ORGANIZED BY UNIVERSITI TENAGA NASIONAL, BANGI, SELANGOR, MALAYSIA; 28-30 AUGUST 2006

Condition and life assessment of transformers with

specific application to power station transformers
Hannah Ahmad Rosli, Mohd Aizam Talib
TNB Research Sdn Bhd
No. 1, Lorong Ayer Hitam,
Kawasan Institusi Penyelidikan
43000 Kajang
MALAYSIA

Keywords: Transformer, diagnostic assessment,
condition monitoring, life assessment
Abstract
Transformer is an important component in an
electrical system. Inadvertent malfunction of this
equipment will lead to undesirable repercussions on
the system reliability besides entailing economic
loss both to utilities and to society.
With many aging transformers in service, the
concern of the utilities is inevitably focused not just
on the health condition, but also on the remaining
life of these transformers as this relates to the
serviceability of the aged units.
The diagnostic activities for assessing the
transformer condition and estimating transformer
remnant life are of interest and widely practised.
The present study is focused on the evaluation of
transformer condition and the remaining life of the
transformer with specific applications to the
transformers at Sultan Ismail Power Station in
Paka, Malaysia. The transformer life estimation
activities are approached holistically involving a
combination of physical inspection as well as the
assessment of the electrical and chemical testing
results. The results highlight the significance of the
diagnostic tools used and are analysed as a basis of
life estimation and also life extension
recommendations.
excellent high voltage insulation this oil-
impregnated paper system provides, it is
unfortunately susceptible to degradation due to
many factors namely thermal, electrical,
electromagnetic and mechanical stresses, presence
of water, oxygen and heat that causes chemical
degradation reaction (hydrolytic, oxidative or
pyrolytic) and also contamination by particles of
different origins. [1, 2]
This paper features several diagnostic techniques
employed to assess the insulation condition and
remaining life of transformers. The estimation of
the remaining life is based on the assessment of the
mechanical integrity of the paper insulation which
will be described further, supported by the results
from the integrated diagnostic approach involving
the physical inspection and several diagnostic tests.
2. Transformer diagnostic techniques
Several transformer diagnostic techniques used in
the study are described in this section. They can be
grouped into electrical tests applied to the
transformers on-site and chemical tests conducted
on the transformer oil samples. The methodology
to estimate transformer life expectancy is also
included in this section.
2.1 Electrical diagnostic method
Turns ratio test

1. Introduction Using a ratio-meter, the turns ratio test is performed

The health of a transformer is closely related to the
health of its insulation. Failure in insulation causes
faults such as short circuit between turns or
windings, overheating and arcing to occur. Mineral
oil and cellulose-based paper are the principal
insulation components in most power transformers.
These materials are organic, and despite the
on all tap positions to identify short-circuited turns,
open winding circuits or failure in tap changers.
The measured ratio should compare with the ratio
of the rated voltages on any given tap as given on
the nameplate within ±5%.

