
Hydel Stations, their locations, statistical data etc. which are titled as under:
a. Location of Hydel Stations in PAKISTAN.

b. Installed Capacities of WAPDA's Hydel Stations.
c. Performance of Hydel Generation 2007~2008(Financial Year)
d. Salient Features
e. Mangla Dam
f. Tarbela Dam
g. Warsak Dam
h. Chashma Hydropower Project
2.12 Performance of HYDEL POWER STATIONS
48
Tarbela
Installed Capacity 3478 MW
Effective Capacity (Max.) 3702 MW
Effective Capacity (Min.) 1350 MW
Energy Generation 14959.18 GWH
Auxiliary Consumption 69.79 GWH
Maximum Load 3702 MW
Plant Factor 49.1 %
Availability Factor 94.67 %
0
Mangla
Plant Factor 53.51 %
0
Warsak
Maximum Load 208 MW
0
Chashma
49
Effective Capacity (Min.) 24.8 MW
Maximum Load 184 MW
0
Dargai
Effective Capacity (Max.) 18.8 MW
Maximum Load 18.8 MW
0
Malakand (Jabban)
Energy Generation 0 GWH
Auxiliary Consumption 0 GWH
Maximum Load 0 MW
Plant Factor 0 %
Availability Factor 0 %
0
Rasul
50
0
Shadiwal
Installed Capacity 13.5 MW
Maximum Load 8 MW
0
Nandipur
Maximum Load 8.6 MW
0
Chichoki
Maximum Load 7 MW
Plant Factor 17.4 %
0
51
K/Garhi
Maximum Load 4 MW
0
Renala
0
Chitral
0
Ghazi Barotha
52
0
We thought you might like to find out what happens inside our hydro stations. For
your convenience, this tour provides a 360 degree virtual environment. Pages
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CHAPTER
NUMBER
53
3
Electricity produced by dams

Hydro-electric dams produce 10% of our nations electricity and 80% of the
electricity produced from renewable resources.
The building of hydro-electric dams affects our rivers, wildlife, and environment.
By building new dams we make man made lakes which means we have to
backup the river water. This damages the surrounding environment by cutting off
the large water supply farther downstream, flooding the environment by the dam
with the backed up water, and digging up the environment for the dam and lake.
Therefore the building of dams has to be reviewed case-by-case.Also the
building of dams is not only an environmental problem in some place but also an
economical one. It cost a great deal of money to build a single dam.
The qualities of the dams are based off of the following criteria:
River flows,
Water quality
Fish passage and protection
Watershed protection
Threatened & endangered species protection
Cultural resource protection
Recreation
Facilities recommended for removal
There are three kinds of hydro-electric dams in the U.S.
54
1-'Storage' Dams- store water in reservoirs that runs there turbines.
2-'Run-of-Rivers' Dams- river runs through a powerhouse, producing electricity
but also changing the river's water level.
3-'Pumped-Storage' Dams- uses off-peak electricity to pump water from a lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir and in times of high electrical need it dumps the
water back into the low reservoir.
3.1 Dam failures

Failures of large dams, while rare, are potentially serious the Banqiao Dam
failure in Southern China resulted in the deaths of 171,000 people and left
millions homeless. Dams may be subject to enemy bombardment during
wartime, sabotage and terrorism. Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities are
less vulnerable to these threats. The creation of a dam in a geologically
inappropriate location may cause disasters like the one of the Vermont Dam in
Italy, where almost 2000 people died, in 1963.
3.2 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of water as a power source are as followed, one it affects
ecology and causes down stream problems. The second thing is dams can also
alter the natural river flow and affect wildlife. The third problem would be that
oxygen poor water can be released into the river, and kill many fish.
3.3 Comparison with other methods of power

generation
Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion,
including pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, dust,
and mercury in the coal. Hydroelectricity also avoids the hazards of coal mining
and the indirect health effects of coal emissions. Compared to nuclear power,
hydroelectricity generates no nuclear waste, has none of the dangers associated
with uranium mining, nor nuclear leaks. Unlike uranium, hydroelectricity is also a
Renewable energy source.
Water as a power source is used more in Canada than in America.
How much of nations power is used for water?

10% of total power is produced by hydroelectric plants.
What are the advantages of water as a power source?
Fuel is not burned so there is minimal pollution, Water to run the power plant is
provided free by nature, its renewable-rainfall renews the water in the reservoir,
so the fuel is almost always there.
55
How is water made?
A solvent is a liquid capable of dissolving another substance. A polar molecule is
one that has positive and negative regions.
3.4 What do we mean by water quality impacts?

Water bodies come in many forms: huge oceans; large and small lakes; and a
diversity of rivers and streams. Each of these ecosystems features a tapestry of
waterborne species that are all dependent upon a high degree of water quality.
These bodies of water are also essential to human survival and public health. For
example, underground aquifers often supply us with drinking water. Waterways
are also not only key transportation routes for billions of dollars in global
commerce, but they represent popular opportunities for recreation in the form of
fishing, boating and water sports. Some particularly pristine spots in or near
ocean, lakes and rivers may be candidate for long-term preservation because of
their stunning aesthetic values.
The construction and continued operation of power plants, particularly those
fueled by fossil or nuclear fuels, are among the human activities that can have
the most profound and wide ranging negative impacts on water quality.
3.5How can electricity production impairs water

quality?
The following procedures all can occur during routine operations and
maintenance of power plants and each can significantly impact water quality:
Boiler blow down: This waste stream results from periodic purging of the
impurities that become concentrated in steam boiler systems. These pollutants
include metals such as copper, iron and nickel, as well as chemicals added to
prevent scaling and corrosion of steam generator components.
Coal pile run-off: This waste stream is created when water comes in contact with
coal storage piles maintained on the power plant site. While most piles are kept
covered, active piles used to meet the power plants immediate needs are often
open to the elements. Metals and other naturally occurring contaminants
contained in coal leach out with the rainfall and are deposited in nearby water
bodies.
3.6 Cooling process wastes:
Water used for power plant cooling is chemically altered for purposes of
extending the useful life of equipment and to ensure efficient operation.
Dematerialized regenerates and rinses are chemicals employed to purify waters
used as makeup water for the plant's cooling system. Cooling tower blow down
contains chemicals added to prevent biological growth in the towers and to
prevent corrosion in condensers.
3.7 Boiler cleaning wastes:
56
These wastes derive from the chemical additives intended to remove scale and
other byproducts of combustion.
Thermal pollution: Thermal plants create or use steam in the process of creating
electricity require water for cooling. This water typically comes from adjacent
water bodies or groundwater sources and is discharged back into the water body
at significantly higher temperatures. By altering the temperature in the "mixing
zone," the discharge of thermal wastewater can both negative and positive
effects on aquatic life. On the plus side, the warmer temperature water may
create more favorable feeding and breeding conditions for certain species
located near the power plant's water source. However, when the power plant is
suddenly shut down for routine maintenance or unplanned outage, the resulting
wide swing to colder temperatures can be lethal to sensitive fish populations.
Hydropower dams can also alter the natural temperature of the water, as
discussed above.
3.8 What are the impacts of power production on

water quality?
Many large central station fossil and nuclear power plants rely upon water for
cooling and are therefore located near bodies of water. In some instances, the
diversion of rivers creates reservoirs adjacent to power plants for cooling, rinsing
and the releases of effluents. A variety of processes associated with fuel
handling and ongoing maintenance of large thermal power plants create or
concentrate chemical pollutants that are then discharged into nearby water
bodies. Even when releases are limited to what is allowed in water use permits;
there is still the occasional but inevitable accidental release.
Both of these sources of pollution can be legal and alone can cause significant
harm to streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and groundwater. Water quality can
degrade to the point where fish and other aquatic life populations decline - even
when power plant operators abide by water permit restrictions. Often, the water
used in the power plant is also being diverted from other "higher" uses such as
recreation or tourism, drinking water supplies, and other less intrusive
commercial opportunities.
In addition, the habitat of many animal and plant species can be destroyed
during the construction of and continued operation of large fossil and nuclear
power plants. These same facilities represent challenges to maintaining a sense
of aesthetics in scenic environments.
3.9 Construction and operation of hydropower
57
Construction and operation of hydropower facilities can also have negative
impacts on water quality. By slowing the river's flow, most dams increase water
temperatures. Other dams decrease temperatures by releasing cooled water
from the reservoir bottom. Fish and other species are sensitive to these
temperature irregularities, which often destroy native populations. These
temperature changes, when combined with water stagnation, may also lead to
the accumulation of decaying materials in the reservoir and a corresponding loss
of oxygen, which then increases substances toxic to aquatic wildlife in the
reservoir. And when this oxygen-deprived water is released from behind the dam,
it can kill fish and vegetation downstream. Alternatively, water falling over
spillways to spin turbines to generate electricity can super-saturate the water with
gases from the surrounding air. The gas bubbles, which are absorbed into fish
tissue, may cause damage and ultimately kill the fish. Crystal-clear rivers can
also degrade quickly when water is impounded behind a man-made dam,
accumulating sediment and silt.
3.10 Impact of fish and wildlife

