ANCIENT

NEAR EASTERN
ART

THEMETROPOLITAN
MUSEUMOF ART

On the cover: The stag vessel with a frieze depicting a religious scene is a rare example of Hittitesilverware. It is part of a collection of silver and gold
objects from Anatolia generously lent by Norbert Schimmel for the newly installed permanent galleries of ancient Near Eastern art. Inside covers:
Reliefs from the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.). Above: Lion's-head dress ornament (see fig. 67).

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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 Beginninginthe earlyNeolithicperiod,
representationsof humanfigures in
terracotta,stone, or bone were made all
overthe Near East. We cannotoftentell
whetherthe figuresrepresentdeities or
humans,or if indeed such distinctions
were intended.Butbythe latefourthand
earlythirdmillenniaB.C., backgroundsce-
neryor physicalattributesand activities
were includedthatcan sometimes help
us to distinguishgods frommen. Itis
difficult,however,to tell an ordinary
citizen-a priest or a worshiper,for
example-from a ruler.
Inthe course of the thirdmillennium
B.C.variousNear Easternstates were
engaged in organizedtradeand imperial
conquest, and then, politicallyand eco-
nomicallysecure, theirrulersbegan to
have themselves portrayedunambigu-
ously and sometimes withinscriptions.
Theywere depictedperformingsecular,
military,and religiousfunctions,and the
formsemployedwere statuaryinthe
roundor carvingson cylinderseals and
reliefs,usuallyin stone.
Thefiguresreproducedhere are clearly
rulers,identifiedas such eitherby inscrip-
tions or theirregalcharacteristics.Possi-
blythe earliestis the heavy,almost
solid-casthead (fig. 1), masterfullyand
subtlyexecuted to indicatecalm dignity
and inherentpower.The heavy-lidded
eyes, the prominentbutnotoverlarge
nose, the full-lippedmouth,and the intri-
catelycoiffedbeardare all so carefully
and skillfullymodeledthatthe head may
wellbe a portrait,almostcertainlyof a
ruler.Ifthis is a portrait,then the head is
uniqueamong Near Easternartifacts.
Some scholars date itto the second
millenniumB.C., othersto the latethird
millenniumB.C., which,consideringthe
style, seems more likely.The makerand
the date of the piece remainunknown,as
does the identityof this king,whose
representation,muteand nameless, nev-
ertheless remainsone of the greatworks
of ancientart.
The seated stone figure(fig.2) repre-
sents Gudea (2144-2124 B.C.), the ensi,
or governor,of the ancientSumerian
state of Lagash,whose name and title
are includedinthe long inscription.A
numberof stone statues of Gudea,seated
or standing,were excavatedat Tello
(ancientGirsu),insouthernMesopotamia,
whileothers, presumablyfromTello,sur-
faced on the artmarket;manyfromboth
sources are fragmented,lackingheads
or bodies. The Museum'sGudea is com-
plete and depictsthe rulercharacteristi-
callydressed in a brimmedhatdecorated
withhairlikespiralsand a longgarment
2 thatleaves one shoulderbare. His hands
7
 are clasped in prayer-appropriatelyso,
forthe inscriptioninformsus thatthe
statuewas placedin a templeto represent
Gudea in supplicationbeforethe gods.
The Museumalso possesses a stone
head, whichwas joinedto a body inthe
Louvre,of Ur-Ningirsu, the son of Gudea;
the completestatue (fig.69) is exhibited
at the Metropolitan and the Louvrein
alternatingthree-yearperiods.
Duringthe firstmillenniumB.C.Assyrian
and PersianAchaemenidkingsruled
manynationsand peoples. Theywere
mastersof politicalpropaganda,which
was expressed in numeroustexts and in
variousformsof art.The Assyrianpal-
aces were embellishedwithstone wall
reliefs(see insidecovers) depictingroyal
activitiesinwar,the hunt,and domestic
and religiousceremonies. On the illus-
tratedrelieffromNimrud(fig.3), the king
Assurnasirpal11(883-859 B.C.)holds a
bow-a symbolof his authority-and a
ceremonialbowl.Facinghim,an atten-
dantholds a flywhiskand a ladlefor
replenishingthe royalvessel. The peace-
ful,perhapsreligious,natureof the scene
is reflectedinthe calm, dignifiedcompo-
sure of the figures.
The Achaemenidkings(550-331 B.C.)
employedthe politicaland artisticiconog-
3
raphyof earlierperiods.Althoughwarlike
activitiesdo not appearon theirpalace
reliefs,the Persiankingsdid represent
themselveson cylinderseals vanquishing
enemies. On the seal at the lowerleft(fig.
4) an Achaemenidkingholdsa bow,again
a symbolof authority,andthrustshis spear
intoa soldier,identifiedas Greekby his
helmetand clothing.The naturalismof the
carvingand detailssuggests thatthe artist
was eithera Greekworkingforthe Per-
sians or a Persiantrainedin the West.
The PersianSasanians (thirdto sev-
enth centuryA.D.)consideredthemselves
the spiritualand politicalheirsto the
Achaemenidkings. Representationsof
Sasanian rulersappearon coins, vessels,
and rockreliefs,and in stucco busts. On
the coins each kingis named by an
inscriptionand wears a personalized
4 crown,whichusuallyhelps to identify
other,uninscribedportraits.Unfortunately,
this is notthe case withthe Museum's
slightlyunder-life-sizehead (fig.5), which
was hammeredfroma single piece of
silver.Because of slightvariationsinthe
crownand the presence of the striated
globe headdress, we can inferthathe
was a fourth-century king,whose con-
trolledfierceness characterizesa pos-
turedepictedformillennia.We do not
knowthe functionof the piece, butit is a
rareexampleof a Sasanian kingpor-
trayedin the round. O.W.M. 5