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Winding resistance
This is a DC test made using a low resistance
ohmmeter. It can indicate a change in winding
resistance when there are shorted turns, poor
connections or joints or tap changer contact
problems. When possible, the reading should be
compared to the factory test data or previous test
data. If this were not available, the data obtained
can be compared between phases or to another
identical unit. The readings of the different phases
should exhibit similar value with each other at all
tap positions.
Insulation resistance
The insulation resistance test is one of the least
costly one to perform in terms of test equipment
and is one of the oldest techniques in testing. The
insulation resistance test provides useful indicator
of contamination and moisture on the insulation
surfaces of the winding, especially when there are
cracks, pinholes or fissures in the insulation. For a
new transformer, the insulation resistance for 1
minute should be greater than 200 MΩ [3].
During the test, when dc voltage is applied, the total
current flowing through and along the insulation is
made up of three components; a charging
component into the capacitance of the winding, a
polarization or absorption current involving various
molecular mechanisms in the insulation and a
leakage component over the surface between
exposed conductor and ground.
The polarization index is a variation on the dc
insulation resistance test. This value helps to
determine how dry and clean the winding insulation
is. The charging current is measured at two
moments, often 1 minute and 10 minute after
energizing the winding with the dc voltage. A ratio
of R10/R1 < 1.2 indicates the presence of polarisable
materials such as water [4, 5].
Insulation power factor test
Power factor is a ratio of dielectric loss (or watt
loss) to the charging volt-amperes (or apparent
power input). It is a property of the electrical
insulation system and a measure of the electrical
losses in the insulation when subjected to an
applied alternating voltage. Power factor testing is
the single most valuable method of obtaining data
for determining insulation quality. A high loss may
indicate problems in the insulation structure.
Normal ageing of an insulating material will also
cause dielectric loss to increase. Contamination of
insulation by moisture or chemical substances may
cause losses to be higher than normal.
The power factor value of 0.5% was used as
acceptance criteria for new transformers. Sudden
increases in value of power factor over time are
taken as a sign of deterioration of the insulation
condition. The power factor on serviced-aged
transformer in good condition should be in the
range of 0.5% to 1.5% [5, 6]
Excitation current
The excitation current measurement provides
means of detecting incipient damage to a
transformer winding and core such as loose or
shorted laminations, winding problems, poor joints
or contacts and discontinuity of the transformer
windings due to transportation or short circuit
forces during a nearby external fault. The excitation
current, at no load, excites the magnetic flux in the
iron core. Its magnitude depends on the applied
voltage and the number of turns in the winding, the
dimensions, the reluctance and other conditions of
the core. An excessive current may be due to a
partial short circuit between one or more turns in
the winding or it may be due to some defects in the
magnetic circuit which alters the reluctance of the
core.
For three-phase core transformers, a pattern of two
similar currents and one lower current can be
expected which the center leg has lower excitation
current than the other two phases. The test values
on the outside legs should be within 15% of each
other, and the center leg should not be greater than
either outside leg. Results compared to prior tests
should not vary more than 5% [5, 6, 7].
2.2 Chemical diagnostic method
Oil quality analysis
This analysis comprises of six tests, aimed at
evaluating the physical, chemical and electrical
integrity of the oil insulation. These tests and their
significance are summarised in the following Table
1 [8, 9]:
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Test Significance
Moisture content Moisture content is
accurately determined from
Karl Fischer titration
method.
Moisture in oil causes a
decrease in the dielectric
strength of insulation,
formation of bubble under
high load conditions and
accelerated ageing of
cellulose insulation.
Colour A rapidly increasing or a
high colour number (darker
colour) may be an indica-
tion of oil degradation or
contamination.
Acidity Acids are products of oil
(Neutralization oxidation. High acidity
value) value indicates degree of
oil ageing, and rate of
increase in acidity indicates
ageing rate.
Interfacial tension Low value is related to the
presence of degradation
products and imminent
sludge.
Dielectric Low value indicates the
breakdown voltage presence of contaminants
such as water or particles.
Power factor The parameter is sensitive
to the presence of soluble
polar or ionisable
contaminants and ageing
products. High power
factor implies poor
insulation resistance.
Table 1: Oil quality tests and their significance
Dissolved gas analysis
For more than 25 years, dissolved gas analysis
(DGA) and its interpretation has become a reliable
and widely accepted tool for the condition
monitoring of oil-filled transformers [10, 11, 12].
Thermal and electrical faults in a transformer lead
to insulating oil degradation, resulting in the
formation of gaseous products that dissolve in the
oil. By applying DGA on an oil sample, the