Hydropower dams also impact fish and wildlife habitat. Construction of a dam
converts river habitat into a lake-like reservoir. This often eliminates native
populations of fish and other wildlife. Warm, slow moving reservoirs also often
favor predators of naturally occurring species. It has been argued that reservoirs
can enhance waterfowl habitat, but such artificially created habitats may be of
considerably lower quality than the naturally evolved and undisturbed river
systems. Peaking power operations can also cause dramatic changes in
reservoir water levels -- often up to 40 feet -- that degrade shorelines and disturb
fisheries, waterfowl, and bottom-dwelling organisms.
(See also Hydropower Generation, Water Consumption and Land Impacts Issue
Papers for more information on hydropower impacts.)
3.11 How can consumer electricity choice address

water quality problems?
Water quality impacts vary - sometime significantly - from electricity generating
technology to technology. Many renewable energy technologies such as wind
and solar photovoltaic technology produce electricity without generating any
waste effluent released into waterways or without relying upon any cooling water.
By contrast, thermal power plants that run on coal and other fossil fuels introduce
a myriad of chemicals for maintenance or operational purposes, and through
combustion, liberate other chemicals from the fuel that wind up in the power
plant's discharge. Nuclear power plants consume even more water than fossil
fuel facilities because of the additional cooling requirements of reactor cores and
can have major impacts on marine environments.
Consumers can help maintain the sustainability of rivers and streams, lakes and
oceans, by ensuring that their power comes from low impact and renewable
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sources that do not rely upon water for cooling. Some renewable resources, such
as solar thermal facilities or geothermal power plants may require cooling water
and therefore may have more of an impact than those other renewable sources
that lack any need for water cooling. Most renewable resources, however, are
smaller than coal and nuclear power plants and therefore their negative impacts
on water bodies are considerably less.
3.12 What are the land impacts of generating

electricity?
3.12.1On-site
The gigantic central-station, electric generating facilities that provide the vast bulk
of the electricity in the US can occupy acres upon acres of land just for the power
plant components alone. These power plants also require on-site fuel storage
facilities as well as structures for connecting to the transmission grid, which
requires additional land. Depending on the fuel burned at any one power plant,
electricity generators can leave their sites irrevocably scarred or polluted.
Construction of hydropower dams floods riverside lands, permanently eliminating
riparian and upland habitat. All of these are known as on-site land impacts.
3.12.2Off-site
Most generating facilities also produce solid waste by-products of combustion
that can be toxic. Solid wastes from power plants are typically land filled, another
way in which a generating facility impacts land as it extends its environmental
footprint beyond the boundaries of the power plant site. In this case, the waste
will likely remain at the landfill forever. Mining, collecting and transporting the
natural gas, coal, oil, and nuclear fuel necessary to generate electricity can also
impact land in much the same way by precluding other uses and leaving
permanent scars. All of these are known as off-site land impacts.
3.12.3On-site issues degrade and devalue the land

The average life expectancy of power plants today is 40 years or more. This
figure translates into a potentially major reduction in the value of the land around
the site for at least that period of time. Even following decommissioning, power
plants can leave indelible scars if fuel was stored on site and the generating
facilities leave toxic residues or other forms of pollution, which often can never be
completely cleaned up. Power plant sites may become sacrifice zones, sealed off
from any future land use due to contamination linked to the operation of a power
plant.
3.12.4 Off-site issues have far-reaching impacts

on ecosystems and aesthetics
The mining, collection and transporting of fuel can impose severe land-use
impacts. Natural gas pipelines often traverse private land all across the country,
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restricting its use and disrupting plant and animal habitat as well as other
potential land uses. Coal mining can chew-up whole hillsides and mountains,
leaving unsafe and unsightly disruptions of landscapes that may have also
represented scenic or recreational values.
3.13 Storage of solid waste

Both on and off site, can also leave long-lasting marks. Not only does solid waste
storage permanently preclude using the land for other purposes, but rain can
create leach ate which, if not properly contained, can contaminate nearby
underground water sources. The impacts of solid waste are, as a general matter,
in direct proportion to volume and toxicity. Environmentally sound waste disposal
techniques can reduce, but not eliminate, these impacts.
The land impacts of hydropower facilities depend on individual dam design,
location and operation. Land use and ecosystem impacts of facilities that use
large impoundments can be severe. The dam and reservoir may transform the
landscape, obliterate sensitive land resources, and permanently alter regional
land use patterns. In contrast hydropower facilities can also be designed to limit
or offset such impacts.
(See also the Hydropower technology page and the Water Consumption and
Water Quality issue pages for more information of the land impacts of
hydropower.)
These negative environmental impacts associated with land use are not as clear-
cut a factor in evaluating a power supply option as are air and water impacts. A
power plant built on land that is not valued for other uses, and which was sited
with the best environmental controls and with full public input and agreement,
may produce few significant environmental insults to the land. On the other hand,
a nuclear reactor, which leaves behind radioactive wastes that will be with us
long after it is decommissioned, imposes land impacts that can exceed concerns
over air or water impacts associated with another generating technology.

land impacts?
Certain fuel types leave no permanent land impacts. Renewable solar and wind
facilities, for example, can be dismantled and removed from sites during
decommissioning. Having used no stored fuel, they leave no fuel-related pollution
behind. Similarly, these renewable resources eliminate concerns over fuel
collection or transportation impacts.
Geothermal technologies that uses the earth's heat to generate electricity may
also leave few permanent on-site or off-site impacts. If the power plant developer
harnessed the heat properly and ensured no contamination of surrounding water
supplies, these resources can be decommissioned without leaving behind major
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on-site land impacts. Geothermal facilities also require no national transportation
network for fuel delivery.
Biomass facilities that utilize a fuel resource that is sustainable generated, like
willow trees grown for fuel, or unfinished wood waste from a furniture
manufacturer, also leave few on-site or off site land impacts. Though they do
produce solid waste, it is of less toxicity than wastes from fossil fuel resources.
Biomass power plants that combust sustainable-generated wood waste streams
to create electricity also reduce the amount of solid waste earmarked for landfills,
which extends the life of these already crowded facilities.
Choosing a power supplier that sells electricity derived from wind, solar or low
impact biomass in its mix reduces the direct impacts that your electric supply can
have on land. The advent of retail competition offers consumers for the first time
the opportunity to directly influence the environmental footprint of electric power
production. In several states, suppliers are assembling resource portfolios that
are significantly cleaner and more dependent upon renewable energy sources.
By selecting one of these resource portfolios, you will help ensure that the
generation that supplies the power system are those that minimize on-site and
off-site land impacts. You will also be sending a powerful signal to power plant
developers that consumers prefer that their power supply come from sustainable
energy sources.
3.15 Potential environmental impacts

Hydroelectric facilities disrupt natural river flows
By diverting water out of the river for power, dams remove water needed for
healthy in-stream ecosystems. Stretches below dams may be completely de-
watered. By withholding and then releasing water to generate power for peak
demand periods, dams may cause downstream stretches to alternate between
no water and powerful surges that erode soil and vegetation, and flood or strand
wildlife. These irregular releases destroy natural seasonal flow variations that
trigger natural growth and reproduction cycles in many species. Peaking power
operations can also cause can cause dramatic changes in reservoir water levels
- up to 40 feet - that can degrade shorelines and disturb fisheries, waterfowl, and
bottom? Dwelling organisms.
Dams also slow down the flow of the river. Many fish species, such as salmon,
depend on steady flows to flush them downriver early in their life and guide them
upstream years later to spawn. Slow reservoir pools disorient migrating fish and
significantly increase the duration of their migration.
These impacts can, at times, be mitigated by technological and operational
enhancements to the hydro project - e.g., minimum flow turbines, re-regulating
weirs, and pulsed operation at peak efficiency. Impoundments can be managed
to create new upstream and downstream habitat for fish species and to provide
minimum discharges and improved habitat during seasonal or annual drought
conditions.
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3.16Hydropower may alter river and riverside
habitat
Construction of a dam can flood riverside lands, destroying riparian and upland
habitats. Construction of a dam can also convert river habitat into a lake-like
reservoir, threatening native populations of fish and other wildlife. Warm, slow
moving reservoirs favor predators of naturally occurring species. Dramatic
changes in reservoir water levels, described above, can degrade shorelines and
disturb fisheries, waterfowl, and bottom-dwelling organisms.
3.17Dams alter water quality

Impoundments can cause changes and variation in temperature or the amount of
dissolved gases in the river.
Surface temperatures in the reservoir may rise when the flow of the water is
slowed. If water is released from the top of the dam, this warmer water may
increase river water temperature down stream. Cooler downstream temperatures
may result when cool water is released from the bottom of a reservoir. Such
altered conditions can affect the habitat, growth rate, or even the survival of fish
and other species.
For hydropower projects with intakes located deep in the reservoir, water with
low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels released to the river downstream may harm
aquatic habitat in the river and contribute to other water quality problems.
Applying mitigating technologies can improve dissolved oxygen levels.
Water sometimes passes over a spillway, rather than through the turbines. As
water plunges into the pool at the base of the dam, too much air can be trapped
in the water, creating "gas super saturation," a condition that in some fish species
fosters something called lethal gas bubble disease. This can be mitigated by
installing structures to keep fish away from such areas.
3.18 A dam or a powerhouse can be a significant

obstacle to fish migration
Ladders or lifts can be installed to pass certain fish species upstream, though
multiple dams on a river reduces the success rate of these fish passage devices.
Fish migrating downstream can become disoriented, bruised, stressed, or
mortally injured from contact with turbines or other parts of the facility. Bypass
systems can improve survival rates for migrating juveniles. When fish are trucked
or barged around the dams, they may experience increased stress and disease
and decreased homing instincts. Survival rates for fish passing through large
turbines vary but may approach 90-95 percent. In the case of multiple dams
along a river these effects can significantly harm migrating populations of
important, sensitive juvenile fish populations.
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Impoundments also slow down the flow velocities of rivers. Slow reservoir pools
may disorient migrating fish, increase the duration of their migration, which in turn
may increase their mortality rate.
The steep decline in salmon populations in the Pacific Northwest and California
is perhaps the best known negative environmental impact associated with
hydroelectric facilities. Although several factors have affected this decline -
including commercial fish harvests, habitat degradation, and artificial fish
hatcheries - hydropower dams have contributed significantly. The causes for
these declines and the best strategies for restoring these important fisheries are
currently the subject of a major public policy debate.
3.19 Hydropower projects can impede the natural

flow of sediments
Flowing water transports sediment. When the flow velocities are reduced in an
impoundment, sediment drops out and collects on river and reservoir bottoms,
where it can affect habitat for fish spawning. The loss of sediment downstream
can degrade in stream habitat and cause the loss of beach at the mouth of the
river. The deposited sediment also may contain chemical or industrial residues
from upstream sources. Dams may block and concentrate contaminated
sediment in the impoundment. Dredging is used in some cases, though it is
costly and may raise questions regarding disposal of the dredged material.
Various flushing and piping techniques are available for moving non-
contaminated sediment downstream.