8
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O
 Mudbrick,unbakedand baked,reed,
wood, and stone were the chief building
materialsof the ancientNear Eastern
world.The collapse of successive mud-
brickwallsgraduallyled to the formation
of mounds,whichmarkthe sites of human
occupationinthe Near East (see figs. 44,
49, 51). Because stone is rarein south-
ern Mesopotamia,mudbrickand reeds
were used to fashionstructures.Wood
was also generallylackinginthe south,
where the onlycommontree was the
date palm(see figs. 4, 39). InSyriaand
Anatolia,however,wood formedan inte-
gralpartof all largestructures.On a clay
culttowerprobablymade in Syria(see fig.
22), sizable wooden beams are repre-
sented betweenthe two stories and in
the frameworkof the building.
The wallsand doorwaysof most impor-
tantroyaland cultbuildingswere embel-
lished withdifferentmaterials,stone,
metal,and paintedplaster.Claybricks
moldedintofiguraland plantformsfirst
appearas a type of decorationin architec-
ture of the second millennium B.C. in
Mesopotamiaand Syria.Some of the
most impressiveexamples of molded
brickscome fromthe cityof Babylon.
The wallsof gateways,the royalbuild-
ings, and a long processionalroad,built
duringthe reignof NebuchadnezzarII
(604-562 B.C.), were faced with molded
brickscoveredwithyellow,blue, black,
7 lgSIBW Iwhite, and redglazes. The lions (see fig.

11
 9
9), symbolsof Ishtar,the greatMesopota-
miangoddess of love and war(see fig.
27), are fromthe wallsof the proces-
sional roadleadingto the BitAkitu,
or house of the New Year'sFestival
(see p. 23).
The Babyloniantaste formoldedand
glazed bricksspreadto Iran,and in
the Achaemenidperiod(550-331 B.C.)
the wallsof the palaces at Susa had
brightlycoloredglazed surfaces. The
mostfamiliarAchaemenidarchitecture,
12
however,is at the site of Persepolis,in to representthe forepartsof various
southwesternIran.Manyof the stone animals:griffins,bulls,andhuman-headed
sculpturesdecoratingthe entrancegates, bulls.The head of a bull(fig.6) inthe
stairs,and wallsof the royalbuildingsstill Museum'scollectionis partof one of
stand, butthe mudbricksthatformedthe these blocksand combines realisticand
wallsof these buildingshave longsince decorativeformsinthe typicalstyle of the
crumbledaway.Some of the hallsat Achaemenidroyalworkshops.The ani-
Persepolishad huge stone columnsover mal'sears and horns,now lost, were
sixtyfeet high.On the tops of these made fromseparate pieces of stone.
columnsand the capitalssurmounting Royaland cultbuildingswere con-
them, impostblocksheldthe wooden structedwithconsiderable care and
ceilingbeams. These blockswere carved deliberation.The groundchosen fortem-
pie buildingswas clearedbeforeconstruc-
tionand the soil speciallyprepared.One
customarypractice,datingfromas early
as the mid-thirdmillenniumB.C., was the
burialof foundationfiguresat selected
pointsbeneaththe temple.A nude male
figuresupportinga box (fig.7) may have
originallyserved this purpose.Founda-
tionfiguresoftenend in a taperednail-
likeformso that,in a sense, they secure
the buildingin place. This is trueof many
Sumerianfigures(see fig. 45) and of a
particularly
strikingexample (see fig. 35),
probablyfromnorthernMesopotamia,
toppedwitha snarlinglion.
The conquest of the Near Eastern
lands inthe fourthcenturyB.C.by
the GreekrulerAlexanderof Macedon
broughtforeigncraftsmenin consider-
able numbersto the NearEast, and the
architecturesoon reflectedtheirpresence.
Stone was used morefrequentlyforbuild-
ings of importance,and Greekcapitals,
columns,and moldingsbegan to trans-
formthe appearanceof buildings.A
beardedmale head of Parthiandate (first
to second centuryA.D.) providesevi-
dence of westerninfluenceinthe rather
realisticstyle and the functionof the
piece as a waterspout(fig.8). The person
portrayed,however,has the moustache,
long, loose locks of hair,and prominent
nose of a Near Easterner,probablyan
Iranian.The head was originallyglazed,
and the beardstillretainstraces of iron
pyrites. P.O.H.
13
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 Vessels fashionedfromsilverand gold
were made in several areas of the Near
East as earlyas the middleof the third
millenniumB.C.Ores producingsilver
exist in Iran,and silverwas broughtback
fromAnatoliaby merchantsfromnorth-
ern Mesopotamia(Assyria)in the early
second millenniumB.C.Goldcame to
Mesopotamiafroma varietyof sources,
includingthe Taurusand Caucasus moun-
tains inthe northwestand Egyptin the
southwest.Textsalso recordthe ship-
mentof gold fromthe Induscoastline
(Meluhha)in the east.
Some of the most spectacularand
earliestobjects in gold come fromthe
RoyalCemeteryat Ur(ca. 2500 B.C.)in
Mesopotamia(see fig. 66). Neithergold
norsilveris nativeto Mesopotamia,and
the appearanceof these materialsindi-
cates thatan effectivesystem of trade
had developed by this time.
Slightlylaterin date thanthe objects
discoveredat Urare gold vessels found
in royaltombs in north-central Anatolia.A
ewer made of hammeredgold (fig. 10)
originallyhad a longspout thatprojected
fromthe narrowneck. Duringthe second
millenniumB.C. spoutedjugs became ex-
tremelyelaborateand elegant in form.A
representationof a cultscene on a Hittite
cup (see backcover)shows one of these
jugs in use at a ceremonywhere a liquid
offeringis being pouredout beforea god.
One vessel type thathad a long history
inthe ancientNear East incorporatesthe
head orforepartof an animal.A spectacu-
larexample (see frontcover)comes from
Anatoliaand was made duringthe peri-
od of Hittiterule(fifteenthto thirteenth
centuryB.C.). The handledcup is inthe
shape of the forepartof a recumbent
stag, an animalcommonlyrepresentedin
the artof Anatoliaand associated witha
stag god,whocan be seen on the banden-
circlingthe neck of the vessel (see back
cover).The meaningof this cultscene is
~11 ~ uncertain,butthe associationof certain
animal-shapedvessels withparticular
divinitiesis describedin Hittitetexts.
Religiousor cultscenes of the type
foundon the Hittitecup are unknownon
latervessels of gold or silverthatare
preservedfromthe periodof Achaemenid
rulein Iran.Ingeneral,the decorationof
these worksof artis fairlysimple. Bodies
are oftenflutedand decoratedwithegg-
shaped bosses (see fig. 72), designs that
appearon Near Easternceramicsand
metalworkin the second and earlyfirst
millenniaB.C. Stylizedplantmotifsin-
clude lotuses, palmettes,and rosettes.
AnAchaemenidcup made of silveris
inthe shape of a horse'shead (fig.12).
The bridleand the fileof birdsaroundthe