dissolved gases could be extracted to be quantified.
The important gases produced from the transformer
are listed as follow:
• Hydrocarbon gases and hydrogen: hydrogen (H2),
methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4)
and acetylene (C2H2).
• Carbon oxides: carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Non-fault gases: nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)
The identity and relation of the individual gases are
indicative of the type of faults occurring while the
rate of gas generation can indicate the severity of
the fault [13, 14, 15].
Type of fault Gases evolved
Corona of oil and Hydrogen
cellulose
Overheating (or
pyrolysis) of oil
a. Low temperature Methane, ethane
b. High temperature Methane, ethane,
ethylene, hydrogen
Arcing Acytelene, methane,
ethane, ethylene
Overheating of cellulose
a. Low temperature Carbon dioxide
b. High temperature Carbon monoxide
Table 2: Gases evolved by faults occurring in a
transformer
By themselves, the DGA data do not always
provide sufficient information to evaluate the
integrity of a transformer. The history of the
transformer in terms of maintenance, previous
faults etc are an important part of the information
required to make a more accurate evaluation.
Generally the following diagnostic methods are
employed for the interpretation of the DGA results
[16]:
• IEEE C57.104
• Key Gases
• Rogers Ratios
• Doernenburg’s method
• IEC 60599
• Duval method
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Furfural analysis
The furfural analysis is an important test in the
present study, as it directly relates to the estimation
of the transformer remaining life. This relationship
is explained further in sub-section 2.4.
Kraft paper is widely used as solid insulation in
transformers [17]. The major constituent (about
90%) of the paper is cellulose. Cellulose is a linear
polymer of glucose, comprising D-
anhydroglucopyranose units joined together by
glycosidic bonds [18] (refer Figure 1). A single
cellulose fiber is formed from a number of these
chains held together by hydrogen bonds.
CH2OH OH CH2OH
OH
OH
OH CH2OH OH
Glycosidic
bond D-anhydroglu-copyranose
monomer
Figure 1: Structural formula of cellulose
Under the combination of thermal, moisture and
oxidising stress, the hydrogen bonds and other
chemical bonds will break yielding breakdown
products such as hydrogen, short chain
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and water. Degradation also releases larger
molecules known as furan into the insulation oil.
Commonly, five furanic compounds are found in
oil:
• 2-furhraldehyde (2FAL)
• 5 methyl-2-furaldehyde (5M2F)
• 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (5H2F)
• 2-acetylfuran (2ACF)
• furfuryl alcohol (2-FOL)
It has been shown that all of these compounds
except 2FAL are not very stable under operating
conditions found in transformers [19, 20]. These
compounds apparently form and then further
degrade to 2FAL over a time span of a few months.
2FAL is apparently stable for several years under
the same condition. The molecular structure of this
compound is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Molecular structure of 2 FAL.
Furans are currently detected by manually
extracting oil samples from the transformer. Their
concentration is then determined in a laboratory
using techniques such as HPLC (high performance
liquid chromatography) of the oil [21].
The concentration of these furans gives an
indication of the condition of the paper in terms of
the degree of polymerization, while the rate of
change of furan concentration can indicate the rate
of aging of paper [22]. The types and
concentrations of furans in oil sample can also
indicate the occurrence of abnormal stresses in a
transformer whether short duration overheating of
the insulation or prolonged general overheating [23,
24, 25]
The main advantage of using this technique as a
tool for diagnostics is that these furan compounds
are degradation by-products specific to paper, and
cannot be produced by the oil. As such, furan
analysis can be used to confirm the gas
chromatography analysis where the carbon
monoxide present indicates problems with the solid
insulation.
2.3 Advanced diagnostic test
Frequency Response Analysis
The Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
measurement is a diagnostic test that is helpful in
determining possible deformations and movements
in the transformer’s core and coil assembly. The
deformation could result during equipment
transportation, from mechanical stresses due to high
through fault currents and from ageing of paper that
reduces the transformer’s withstand strength due to
insulation shrinkage and lost clamping pressure
[26].
Winding deformations in transformers are difficult
to establish by conventional methods of diagnostic
tests like ratio, impedance/inductance, magnetizing
current, etc. FRA has been found to be suitable tool
to recognize the deformation in a transformer [27,
28, 29]. The basis of the FRA technique is the
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modeling of transformer as a linear, bilateral,
complex and passive network of impedance
(resistive, inductive and capacitive) that is related
to the construction and geometry of the windings.
Deformation and movements have an effect on both
inductance and capacitance that may be reflected in
the resulting frequency response.
Recovery Voltage Measurement
The Recovery Voltage Measurement (RVM)
method is a known method to assess the state of the
insulation system [30-34]. RVM detects the
presence of water in the oil/paper insulation, either