water use and consumption?
By re-directing their electricity dollars to support environmentally benign energy
resources, consumers are empowered, in states that offer supply choice, to
influence the existing generating resources that are deployed to meet demand.
They can also support the construction of new and cleaner electricity resources
that will be built to meet overall growth in demand in the future. By supporting
these power options, consumers can minimize many water use and consumption
impacts. Still, it should be noted that directing one's dollars to cleaner power
products in no way helps premeditate damages that already have occurred.
Consumers can stop the construction of new hydropower facilities or alter
conditions of sitting and operation, but they cannot undo previous environmental
degradation that occurred at existing hydropower facilities.
Ocean wave energy can be captured directly from surface waves. Blowing wind
and pressure fluctuations below the surface are the main reasons for causing
waves. But consistency of waves differs from one area of ocean to another.
Some regions of oceans receive waves with enough uniformity and force. Ocean
63
waves contain tremendous energy. Currently scientists and companies are
considering exploiting the wave power of oceans to harness clean and green
energy.
CHAPTER
NUMBER
4
64
HYDEL POWER
GENERATION IN USA
4.1 Studying Sea Waves with Radar
Off shore wind is steady and blows harder. If a country is densely populated it is
hard to find open space to install wind farms. That is why there are more and
more offshore wind farms in densely populated Europe where there is limited
space on land and relatively large offshore areas with shallow water. Scientists of
the Geesthacht GKSS Research Centre are interested in offshore winds and
mechanics of sea waves. They are working on a radar system to study the
behavior of the sea waves. This technology will be available for utilization on the
North Sea on the FINO3 research platform. This technology will help in finding
out the details of the interactions between offshore wind power machines and
swells.
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4.2 Harnessing Tidal Wave Energy with PusPlates
The Theme of Concept: Theme of concept is to harness the kinetic energy within
the flow of water without using the conventional methods like water wheel or
other types of turbines. With some changes this can be a source of producing
clean energy from tidal waves.
4.3 Hydrokinetic Power Barges
Interest in hydrokinetic energy -- which generates power by using submerged or

partially submerged turbines that harness the energy from flowing water -- is on
the rise throughout the world. Renewable energy advocates, governments and
66
investors are increasingly becoming aware of river currents and the huge
associated energy potential. Because hydrokinetic power generation relies
simply on the extraction of energy from the natural velocity of water, these power
systems can be placed into sources of flowing water with minimal infrastructure
or environmental impacts. Scroll down for images.
4.4 Obama Stresses Clean Energy on Earth Day

President Barrack Obama is known as a staunch supporter of green energy. His
stimulus plan has raised new hope for the environmentalists and economists
alike. On the occasion of Earth Day, President Obama declared that developing
renewable energy is crucial to America's prosperity. He also declared that his
administration will for the first time lease federal waters for projects to generate
electricity from wind as well as from ocean currents and other renewable
sources. Obama also emphasized the need for action on global warming and
preserving vast and beautiful natural resources of USA.
4.5 Renewable Energy from Slow Water Currents
We can use slow moving ocean and river waves for a new, reliable and
affordable alternative energy source. A University of Michigan engineer has
developed a device that acts like a fish that turns the potentially destructive
vibrations in water into clean, renewable energy. This machine is named as
VIVACE (Vortex Induced Vibrations for Aquatic Clean Energy). It is the first
known device that could draw energy from most water currents around the world,
according to a statement from the University of Michigan. "There won't be one
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solution for the world's energy needs," VIVACE developer Michael Baristas, a
professor at the U-M department of naval architecture and marine engineering,
said in the statement. "But if we could harness 0.1 percent of the energy in the
ocean, we could support the energy needs of 15 billion people."
4.6 Agucadoura Generating Power for 1,500
Homes
As the conventional sources of energy are dwindling, scientists are continuously

looking for alternative sources of energy. We are frequently reading about
generation of alternative and clean energy from unconventional sources.
Portugal built Agucadoura, the world's first wave farm off its coast. This wave
farm has three Wave Energy Converters which are producing a total of 2.25MW.
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4.7 European Marine Energy to Test Tidal Power
The European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) site is going to be the place where
marine energy farm Aquamarine Power is going to become the first Scottish
company to test both wave and tidal technologies. Aquamarine Power has
reached an agreement with EMEC to place its tidal stream power device known
as Neptune at the test site on the Isle of Eddy. Neptune is an Edinburgh-based
company.
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4.8 Clean Energy from Flowing Waters
The flowing waters in the rivers and tidal waves can be a good source of
alternative energy. With 70% of the earth's surface covered with water, a great
amount of energy can be produced by placing turbines at strategic locations
under strong currents. This method of generating electric power is called
hydrokinetic power generation. In fact, plans are under way to install 875
submerged turbines inside the Niagara River.
4.9 SeaGen Gets Ready To Go
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Paul Taylor: World’s first commercial-scale tidal stream turbine set to be
installed. Bristol-based Marine Current Turbines (MCT) is set to deploy its 1.2MW
SeaGen Tidal System in Stanford Narrows, Northern Ireland on Easter Monday.
Producing enough clean energy for 1000 homes (when fully operational), this will
be the first, commercial scale, tidal stream turbine installed and operating
anywhere in the world. It will generate one of the most environmentally-friendly
forms of energy - it makes no noise, is almost completely below the surface,
never runs out and has zero emissions.
4.10 Hydro-Hydraulic Energy Inventions
Pakistan inventor Sarfraz Ahmad Khan has been working hard to develop new
hydro technologies like this hydro power invention. His latest concept features
the run of river active setup of micro hydro power generation blended with basic
principals of hydraulics. This concept explores the possibility of transmitting the
(collective) mechanical power gained from run-of-river hydro setup by converting
it into hydraulic pressure. The sum-up of hydraulic pressure will make the main
generators work. The basic concept requires hydraulic systems that can help to
us to gain some reasonably good mechanical advantages. The hydro-mechanics
will convert the mechanical force into hydraulic pressure. The collective hydraulic
pressure shall be utilized to rotate the generator shaft.
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4.11 Seagen Tidal Power Installation
Paul Taylor: Installation Of The World's First Commercial Tidal Current Power
System Confirmed. Marine Current Turbines has today (June 6th 2007)
confirmed that installation of its SeaGen commercial tidal energy system will
commence during the week of August 20th in Northern Ireland's Stanford Laugh.
At 1.2MW capacity, SeaGen will be the world's largest ever tidal current device
by a significant margin, and will generate clean and sustainable electricity for
approximately 1000 homes. It is also a world first in being a prototype for
commercial technology to be replicated on a large scale over the next few years.
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4.12 Hydro Power Invention
A new hydro power technology is being developed by Sarfraz Ahmad Khan of

Pakistan. In theory these hydro plants would not require a reservoir and would
have a minimal impact on the environment. They could be run side-by-side in
rows and would be much cheaper to build, operate and maintain. Sarfraz has
high hopes that his ideas could revolutionize hydro power in his country and
across the globe. He is currently seeking expert confirmation of his ideas; this
article provides a brief summary of his ideas along with some of the 3D images
he has created. You can help him by leaving your comments at the bottom of the
page, or by joining the discussion that inspired this article.
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4.13 Wave Power in Scotland
The development of the first sub sea commercial wave farm by a Scottish
company took another important step forward today (Tuesday February 20th
2007) with news that Scottish wave energy company, AWS Ocean Energy Ltd.
based in Alness, Ross-shire, has secured £2.128 million funding from the
Scottish Executive. The funds will be used to develop and commercialize AWS'
Archimedes Wave Swing, one of the few proven technologies worldwide for
generating clean, renewable electricity from the ocean's waves. The support for
AWS is part of a £13 million support package for Scottish marine energy
developers funded by the Scottish Executive, which aims to establish Scotland
as a world leader in marine energy.
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4.14 Ocean Renewable Energy Coalition
The Ocean Renewable Energy Coalition (OREC) was founded in 2005 by Sean
O'Neill (founder of Symmetrix) and Carolyn Elefant (Law Offices of Carolyn
Elefant). The mission of OREC is the advancement and commercialization of
offshore renewables, including offshore wind, ocean wave, OTEC and ocean and
stream based tidal and current (hydrokinetic) technologies. In 2006 OREC
lobbied for federal funding for offshore renewable projects and tax incentives to
stimulate private investment.
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4.15 Hydel Power and Poverty Alleviation
Harnessing hydel energy can be an effective way of reducing poverty. China and
India have already done that successfully. It is not a fruitful idea to keep
discussing as to how much the number of people living below the poverty line
has come down during the last five years. Considering that even with the
reduced percentage, those suffering from acute poverty are still too many to be
left on their own. Now is the time to move on and discuss the best strategy to
reduce poverty and help the economy grow at the same time. Article submitted
by Arshad H Abase.
4.16 Ocean Energy Bionics

BioPower Systems is developing a new ocean energy technology in Australia
that will use bionics to mimic natural systems in order to produce energy. Both
bio STREAM and bio WAVE technologies use biomimicry, which refers to the
adaptation of biological traits in engineered systems. Bio Power Systems has
copied many of the beneficial traits from natural systems in the development of
the new ocean energy conversion systems. The company is researching this new
technology for application. Laboratory testing will be completed in 2007, and full-
scale ocean-based prototypes will be tested in 2008. Commercial units are
expected to reach the market by the end of 2009.
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4.17Tidal Energy Industry Boom
Small tidal power companies are taking advantage of the rising interest in
alternative energies. Large amounts of coastal waters are being reserved on both
coasts of North America by small companies who plan to take advantage of
ocean energy technologies, in the hopes that these sites will become profitable
sources of electricity. Celeste Miller, spokeswoman for the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission, says that interest in tidal power technology began about
two years ago. Her agency issues permits that give companies exclusive rights to
study the tidal sites. Permit holders usually have first dibs on development
licenses
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4.18 Pelamis Offshore Wave Energy in Portugal
A Portuguese energy company called Enersis is funding a commercial wave
energy project in Northern Portugal. Construction will begin at the end of October
2006. The project will use Pelamis wave generator technology (manufactured by
Ocean Power Delivery) to harness energy from the ocean. After two decades of
research and testing at the Lisbon Technical Institute, the first stage of this ocean
energy project is intended to produce 2.25 megawatts and power homes through
the nation's state-run electrical grid system. Ocean Power Delivery is considered
to be the world's leading ocean energy company.
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CHAPTER
NUMBER
5
79
Micro Hydro Power -
Process and Controls
Small-scale micro hydro power is both an efficient and reliable form of energy,
most of the time. However, there are certain disadvantages that should be
considered before constructing a small hydro power system. It is crucial to have
a grasp of the potential energy benefits as well as the limitations of hydro
technology. There are some common misconceptions about micro-hydro power
that need to be addressed. With the right research and skills, micro hydro can be
an excellent method of harnessing renewable energy from small streams. This
article will attempt to outline some of the advantages and disadvantages of small
scale water turbines.
Ocean wave energy can be captured directly from surface waves. Blowing wind
and pressure fluctuations below the surface are the main reasons for causing
waves. But consistency of waves differs from one area of ocean to another.
Some regions of oceans receive waves with enough uniformity and force. Ocean
waves contain tremendous energy. Currently scientists and companies are
considering exploiting the wave power of oceans to harness clean and green
energy
80
5.1 Introduction to Micro-hydro
Micro-hydro power was the mainstay of power generation for hundred's of years
before the advent of fossil fuels and could well is again now that the problems of
climate change are becoming ever more apparent.
The UK has thousands of old mill sites waiting to be re-activated using modern
micro-hydro water turbines rather than water wheels, and Siegen has the
knowledge and experience to help make that a reality.
Siegen is one of the UK's leading installers of micro-hydro water turbines and
Siegen’s knowledge is second to none and we have many working systems to
prove it.
Please read our Introduction to Micro-hydro page which will give you an
overview of what a micro-hydro system is.
5.2 Feasibility study

Siegen can assist with all aspects of a micro-hydro system;
A feasibility study to establish if a site it suitable for a micro-hydro system and
generate an outline budget and expected energy generation.
Applications for an abstraction license to the Environment Agency to obtain
permission to use the water flow for micro generation.
Siegen can provide a compete service for all aspects of a micro-hydro system
design.
Project management of all stages of the installation and commissioning of a
project.
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Siegen also design and manufacture our own low head water turbines.
If you wish further information then please review carefully our Estimating Head
and Flow guide and then use our Hydro Enquiry form.
5.3 Alternative energy

For sustainable development we must keep attention on energy. Other vice the
villagers in remote villages consume a lot of firewood, coercing oil, Dry sells etc.
For that they have to spend a lot of money and it can make a lot of disturbers to
family in economically, physically (Health) and socially. Hoed helps to decrease
this problem.
HEDO promote;
5.3.1 Micro hydropower
5.3.2 Pico hydropower
5.3.3 Effective stoves
5.3.4 Bio-Gas plants
And HEDO has the skill and capacity to promote Dendro power plants and wind
mill also
5.3.1 Micro Hydropower
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Daraniyagala which is HE Do’s working area is remote area in Sri Lanka. In
Daraniyagala more than 50% of populations are live in off grid aria. This area is
hill area with beautiful streams. The streams that flow through hill area have
potential to generate energy. HEDO started promote micro – hydro power
generation projects in the villages who’s having the suitable water sources in the
living area. This power plant can produce enough energy to a small village for
lighting their house. HEDO started this with a World Bank funded project called
Energy service delivery project (ESD) in 2001.
The program is very successful and HEDO staff got training about micro hydro
power project designing & developing. After the training HEDO started implement
power plant in 2001. HEDO has completed & facilitated several plants in the
area. One of those projects selected to vote for success 10 project of
UNDP/SGP. Because of this 560 house holders consume the electricity. These
families are being stopped the coercion consumption almost 8400 liters and save
one million Sri Lankan rupees per month. It helps to poverty reduction in villages
and helps to improve their lifestyle. The communication facility, Information
technology and educational capacities also improved by this.
5.3.2 Pico hydro power
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HEDO are being introduced Pico hydro power with Practical action Sri Lanka in
2008. It can generate hydro power from small scale water flow. It’s suitable
whose don’t have enough water resources to develop micro hydro plant. It can
generate electricity for one house or five families to get electricity for lighting.
HEDO is has a target to stabilized Pico plants more than 300 within next tow
years in Sri Lanka.
5.3.3 Effective stoves

In Sri Lanka most of the villagers still consume wood as a fuel. While cook foods
using firewood the smoke can be caused to lungs damages. In addition to that
unlimited fire wood consumption can make bad effect on forest conservation.
There for ineffective stove can make bad impact for both the human and
environmental. There for HEDO promotes effective stoves among villagers in the
working area. It can be save wood 60% and the smoke density is very low.
5.4.4 Bio-Gas plants
HEDO promote Bio-Gas plant for both energy and manure. The Bio-Gas plant
can generate enough gas for cooking purpose and save firewood consumption.
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Bio-Gas plant works as an organic manure production unite also. It can reduced
chemical fertilizer consume and save the money. Bio-Gas plant is good option
which is able to protect environment & improve life style of the family.
CHAPTER
NUMBER
6
Different Types of Dames
6.1. Mangla Dam
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Mangla Dam Project was actually conceived in 1950's as a multipurpose project
to be constructed at a place called Mangla on river Jhelum located about 30 km
upstream of Jhelum city (120 km from Capital Islamabad). The initial
investigation and its feasibility studies were completed in 1958. Later on the
project was included in the Indus Basin Project.
The construction of Mangla Dam was started in 1962 and completed in 1967.
Mangla Dam
Type Earth-fill
Max. Height
(above core trench) 454 ft. 138.38 meters
Max. Height
(above river bed) 380 ft. 115.57 meters
Crest Elevation 1234 ft. SPD 376.12 meters

Length of Crest 11000 ft. 3353 meters
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Besides providing timely irrigation supplies to agriculture, the project has
generated 174.067 Billion units of low cost hydel energy since its commissioning.
Annual Generation during 2006-2007 was 6.150 Billion KWh while the Station
shared 1150 MW peak load which was 8.51% of total WAPDA System Peak.
6.2. PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT

Mangla Dam is a multipurpose project primarily meant for affecting part
replacement of water supplies of three eastern rivers from Jhelum river. Besides,
it is designed to conserve and control flood water of river Jhelum through
significant reduction in flood peaks and volumes at downstream by incidental use
of the available storage space. The other by products are power generation to
meet the power demand of the country, fish culture to provide protein rich diet,
tourism to provide healthy recreation facilities to the people and navigation.
6.3. PROJECT COMPONENTS

The project consists of two dams (Main Dam & Jeri Dam), two dykes to contain
reservoir, two spillways for outflow regulations, intake structures with five tunnels,
a power house and a tailrace canal.
6.4. POWER HOUSE