created through ageing of the insulation system or
from external sources.
The principle of the recovery voltage measurements
requires a sample of discharged insulation to be
initially charged with a DC voltage for a time tc.
The sample is then short-circuited for a pre-
determined period of time td (usually for half the
charging time) after which the short-circuit is
removed and the voltage across the open-circuit
terminals of the insulation sample is recorded. The
charge/discharge procedure is repeated using a
sequence of increasing charging times ranging from
fractions of a second to thousands of seconds.
Three characteristic parameters of the recovery
voltage curve are of prime interest and are shown
below (Figure 3):
• The peak value of recovery voltage, ‘Vr’,
• The time to reach the peak, ‘tpeak,’
• The initial gradient of the recovery
voltage, ‘Sr’
V
Vc
Sr
Vr
next
cycle
tc td tpeak relaxation t crystalline structure [2]. This strength is critically
Figure 3: The parameters of a recovery voltage
measurement
The above parameters are displayed as a function of
the charging time, tc, and give what is termed the
polarisation spectra for the insulation system under
test. A significant characteristic of the polarization
spectrum is the time at which the peak occurs,
known as the dominant time constant. The value is
dependent on the properties of the insulating
material. More precisely, this value directly reflects
the moisture content of the oil and paper insulation
system. An increasing moisture or humidity level
displaces the peak of the spectrum towards a
smaller time constant.
2.4 Evaluation of transformer remaining life
Many factors contribute to the degradation of
transformer insulation system. Acting singly or in
combination, the degradation agents further
accelerate the natural ageing process of the
insulation. Ageing is said to occur when the
properties of the insulation system experience
irreversible negative changes. The end of life of the
insulation is technically reached when these
properties have changed beyond the acceptable
limits. [1]
Manifestations of insulation ageing process include
the weakening of the mechanical strength of the
cellulosic materials. This is due to the scission of
the long molecular chains of the cellulose polymer.
Over time, the weakened paper will not be able to
provide the insulation and mechanical strength it is
designed for, and transformer could malfunction
when this stage is reached.
Therefore, the cellulose paper is the most critical
component of the insulation system. The oil,
although important, is not as critical because it can
be easily reconditioned to remove water and
particles, reclaimed to remove degradation products
or replaced. Paper, once has been destroyed, is not
easily and economically replaceable. As such, the
actual life of a transformer is governed by the life
of the paper insulation. The mechanical strength of
the paper is the determining factor for assessing
remaining life of a transformer [35].
Paper derives its mechanical strength from its
fibrous nature, which arises from intro- and inter-
molecular hydrogen bonding within and between
the cellulose chains and the formation of micro
dependent on the degree of polymerisation (or DP)
of the cellulose.
DP refers to number of monomer units in a
polymeric cellulose chain. New Kraft paper has an
average chain length of 1000 to 1500. After a long
period of service at high temperature with high
moisture content and oxygen, the paper becomes
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brittle, changes colour to dark brown and has a
reduced DP of 200 to 250.
The furan analysis results can be used
quantitatively to evaluate the rate and degree of
ageing of a transformer’s solid insulation, which is
directly related to the assessment of a transformer’s
remaining life. This method uses the 2FAL or the
total content of furanic compounds to calculate a
predicted degree of polymerisation (DP).
The following is the equation used to predict DP
from 2FAL content [35]:
DP= [log10 (2FAL x 0.88)-4.51] / -0.0035 (1)
The percentage of life used is then estimated from
the calculated DP:
% Life Used = [log10 (DP)-2.903] / -0.006021] (2)
In a different study [36], the formula of elapsed life
(in years) of a transformer is given by the following
empirical formula:
Elapsed life (in years) = 20.5 x ln [1100/DP] (3)
3. Equipment under study
Seven transformers at the Sultan Ismail Power
Station (SJSI) in Paka were involved for the life
assessment study. These units are summarised in
Table 3.
With the transformers ageing up to 22 years old, the
study was undertaken with the aim to evaluate the
condition and remaining life of the transformers
and hence to establish a plan for the continued
operation of these equipment.
4. Results and discussion
The life assessment of the transformers in the
present study is based on the comprehensive
evaluation of the external physical condition via
visual inspection and the internal condition from
the electrical and chemical diagnostic test results.
The expected remaining life of the transformers is
subsequently estimated from the calculated degree
of polymerisation of the paper insulation obtained
via furfural analysis.
4.1 Physical inspection
Physical inspection was done covering the main
tank including the wall and top cover, tap changer,
bushing, cooling radiators and accessories. From
the observation, presence of rust spots were noted
on the top cover of the main tank and on the
radiator cooling fins of some units. Minor oil
leakages were also detected on connecting valves
and top covers of the tap changer compartments
(Figure 4).
a)