Power House has been constructed at the toe of intake embankment at the
ground surface elevation of 865 ft. SPD. The water to power house is supplied
through five steel lined tunnels of 30/26 ft. diameter. Each tunnel is designed to
feed two generating units. The power house tailrace discharges into New Bong
Canal which has a length of 25,000 ft. with discharge capacity of about 49,000
cusecs, and terminates at an automatic gate control headworks at about 12 km
downstream located near old Bong Escape Headwork’s.
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Power Station was completed in four stages. The initial phase comprising of four
units of 100 MW each was completed in 1967~1969. The first extension of Units
5~6 (2 x 100 MW) was completed in 1974 while second extension comprising of
Units 7~8 (2 x 100 MW) was completed in 1981. The project attained its
maximum capacity of 1000 MW with the final extension of Units 9~10 (2 x 100
MW) in 1993/94.
During the high reservoir level period, Mangla is able to generate 1150 MW
against the rated capacity of 1000 MW due to permissible overloading of 15%
whereas the capacity reduces to about 500 MW in the lean flow period (winter
season) due to low reservoir level.
Salient features of various components of Mangla Dam and Power House are as
under:
6.5. Tarbela Dam
Tarbela Dam is one of the world’s largest earth and rock filled Dam and greatest
water resources development project which was completed in 1976 as a
component part of Indus Basin Project. The Dam is built on one of the World’s
largest rivers – the Indus known as the “Abbasin” or the father of rivers.
Emerging from the znd of glaciers on the northern slopes of Kailash ranges,
some 17,000 feet (5182 meters) above sea level, the river Indus has its source
near the Lake Mansrowar in the Himalyan catchment area. It flows over 1800
miles (2900 k. meters) before it outfalls into the Arabian sea draining an area of
about 372,000 square miles (964,261 sq.kms).
The World Bank accepted Tarbela Dam Project as a part of the Settlement
(Replacement) Plan under Indus water treaty in 1965. WAPDA was entrusted
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With its execution on behalf of the Government of Pakistan. HARZA
ENGINEERING COMPANY International, who was the General Consultants of
WAPDA, carried out the review studies of the Project. In February, 1960 Tippetts
– Abbett - McCarthy – Stratton of USA commonly known as TAMS were
appointed the Project Consultants, and were entrusted with the task of
investigation, preparation of detailed designs, and contract documents for the
project and also the supervision of construction work during its execution.
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6.6. The Project – Main Features
The Project consists of a 9,000 (2,743 meters) long, 465 feet (143 meters) high
(above the river bed) earth and rock fill embankment across the entire width of
the river with two spillways cutting through the left bank discharging into a side
valley. Its main spillway has a discharge capacity of 650,000 cusecs (18,406
cumecs) and auxiliary spillway 850,000 cusecs (24,070 cusecs). Two auxiliary
embankment dams close the gaps in the left bank valley. A group of 4 tunnels
(each half a mile long), through the right abutment rock have been constructed
for irrigation releases and power generation. During the construction operations,
these tunnels were used initially for river diversion. Irrigation tunnel 5 situated on
the left bank, for which NESPAK were the Project Consultants, was put into
operation in April 1976.
A power station on the right bank near the toe of the main dam houses fourteen
(14), power units, 4 units, each with installed generating capacity of 175 MW are
installed on tunnel 1, 6 units (NO.5 to 10), 175 MW each on tunnel NO.2 and 4
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Units ( NO.11-14) of 432 MW each on Tunnel 3, thus making total generating
capacity of Tarbela Power Station as 3478 MW.
The reservoir is 50 miles (80.5 km) long 100 square, miles (260 square
kilometers) in area and has a gross storage capacity of 11.6 MAF (17.109 million
cu. Meters) with a live storage capacity of 9.7 MAF (14,307 million cu. Meters).
The total catchment area above Tarbela is spread over 65,000 sq. miles
(168,000 sq. kilometers) which largely brings in snowmelt supplied in addition to
some monsoon rains. Two main upstream tributaries join the Indus river, Shyok
river at an elevation of 8,000 ft. (2438 meters) above seal level near skardu and
Siran river just north of Tarbela.
6.7 Main Dam

The principal element of the project is an embankment 9,000 feet (2743 meters) long
with a maximum height of 465 feet (143 meters). The total volume of earth and rock used
for the project is approximately 200 million cubic yards (152.8 million cu. Meters) which
makes it the largest man made structure in the world, except for the Great Chinese Wall
which consumed somewhat more material. The main embankment is a carefully
designed, zoned structure composed of impervious core, bounded on both sides by
gradually increasing sized material including coarser sands gravels cobbles and finally
large sized riprap on the outer slopes. An impervious blanket, 42 feet (12.8 meters) thick
at the dam and tailing to 5 feet (1.52 meters) at the upstream end, covers 5,700 feet (1737
meters) of the alluvial foundation on the upstream side. These deposits in the valley are
up to 700 feet (213 meters) deep and in places consist of open work gravels. The dam
crosses this essentially alluvial valley and connects the last points to high ground before
the mountains give way to the plains. A 24 feet (7.32 meters) thick filter drain mattress
under the embankment together with nearly vertical chimney drain provides the
necessary facility to collect the seepage.
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6.8 Auxiliary Dams
The auxiliary dams resembling the main embankment dam in design close the
gaps in the left periphery of reservoir. The smaller of the two auxiliary dams,
however, has a vertical core extending down to the underlying rock, and the
larger auxiliary dam has a short upstream blanket terminating in a cut off to rock.
6.9 Spillways
On the left bank, two spillways discharge into a side channel. The total spillway
capacity is 1,500,000 cusecs (42,476 cumecs) which constitutes the peak outflow
resulting from routing the probable maximum flood. The service spillway having
44 percent of the total capacity is sufficient to pass all but very rare floods. Its
maximum discharge capacity is 650,000 cusecs (18, 406 cumecs).
The auxiliary spillway is similar in design to the service spillway. It has nine radial
gates with crest elevation of 1492 feet (455 meters) and flip bucket at elevation
1220 feet (372 meters) A longitudinal drainage gallery along with a network of
drainage pipes under the channel and the head works has been provided to
release pore water pressure in both the spillway foundations.
6.10 Reservoir
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The 50-miles (81 kilometers) long reservoir created by the Project has a gross
storage capacity of 11.6 million acre feet (MAF) (17,109 m.cu. meters) at the
maximum lake elevation of 1550 feet (472 meters) a residual capacity of 1.9
MAF (2,802 m cu. Meters) at the assumed level of maximum drawdown elevation
1300 feet (396 meters) and a net usable capacity of 9.7 MAF (14,307 m cu.
Meters). The Tarbelareservoir stores water during the summer months of June,
July and August when water either causes disaster by flooding in the surrounding
areas or goes waste into the sea. It is to be noted that more dams can be
constructed on Indus since its annual flow is substantially more than is being
stored at present. Kalabagh Dam on River Indus is in its advanced stages of
design, while investigations are underway for the upstream Basha Dam.
6.11 Tunnels
The four, each of half mile long, tunnels through the right (rock) abutment initially
served for the diversion of water during the final phases of construction of the
Project. Now they are being used for Power generation (tunnels 1, 2, 3 and
eventually 4). The discharge capacity of each irrigation tunnel at higher reservoir
elevations is approximately 90,000 cusecs (2,549 cumecs). The discharge pass
through energy dissipator structures and the water returns to the river. A fifth
tunnel on the left bank designed to augment irrigation releases up to 80,000
cusecs (2,265 cumecs) at high reservoir level, has also been added to the
project.Power Station
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6.12 Tarbela Power
Station
According to the original plan, four (4) power units of 175 MW generating
capacity each were to be installed on each of the tunnels 1, 2 and 3 located on
the right bank with the ultimate installed capacity of 21,00 MW. Of these, four (4)
units on tunnel 1 were commissioned in the year 1977. Due to increasing prices
of the fossil fuel, the Govt of Pakistan has been laying greater emphasis on
generation of cheap Hydel power. In pursuance of this policy, WAPDA carried
out studies to tap the maximum power potential of Tarbela. As a result, it has
been found possible to install six (6) units, instead of four (4) only on tunnel
NO.2. Units 5 to 8 on tunnel NO.2 were commissioned in 1982, and units 9 and
10 in 1985. Based on studies, four power units of 432 MW capacities each were
installed on tunnel NO.3. Thus the total ultimate power potential of the project
enhanced from 2100 MW as originally planned to 3478 MW.
6.12.1 Project Implementation
94
On May 14, 1968, the World’s largest single contract for the construction of civil
works of the Tarbela Dam Project was signed at a price of RS.2,965,493,217 ($
623 Million) between the Water and Power Development Authority and the
Tarbela Dam Joint Venture which comprised a group of three Italian and three
French heavy construction contractors. Later five German and two Swiss
contractors also joined the group making up a consortium of thirteen European
firms led by Italian firm namely Impregilo.
The construction of Tarbela Dam was carried out in three stages to meet the
diversion requirements of the river. In stage-I, the river Indus was allowed to flow
in its natural channel while work was continued on right bank where a 1500 feet
(457 meters) long and 694 feet (212 meters) wide diversion channel was
excavated and a 105 feet (32 meters) high buttress dam was constructed with its
top elevation at 1, 187 feet (362 meters) The diversion channel was capable of
discharging 750,000 cusecs (21,238 cumecs). Construction under stage-I lasted
2½ years.
In stage-II, the main embankment dam and the upstream blanket were
constructed across the main valley of the river Indus while water remained
diverted through the diversion channel. By the end of stage-II, tunnels had been
built for diversion purposes. The stage-II construction took 3 years to complete.
Under stage-III, the work was carried out on the closure of diversion channel and
construction of the dam in that portion while the river was made to flow through
diversion tunnels. The remaining portion of upstream blanket and the main dam
at higher levels was also completed as a part of stage-III works.
Type Earth & Rock fill
Max. Height
(above river bed) 465 ft. (147.82 meters)
Crest elevation 1565 ft. SPD (477 meters)
Length of Crest (Main dam) 9000 ft. (2743 meters)
Reservoir
Length 60 miles (97 km)

Max. depth 450 ft. (137 m)
Area 60000 acres (100 square miles)
Max. conservation 1550 ft. SPDA (472.45 meters)
Min Operation level 1300 ft SPD (396.25 meters)
Design Gross Storage 11.3 MAF
Existing Gross storage 9.00 MAF
Design live storage 9.68 MAF
Existing live storage
At 1365 ft SPD 7.3 MAF
Surface Area 100 sq miles (259 sq km)
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6.12.2 Project Benefits
In addition to fulfilling primary purpose of the Dam i.e. supplying water for
Irrigation, Tarbela Power Station has generated 341.139 Billion KWh of cheap
hydel energy since commissioning. A record annual generation of 16.463 Billion
KWh was recorded during 1998~99. Annual generation during 2007~08 was
14.959 Billion KWh while the Station shared peak load of 3702 MW during the
year which was 23.057% of total WAPDA System Peak.
6.13 WARSAK DAM