Transformer Unit Rating Age

type designation (MVA)
Station ST-B 24 22
transformer
b)
Generator GT-3B 138.3 22
transformer
GT-3C 124 21

Unit UT-3B 0.8 22

transformer
UT-3C 5 21

Excitation ET-3A 1.2 22 Figure 4: a) Corrosion on cooling fins

transformer b) Oil leaking from tap changer compartment
ET-3B 1.2 22
Old anti-corrosive protective paint and marine
ambience due to the station’s proximity to the sea
Table 3: Summary of the transformer fleet at SJSI are some of the factors that encourage the corrosion
activity. Although generally these physical defects
are not severe, remedial actions should be taken to
prevent further corrosion and leakage which could

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introduce moisture into the units that will
consequently harm the insulation. Repainting the
units with new protective layer and replacing
corroded parts are some steps that could be adopted
as part of the life extension initiatives.
4.2 Assessment of electrical testing
Transformers GT-3B and GT-3C are in satisfactory
conditions as the electrical test results fall within
the acceptable limits. The winding resistance
measurement detects a sign of abnormal condition
of the tap changer in UT-3C. As shown below in
Table 4, the readings for connection H1-H3 are
found to be approximately 30% lower than the
corresponding readings in the other 2 phases at tap
position 4 and 5. Tap changer contact problem is
the most probable explanation for this observation.
Based on this, it is recommended for the diverter
and tap selector switch to be serviced.
winding value for a 3-core transformer is a sign of a
fault-free unit. However, the H1-H0 connection
reading for ET-3A, even though is well within the
15% tolerance limit with H3-H0 reading, is lower
than the measured excitation current of the centre
leg. A possibly deformed core is thus detected for
ET-3A. Unit UT-3B also displays similar result
pattern, which similarly suggests abnormality to its
core. A refurbishment of the core assembly of these
affected units is recommended and careful
monitoring of any further deterioration must be
done in the mean time.

Tap Test Lead Connection f

position H1-H3 H2-H1 H3-H2
(mΩ) (mΩ) (mΩ)
1 124.9 126.3 122.4
2 122.2 122.4 121.0
3 118.3 118.0 114.5
4 115.3 162.3 162.5
5 110.5 160.1 157.1

Table 4: Winding resistance results of UT-3C

The FRA result plots of high voltage (HV)

windings for two identical units of ET-3A and ET-
3B are shown in Figure 5. Comparing the two plots
reveals a deviation in the red phase of the HV
winding of ET-3A. This deviation is observed at the
low frequency range. Theoretically variation at low
frequency is associated with the problem in the
magnetic core structure within a transformer.

To further confirm this finding, the results of the

excitation current for ET-3A and ET-3B are Figure 5: Frequency response of high voltage
studied. The following Table 5 shows the results winding of ET-3A and ET-3B
from the excitation test of these two units:
Comparatively, the frequency response of ET-3B is
Transformer Test Lead Connection consistent with each other for all phases in the low
H1-H0 H2-H0 H3-H0 frequency range, which corresponds well with the
(mA) (mA) (mA) results from the excitation current measurement.
ET-3A 104.4 106.7 109.9 These indicate that the core for this unit has not
ET-3B 102.7 99.7 103.3 experienced any defect or deformation.

Table 5: Excitation current of ET-3A and ET-3B From the RVM, the percentage by dry weight of
moisture in the paper insulation could be estimated.
A pattern of two similar (within 15%) values on the The winding insulation for both GT-3B and GT-3C
outer windings which are higher than the centre are found to be dry at 1.5% and 1.4% respectively.