Warsak Hydro Electric Power Project is located on River Kabul at about 30 km
from Peshawar in North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. The project financed
by Canadian Government was completed under COLOMBO PLAN in two
phases. In general, the project consists of a mass concrete gravity dam with
integral spillway, power tunnel, power station, a concrete lined 10 feet diameter
irrigation tunnel on right bank and a 3 feet diameter steel pipe irrigation conduit
on the left bank of the reservoir. The 250 ft. high and 460 ft. long dam with
reservoir of 4 square miles had a live storage capacity of 25,300 acre-feet of
water for irrigation of 119,000 acres of land and meeting power generation
requirement. A spillway with nine gates is capable to discharge 540,000 cusecs
of flood water.
6.14 POWER STATION

The first phase including construction of Dam, Irrigation tunnel, civil works for
Phase-II and installation of four units each of 40 MW capacities with 132 kV
transmission systems, was completed in 1960 at a total cost of Rs.394.98 million.
Two additional generating units each of 41.48 MW capacities were added in
1980-81 at a cost of Rs.106.25 million as second phase of the project.
Warsak Dam has now completely silted up and practically there is no available
storage. Power generation is being achieved according to water inflows in River
Kabul like a "Run-of-the-River' project. Lean flow period at Warsak is observed
from October to March during which capability reduces to about 100 MW (Peak).
Salient features of main components of Warsak Dam and Power House are as
under:
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Warsak Dam
Type Mass Concrete Gravity Dam
Height 250 ft. 76.20 meters
Length 460 ft. 140.21 meters
Reservoir
Max. Conservation Level 1270 ft. SPD 387.10 meter
Design Live Storage 25300 AF
Existing Live Storage Nil
Surface Area 4.0 sq. miles 10.36 sq. km
Project Benefits
Besides providing irrigation water from the dam during early years of its life, the
project has generated over 34.217 Billion KWh of cheap energy since its
commissioning. Annual generation during 2006~2007 was 1035.375 Million KWh
while the station shared 218 MW peak load.
6.15 WARSAK REHABILITATION PROJECT
6.15.1 General
Warsak Power Station attained its ultimate capacity of 243 MW in 1981. With the
passage of time, this capacity reduced to 150 MW due to following reasons:
• Structural deformation of Power House.

• Rapid erosion in the hydraulic equipment due to excessive and abrasive
natured silt carried in River Kabul.
These operating conditions necessitated a comprehensive plan for rehabilitation

of Warsak.
6.15.2 Project Objectives

A Rehabilitation Project was planned with the assistance of Canadian
Government having following objectives:
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• To restore full generating capacity of Warsak Power Station.
• To prolong useful life of the project by another 30 to 40 years by rectifying
various problems of civil structures and electrical & mechanical
equipment.
6.15.3Scope
Replacement of Power House Overhead Crane, modification of Butterfly Valves
of the Units complete refurbishing/major overhauling of all the units, providing
new Trash Racks and Semi Automatic Trash Rack Cleaning Machine, repair of
Embedded Guides for Draft Tube Gates, repair of Spillway Gates and Sill
Beams, repair of Power House Roof, Floors and Walls, replacement of old 132
kV Circuit Breakers with SF-6 Breakers.
6.16 Chashma
Hydropower Project
Chashma Hydropower Project is located on the right abutment of Chashma

Barrage. The barrage is located on the Indus River near the village Chashma in
Mianwali District, about 304 k.m. North West of Lahore. The project has been
estimated at Rs17, 821.77 million including foreign exchange component of Rs
9264.25 million.
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The installed capacity of power Station is 184 MW comprising of 8 bulb type
turbine units each of 23 MW capacities. The bulb turbines have been installed for
the first time in Pakistan. The first unit was commissioned in January 2001, while
final commissioning of all units was completed in July 2001.
6.16.1 Reservoir
Maximum pond
level 649 ft.
Normal pond level 642 ft.
Minimum pond
level 637 ft.
6.16.2 Project Benefits

The expected total energy generated annually after commissioning of all eight
units, is estimated at 1081 GWH. Based on the energy generated, the estimated
yearly revenue is RS2259.29 million.
Start Your Virtual Tour:
• Intake Gates
• Power House
• Turbine Floor
• Control Room
• Switch Yard
• Fishery
6.16.3 Intake Gates

Giant intake gates allow the river to pass through the dam. They are each 17 feet
wide and 39 feet high. Due to the extreme variations in water levels (especially
during the spring thaw) 10 flood gates, known as "sluice gates", were added so
that excess water could pass through the dam quickly. These sluice gates allow
a maximum discharge of 16,100 cubic meters of water per second. The highest
flow of the St. John River ever recorded at Mactaquac was 12,200 cubic meters
per second.
6.16.4 Power House
99
The power house, containing the turbines and generators, is 183 meters long
and 25 meters wide. Water coming through the intake gates flows down a pipe
known as a "penstock" until it reaches the turbines. The force of the water spins
a giant rotor blade at the end of the turbine. The rotor blades act like a giant
propeller and convert the force of the water into mechanical energy. The spinning
of the rotor blades turns a shaft that runs through a generator where the
mechanical energy is converted into electricity.
6.16.5 Turbine Floor

Inside the main turbine hall are six Kaplan turbines capable of generating 672
MW of electricity. The first turbine was installed in 1968 when the Mactaquac
Generating Station went online, and the newest was activated in 1980. In its
simplest form, the generator consists of a magnet rotating inside a wire coil. This
creates alternating currents in the stator winding and results in electricity. At the
Mactaquac Generating Station, the massive generators function in the same
way.
6.16.6 Control Room

The Control Operator manages the flow of water through the dam and the
generation of electricity. The operator works in the main control room located in
the power house. All of NB Power's hydro generating stations, except Milltown
use a computer-based supervisory control and data acquisition similar to the
system located at the Mactaquac Generating Station.
6.16.7 Switch Yard

The electricity produced by the generator travels to the switchyard where it is
stepped up from 13,800 volts to 138,000 volts. This high voltage is required to
transmit the electricity to communities a great distance away. The electricity
travels over high voltage transmission lines to a substation where it is broken
down into smaller voltage for distribution to customers
6.16.8 Fishery
NB Power recognizes the importance of our Atlantic salmon and has
incorporated special features into the dam design. The salmon arrive at the dam
on their up-river spawning in mid-June and are attracted to special weir gates
located near the base of the dam. Salmon enter the weir gates at the base of the
dam and encounter an artificial current flowing through a channel inside the dam
structure. This leads to a hopper pond from which the fish are transported by
truck upstream so they can continue their migration. From the tailrace deck,
visitors can watch fish being transported upriver beyond the dam.
6.17 SAFETY
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At NB Power, the safety of our customers and employees is our highest priority.
That's why, in addition to our own safety programs; we're joining forces with other
community organizations to educate New Brunswickers about electricity.
We're doing this because we understand that the unsafe use of electricity can be
deadly. By working together and reaching out to people in the workplace, home,
and everywhere they come into contact with electricity, we know we can dispel
myths, promote better understanding and help prevent electrical accidents,
injuries and death.
Using the navigation to the right, you can learn about myths about electricity, how
to prevent electrical accidents and how to respond if there is an electrical
emergency.
6.18 School Programs

In co-operation with concerned educators and working with our customers, we've
developed a safety awareness campaign to help educate and protect New
Brunswick children. Specially trained members of the NB Power team are
available to visit classrooms across the province with targeted presentations that
promote understanding and minimize the risk of electrical contact injury.
We also offer free educational materials to teachers and students. If you are a
New Brunswick teacher and interested in having a safety presentation for your
class.
6.19 Safety Presentations

Workplace safety – for our own employees and others who work around power
lines – is our most important job. As part of our ongoing program to promote
electrical safety and reduce the risk of accidents, we conduct free seminars upon
request.
6.20 Erik Matchett - Public Safety

More Workplace Safety Information
For more information on how to keep you and your loved ones healthy and safe,
and what to do in case of a workplace injury or illness.
6.21 Learning
101
Learning about electricity is fun – at least we think so at NB Power! We're
committed to lifelong learning and we hope you enjoy learning more about New
Brunswick 's power supply. That's why we've created our learning section for
anyone who is interested in learning about electricity, the sorts of generation
used in New Brunswick and general facts about the power that keeps the energy
flowing to New Brunswick.
6.22 Learn About Electricity

When we turn on a light switch or an appliance, we often don't think about what is
happening to bring that electricity to us. Since the early discoveries in the 1800's
it has been taken for granted that when you get up in the morning, you will have
electricity to run the pump to provide water, listen to the radio, watch TV and of
course check your email.
The word electricity came from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber.
Several centuries ago it was noticed that when you rubbed amber stone things
"stuck" to it. This was the beginning of the discovery of electricity in its
Simplest form - static electricity.
In 1800 Alessandro Volta made the first electric cell - an electric cell converts
chemical energy into electrical energy. About 30 years later Michael Faraday
made the first electric generator.Electricity is electrons in motion. Every atom has
three basic parts - electrons, protons and neutrons. An electron carries a tiny
negative charge. Electricity occurs in nature in the form of lightning, electric eels
and the small shock you sometimes feel when you touch a doorknob, particularly
in the winter.To get electrons moving so we can turn on lights and run factories,
we build power plants where magnets are spun inside coils of wire. The spinning
magnets put electrons in motion inside the wires, creating electricity. This is
called a generator. No matter what method is used to turn the magnets, the
electricity produced by the generator is the same.
6.23 There are two major categories of energy

resources:
Renewable, which means the resource can be used over and over again.
Examples of renewable energy resources are wind, solar, and water.
Non-renewable; this type of resource can be used only once. Examples of non-
renewable resources are oil and coal.
NB Power uses both renewable and non-renewable energy resources to supply
the entire province of New Brunswick with electricity.
6.23.1 System Map

At NB Power, our focus is bringing our customers power in homes and
businesses across New Brunswick. We rely on our 16 generating stations
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powered by hydro, coal, oil, nuclear and diesel to bring electricity to over 300,000
homes and businesses across New Brunswick.
And work is already well underway to meet out commitment to have 400 MW of
wind energy in place by 2010. The diversity of our generation system works to
make sure that when you need electricity, it is there for you.
6.23.2 Vegetation Program

It is NB Power’s first priority to deliver safe and reliable electricity throughout New
Brunswick while ensuring that we meet or exceed environmental standards. It is
important that NB Power manage the vegetation (trees, shrubs, etc.) that grow
along both transmission and distribution rights-of ways. One way to do this is
through the establishment of low-growing plants along our transmission rights-of-
ways. Naturally grown forest trees growing along these lines can result in access
and safety concerns for maintenance crews. Additionally, vegetation that grows
into or falls onto power lines can ultimately lead to power outages and even
forest fires. Entire communities can loose power as a result of a transmission
outage. Losing power is more than a mere inconvenience – it is costly and can
endanger life.
6.24 What does NB Power do to control vegetation

and why?
Vegetation, such as trees, that come in contact with power lines account for more
than 50% of power outages in Canada.
Many types of vegetation, including maple, birch and poplar trees, grow under
transmission lines along rights-of-ways. If left unmanaged, these trees will grow
into the power lines or could fall onto lines and can cause outages. Uncontrolled
growth can also create fire and safety hazards and hinder routine power line
maintenance. It can also make restoration efforts hazardous and difficult.
As well as potentially causing power outages, trees growing into power lines can
conduct electricity and are potentially a serious safety hazard to the public and
our maintenance and restoration crews.
To reduce all of these risks, NB Power uses a variety of methods to control
vegetation. In fact we use an Integrated Vegetation Management Program.
6.25 What is an Integrated Vegetation

Management Program (IVMP)?
NB Power employs an IVMP, which includes using a range of methods to control
vegetation, such as hand-cutting, mechanical cutting, pruning, mowing, and
Health Canada approved herbicide applications Alone or in combination, NB
Power takes care to ensure that the right method is used in the right place and at
the right time.
For example, while maintaining transmission lines, it is NB Power’s goal to
establish and maintain low growing vegetation such as grasses, shrubs and
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bushes, which are compatible with the operation of the transmission system,
while minimizing negative effects on the environment.
The main steps in an IVMP are:
Inventory – gather and record information on vegetation, watercourses, habitats
etc.
Development of management cycles - determine when to carry out the required
work, based on vegetation types and growth rates.
Planning – develop a site specific approach that reflects safety, reliability, and the
environment as a priority.
Implementation - select the right control method for each location under the
supervision of our ISA Certified Arborists and Forest Technicians.
Evaluation – inspect work during and after vegetation management process.
6.26 How does this affect me if I use a

Transmission Right-of-way?
When NB Power crews are carrying out maintenance activities in a Right-of-way
your access might be limited during that work. At all other times, you can still
access and use the Right-of-way.
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CHAPTER
NUMBER
7
Electricity: Solutions and

Ongoing Projects
Jump to Comments
7.1 History
After the construction of the Hydro-Electric Tarbela Dam and the Mangla Dam, by
General Ayub Khan and General
105
7.2 Tarbela
Yahya Khan in the 1960’s, our governments failed to conceive and initiate major
electricity projects.
The inept governments of PML-N and PPP, that still consider themselves vital to
democratic dialogue within the provinces, failed to create dialogue within
provinces, on the most important issue facing Pakistan’s energy survival – the
Kalabagh Dam. Their governments failed to plan for the future growth and energy
requirements. Recently the government of PPP has scraped the project
altogether.
7.3 Unexpected Economic Boom & Energy

Consumption in the last 10 years
Pakistan’s $75 billion economy boomed into a $160 billion economy, with the
consumption of gas, electricity and coal increasing YEARLY to an average rate
of 7.8 percent, 5.1 percent and 8.8 percent, respectively.
The number of electricity consumers grew from 15.9 million in 2005-06 to 16.7
million in 2007, showing a growth of about 70 percent over the last 10 years.
The major Energy consumption sectors of the country are: Industrial (38.3
percent), Transport (32.8 percent), Residential and Commercial (25 percent),
Agriculture (2.5 percent) and others (2.2 percent).
As regards Electricity, the Household sector has been the largest consumer over
the last 10 years, on average consuming 44.8 percent, followed by Industrial
sector (29.4 percent), Agriculture (12.2 percent), Commercial sector (5.9
percent), Street lights (10.6 percent), the officials say.
7.4 Record Sales of Electronic Items
106
Recently, we got good news from Pakistan Haier. In May, Pakistan Haier made
new RECORD air-conditioner, refrigerator monthly output. The sale volume
reached all time high, the year-on-year sale increase of Air-conditioner,
Refrigerator, Washing machine, Micro wave and TV are 136%, 58%, 180%,
210% and 106% respectively. Similarly, many other Electronic Companies have
created record sales.
7.5 Projects executed and under Construction
The first unit of 290-megawatt of Ghazi Brotha Hydel Project (GBHP) went into
operation in June 2003, and
Hydro Power Invention

contributed around 50mw of electricity to the national grid. Four more units were
added every quarter, and by 2004 the GBHP was contributing 1,450 mw.
Nuclear power plant Chashma-2, will soon come on-line, and will add another
300MW to the national grid.
7.6 Mangla Dam uprising

Mangla Dam uprising will give another 644 GWh of power.Gomal Zam Dam is
under final stage of construction, and upon completion it will produce 17.4MW
In 1999, our installed capacity was merely 15,860 MW. (With Hydel 4826 +
Thermal 10,897 + Nuclear 137)
In 2005-06, our installed capacity increased to become 20,495 MW. (With Hydel
6499 + Thermal 13,534 + Nuclear 462)
107
7.7 Concrete steps under the PML-Q Government
President Pervez Musharraf launched the Rs 130 billion (US 2.16 billion)
Neelum-Jhelum Hydroelectric project aimed at producing 969 MW power.
Work on 11 projects with an accumulative power generation capacity of more
than 12,000MW would start by 2009.
Mirani Dam inaugurated

These projects include Bunji (5,400MW), Dasu (4,000MW), Kohala (1,100MW),
Spatgah and Palas Valley (1,230MW).
7.8 Wind and Solar Technology

Pakistan is seeking to explore alternative sources of energy production and use
Wind and solar technologies with the aim to produce 9,700 MW wind power by
2030, thereby providing electricity to 7,874 off-grid villages in Sindh and
Baluchistan.
225 wind water pumping systems have been installed in Balochistan. Over 140
micro wind turbines of 500 Watts each are operational in Sindh and Balochistan,
providing electricity to 691 houses in 18 remote, off-grid villages.
7.9 Hydel Power:

The government is giving top priority to Hydel power with the potential of
producing 40,000 MW Power of which only 15 percent had been exploited so far.
In 2001, the Water and Power Development Authority of Pakistan identified 22
sites for launching Hydropower projects to meet the ever-increasing demand for
108
cheap power. It indicated that about 15,074 mw could be generated on the
completion of these projects, which would also meet the water irrigation
requirements for the growing agriculture sector.
7.1o Pakistan Sugar Mills:
Association (PSMA) has informed the government that sugar mills can produce
2,000MW of electricity in the next five years.
7.11 Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission:

(PAEC) has decided to establish an Engineering Design Organization (EDO) for
the indigenous development of nuclear power plants (NPPs) in the country. The
PAEC informed authorities that it was planning to add about 1,260MW through
Hydel power, 880MW from Alternate energy, 4,860MW from Gas, 900MW from
Coal and 160MW from Oil by 2010.
The Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KESC) is investing in a new 220-
megawatt power plant that will help control the power shortages in the city, said.
The plant will start generating 192MW by March and the remaining 28MW will
start being distributed by December 2008.
7.12 Thar Coal:

The government has decided to develop the Thar coal for power generation on a
priority basis to overcome energy crisis following. Out of six various companies
that inked MoU with concern authorities to establish coal power projects; two
companies have started drilling work in their respective areas.
Confirmed estimates that its reserves were equivalent to at least 850 Trillion
Cubic Feet (TCF) of gas – about 30 times higher than Pakistan’s proven gas
reserves of 28 TCF.
By using only 2% of the existing coal reserves, we can generate around 20,000
MW (20 GW) for almost 40 years
These estimates were confirmed by separate bankable feasibility studies
conducted by Chinese and Russian experts.
185 Billion Tons of coal deposits in Pakistan were second only to 247 Billion
Ton reserves in the United States and much higher than 157 and 115 Billion Ton
reserves of Russia and China, respectively.
Thar coal reserves were equivalent to at least 400 Billion Barrels of oil –
equivalent to oil reserves of Saudi Arabia and Iran put together. One estimate
puts Pakistan’s coal energy at 576 Billion Barrels of oil which is equivalent to
the combined oil reserves of the 3 largest producers.
The government is planning to set up 5,000-megawatt power generation facilities
using coal as fuel within next few years.
7.13 Ongoing Power Projects
109
The Ongoing Power Projects, for which allocations have been made in 2007-
08 Budgets, are Mangla Dam Raising
Project (Rs 20 billion), Mirani Dam (Rs 500 million), Sabakzai Dam (Rs 200
million), Kurram Tangi Dam (Rs 2.84 billion), Sadpara Multipurpose Dam Rs (900
million), Gomal Zam Dam (Rs 1.8 billion), the Greater Thal Canal Phase I (Rs 8.5
billion), the Greater Thal Canal Phase II (Rs 2.5 billion), construction of 20 small
dams in NWFP (Rs 870 million), Bhasha/ Diamer Dam (Rs 500 million), Khan-
Khawar hydro project (Rs 1.3 billion), Dubir Khawar hydro project (Rs 2.1 billion),
transmission arrangements for power dispersal of Ghazi Barotha (Rs 1.67 billion)
and Neelam-Jhelum hydro project (Rs 10 billion).
New projects for the next fiscal year include the Sukkur Barrage Rehabilitation
and Improvement project (Rs 100 million), Akhori Dam PC I (Rs 200 million),
construction of Jaban Hydroelectric Power Station and Jaban Hydroelectric
Power Station (Rs 40 million).
7.14 Upcoming Immediate Projects