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The moisture levels of other units fall in the 2-3%
range, indicating that the paper insulation appears
to be wet. However, it is pertinent to also assess the
quality of the insulation in terms of its dielectric
loss and insulation resistance. The power factor
measurement results indicate that the insulation
system of all tested units is in good condition since
the loss factor value of the high and low voltage
winding to ground as well as the inter-winding
insulation is below the specified limit. In addition,
the polarization index of insulation resistance of
these configurations is observed to be more than
1.25 for all transformer units.
4.3 Assessment of oil testing
The oil samples were sent to the transformer oil lab
of TNB Research for analysis. The tests were
conducted to determine the quality of the oil in
service, detect any incipient faults and determine
the ageing condition of the transformers.
The oil quality analysis shows that all the units are
in satisfactory condition as the physical, chemical
and electrical properties of the oil are within the
specified limits. Both the generator transformers
and the station unit have undergone oil reclamation
in the recent years. The moisture, acidity, interfacial
tension (IFT) and dielectric breakdown voltage are
maintained at acceptable values since the
reclamation process.
The DGA data of ST-B reveals that the
concentration of ethylene and carbon monoxide is
slightly above the specified limit. Table 6 lists the
current and previous fault-gases data obtained via
DGA for ST-B. The rate of rise of ethylene and
carbon monoxide from the previous reading is
0.388 and 0.911 ppm/day respectively.
Fault Gases
(Specified 22/9/04 2/3/05 8/9/05
limit)
H2 (100) ND 1 3
ND ND 8 least and highest life expectancy
CH4 (120)
C2H6 (65) ND 1 3
C2H4 (50) 1 13 83
ND ND ND
C2H2 (35)
CO (350) 5 189 353
CO2 (5000) 225 744 2171
Table 6: DGA results obtained for ST-B
The presence of carbon monoxide in transformer oil
is associated with the overheating of the cellulose
material at high temperature. This is confirmed by
the detection of high concentration of ethylene gas
that is usually related to the thermal fault at high
temperature.
For this unit, it is recommended that the oil is
sampled again within 6 months instead of 12
months as scheduled to monitor the rising rate of
the fault gas production.
To gauge the extent of this overheating in
degrading the paper insulation, it is insightful to
look at the result of the furfural analysis. For ST-B,
the furan level is found to be below the maximum
specified limit. This suggests that the overheating
does not severely affect the cellulose. The high
carbon dioxide level could be formed by general
oxidation of the oil and by the action of partial
discharges in the oil [37].
High level of 2FAL is detected for GT-3B. This is
indicative of general overheating and significant
ageing of the paper insulation [35].
4.4 Assessment of transformer life expectancy
The application of the calculations presented in
section 2.4 enables the remaining life of the
transformers under study to be estimated. Table 7
shows the life assessment of UT-3B and GT-3B.
The percentage of the remaining life and the
knowledge of the estimated transformer design life
as given by the manufacturers can be used to
estimate the number of years the transformers can
be expected to be operational.
Transformer Furanic % Life
DP
unit compounds used
GT-3B 3171 ppb 304 70%
UT-3B 44 ppb 835 3%
Table 7: Life assessment results of 2 units with the
Based on this result, it is reasonable to conclude
that in the case of GT-3B, the transformer paper
insulation has badly deteriorated and aged. The DP
gives a sign that the life expectancy and thus the
serviceability of this unit are questionable. In the
case of UT-3B, the high DP suggests that this unit
is free from any advanced or abnormal aging of the
cellulosic insulation which can limit its life
expectancy. It is essential to note that the
degradation rate of the paper insulation increases
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with the increase in moisture, oxygen, acidity and
temperature in a transformer. Since the solid
insulation of UT-3B is considered wet from the
RVM, the estimated life expectancy may not be
reached. Thus, the proper maintenance actions
should be employed to monitor the presence of the
harmful ageing factors.
5. Conclusion
Assessment of transformer condition and remaining
life is very useful in safeguarding the reliability and
availability of supply, planning of replacement or
refurbishment of the aged units and also optimizing
the utilization of the equipment economically. The
use of integrated diagnostic approach has been
shown to yield results that are used as a basis for
life-extension initiatives recommended to ensure
that life expectancy of the units are met.
6. References
[1] CIGRE WG 12.09, ‘Lifetime Evaluation
of Transformers’, Electra, no. 150, 1993
[2] A. M. Emsley, G. C. Stevens, “Review of
chemical indicators of degradation of cellulosic
electrical paper insulation in oil-filled
transformers”, IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Technol., vol.
141, no. 5, 1994
[3] IEC 60076-1 (2000) clause 10.1.3: Power
transformer-Part 1 “General”
[4] M. J.Heathcote, The J & P Transformer
Book, 12th Edition, Newnes Publication, 1998
[5] IEEE Standard, ‘IEEE Guide for
Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power
Apparatus-Part 1: Oil Filled Power Transformers,
Regulators and Reactors’, IEEE 62: 1995
[6] Doble Test Data Reference Book,
Transformer Insulation Power Factor
[7] William H. Bartley, “Failure Analysis of
Transformers”, International Association of
Engineering Insurers 36th Annual Conference,
Stockholm, 2003
[8] IEC 60422 (2005) ‘Mineral insulating oils
in electrical equipment-supervision and
maintenance guidance’
[9] Nynas Napthenics, “Transformer Oil
Handbook”, 2004
[10] M. Duval, Dissolved Gas Analysis: It Can
Save Your Transformer, IEEE Electrical Insulation
Magazine, 1989
[11] W.D.Halstead, Transformer Fault
Diagnosis by Oil Decomposition Product Analysis,
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