Three rental power houses would start generating 1,067 megawatts of electricity
by end of year 2008, respectively. Agreements had been signed with China to
establish power plants at Nandipur and Chichu ki Malian, and tenders had been
issued for two 500MW power plants at Dadu and Faisalabad which would be run
by gas and furnace oil. An 800MW power plant would be set up at Guddu.
September 10, 2009

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110
When it comes to large-scale alternative power, hydroelectric plants are currently
the most common – supplying more than 80% of the word’s renewable energy.
While hydro power is much cleaner and more cost-efficient than the generation
of electricity using fossil fuels, there are a number of disadvantages including the
threat of dam failures, disturbance to the natural environment, and some
greenhouse gas emissions.
Small hydroelectric power systems, however, create fewer threats and can be an
excellent alternative energy source for residential use. Could small-scale hydro
power be a viable option for your home? Keep reading to learn more…
Small hydroelectric projects are growing in popularity in the commercial energy
sector, especially in China. These plants generally range in capacity, generating
up to 10 MW of power – enough to supply a small community. Small-scale hydro
power can also be a cost-efficient alternative for residential, off-grid living under
the right conditions.
7.15 Requirements for Hydroelectric Power
111
To generate power with water, you’ll of course need an adequate supply of water
– a flow of at least 2 gallons per minute with a substantial drop to create
pressure. A drop of just 2 feet would require a flow of 500 gallons per minute.
Mother Earth News offers some useful advice on site assessment for your
homestead hydropower project.
You’ll also need the necessary hardware to harness the power generated by the
flowing water and then convert the energy into a usable current for your home. A
hydro power generator is the heart of the system and can be purchased through
a variety of suppliers. You’ll also need a battery pack and inverter, as well as a
sufficient amount of piping. A complete hydroelectric power system will cost as
little as $1000 up to as much as $10,000, depending on your needs.
7.16 DIY Hydro Power
If you’re mechanically inclined with a good supply of flowing water nearby,

consider trying your hand at a homemade hydroelectric power system. Build it
Solar has a tremendous amount of resources to help with your hydro power
planning and installation as well.
112
For those who prefer to start with a really small-scale hydro system, check out
Sam Redfield’s bucket hydro generator – the perfect alternative energy gadget
charger – or this faucet powered hydro turbine made of recycled CDs and auto
parts. If a rustic waterwheel is more your style, take a look at the DIY home
energy projects we mentioned in a previous post.
If you’re considering an alternative source for residential power, hydroelectric
may be an affordable and efficient option if you have a nearby supply of flowing
water. Be sure to look into local and state regulations regarding small hydro
power systems before you get started.
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7.17 N-er-G Talks Hydroelectric Power
113
7.18 Hoover Dam Tour 2009
Hydro electric energy is one of the most well-known sources of power
generation. While hydro electricity made up a large portion the US power supply
in the 50’s and 60’s, hydro electric power generation has become less popular as
fossil fuel generation became more common. Like wind, solar geothermal and
more hydro electric power generation is a clean way to convert mechanical
power into electricity. Most people know how hydro electric power plants work
but we wanted to do a write-up on it anyway as it is an important source of
electricity, especially in the western part of the US.
Hydro electric power plants work by converting mechanical energy into electricity.
Basically, hydro electric plants use the energy from falling water to spin turbines
which are connected to electric generators. These generators send the electricity
generated to transformers for increasing the voltage and distribution it to millions
of consumers in the surrounding cities.
Typically, hydro electric plants (dams) are built on large rivers, where they can
collect water in large reservoirs. The water collected behind the dam of hydro
electric plants stores potential energy. The potential energy is then converted to
kinetic energy when the stored water is allowed to flow down a channel to spin a
114
turbine. The kinetic energy of the water spins a turbine, which uses the kinetic
energy to generate electricity.
Probably the most common hydro electric power plant in the United States is
Hoover Dam, located on the Colorado River, where half of the dam lies in
Arizona and the other half in Nevada. The Hoover Dam supplies electricity to
cities in Arizona, Nevada and Southern California. Many smaller dams on the
Colorado River, downstream from the Hoover Dam, are used to generate
electricity for other cities in Southern California and Mexico.
There are many hydro electric power plants located all over the United States.
The electricity generated by these plants is considered to be clean because
virtually no emissions or pollutants are released during the energy generation
process. Hydro electric energy is thought of as a sustainable energy source,
although research shows that the natural water sources are drying up. The
Hoover Dam reservoir measures 15 meters lower this year than in previous
years. And with nuclear power generation and fossil fuel generation as
competitors, hydro electricity supplies approximately 10% of the United States’
consumed energy.
115
CHAPTER
NUMBER
8
Water Energy Technologies

116
8.1 Hydropower
Converts kinetic energy from falling water into electricity. It never uses more
water than the nature is providing. The size of hydro energy sources differs from
huge artificial dams to smaller natural rivers. Small-Hydro energy meets
renewable energy standards by having minimal negative environmental impacts.
Comparatively, large-scale hydro sources often involve large dams that may
have serious consequences on the surrounding environment. Hydropower is
clean. It doesn't produce any greenhouse gases or generates any waste
products that might need special handling or disposal. Besides, it is carbon-free
energy.
Big hydro dams can harm the natural and ecological nature friendly.
Hydro plants take the energy that is in the water and with a simple mechanism
converts it into electricity. Actually water plants are based on a simple concept:
117
water that flows through the dam turns the turbine. That turbine turns a
generator. The system is working as shown in picture,
8.1.1 Dam - it holds the water, thus creating a reservoir. This is considered as a
stored energy.
8.1.2 Intake - together gates of a dam and the force of gravity pulls the water
through the penstock - a pipeline - that leads to the turbine. The water builds up
the pressure.
8.1.3 Turbine - the water turns the big blades of a turbine, which is attached to
a generator above it. The most common type of turbine is Francis Turbine, which
looks like a big disc with curved blades.
8.1.4 Generators - together with turning turbines blades, lots of magnets

inside the generator turn as well. Giant magnets rotate past copper coils,
producing alternate current (AC) by moving electrons.
118
8.1.5 Transformer - inside the powerhouse a transformer takes AC and
transforms it to higher voltage current.
8.1.6 Power lines - out of every power plant comes out four wires: the three
phases of power being produced simultanously, plus, neutral ground common to
all three.
8.1.7 Outflow - used water is carried out through tailraces - pipelines, and re-
enters the river downstream.
119

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Hydro Power Generation

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CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION OF POWER GENERATION

1.1 Electric Power Generation

1.1.2 Electricity Generation:

A motor uses electricity. In a motor, the electricity comes in through wires

Steam turbine generators, gas turbine generators, diesel engine generators,

Consumers expect electricity to be available whenever they plug in an appliance,

1.2 Methods of power generation:

1.2.1 Gas power generation:

Natural gas is a mixture of combustible gases formed underground by the

1.2.2 Hydro power:

Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of

1.2.3 Diesel power:

• Simple design & layout of plant.

• High running charges due to costly price of Diesel.

1.2.4 Thermal / Power Generation:

1.2.4.1.1 Main parts of thermal power generation:

1.2.4.2 Combined cycle (CC) Power Generation:

1.2.5 Nuclear power:

In an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a

1.2.5.2 Electrical power generation:

1.2.6 Solar energy:

1. al Connection can be net metering as illustrated, or gross metering.

• Solar energy is free - it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution.

• Doesn't work at night.

• Very expensive to build solar power stations.

1.2.7 Wind power:

To be worthwhile, you need an average wind speed of around 25 km/h.

• Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.

• Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.

• The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.

• Wind farms can be tourist attractions.

• A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.

• The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind.

1.2.8 Wave power:

Another company is called Renewable Energy Holdings. Their idea for

• The energy is free - no fuel needed, no waste produced.

• Not expensive to operate and maintain.

• Can produce a great deal of energy.

• Once you've built it, tidal power is free.

• It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.

• It produces electricity reliably.

• Not expensive to maintain.

• Tides are totally predictable.

1.2.10 Biogas power:

1.2.10.1 How it works:

• It makes sense to use waste materials where we can.

• Less demand on the fossil fuels.

• Collecting or growing the fuel in sufficient quantities can be difficult.

• Some waste materials are not available all year round.

1.2.11 Geo thermal power:

Geothermal power generation is an environment-friendly power generation

Geothermal resources are found in three types of locations: in shallow ground; in

1.2.12 Coal Gasification:

Is this a new technology?

Coal gasification is a well-proven technology dating back to the 18th century,

1.2.12.2 How do coal –based IGCC power plants work?

2.1 Hydro Tour

2.1.1 Nepisiguit Falls

2.3 Hydro electric- how it works

2.5 Displacement of Synchronous Generators

2.6 Displacement of Induction Generators

2.8 Hydel Generation