15
 neck are coveredwithgoldfoil.This male figure,beardedand partiallynude.
combinationof gold and silverwas The vine scrolland the nude male figure
commonlyused on metalworkof the (an unusualsubjectinSasanianart)reflect
Achaemenidperiod,and the fashioncon- the influenceof Dionysiacimagery.The
tinuedon laterworksof Parthianand significanceof the Dionysiacmotifsin
Sasanian date. Iranianartis unknown.Theyare com-
AnotherAchaemenidvessel (fig.14) monon silverwareof late Sasanian date
ends inthe forepartof a lion.The mouth and, duringthatperiod,mayhave re-
of the lionis open, and incharacteristic ferredto Iraniancourtfestivalsrather
NearEasternfashionthe tongue pro- thanto specific Dionysiaccultpractices.
trudesfrombetweenthe teeth. The ves- Althoughroyalimages do notappear
sel is madeof seven different
parts,almost on the gold and silvervessels thathave
invisiblyjoined. survivedfromthe Achaemenidperiod,
A gildedsilverrhyton(fig.13), horn- names of kingswere inscribedon some
shaped and havinga smallspoutfor examples aroundthe rim(see fig. 72).
pouring,dates fromthe Parthianperiod On latervessels, notablythose of the
(ca. first century B.C.)and is much influ- Sasanianperiod,thereare no royalinscrip-
enced, informand style, bythe artof the tions butthe kinghimselfis represented,
late HellenisticWest.The pantherwears usuallyin a huntingscene (see fig. 63).
a grape-and-leafvine woundaroundits Silver-giltplates decoratedinthis fashion
chest, and an ivywreathencirclesthe rim were probablyintendedas giftsforneigh-
of the vessel. These motifsare symbols boringrulersorformembersof the king's
of the Greekwine god Dionysos,whose own court.
cultspreadeastwardat the timeof the Ancienttextsstate thatgoldsmithsfash-
invasionof Alexanderthe Greatinthe ioned notonlyvessels butalso statues of
latefourthcenturyB.C.Dionysiacimages kingsand divinitiesand manysmall ob-
-panthers, grapevines,and dancingfe- jects, such as jewelryand otherdecora-
males (see fig. 26)- continueto appear tions forthe clothingof the kingand god.
on the silverwareof the Sasanian period Onlya smallnumberof these treasured
(A.D. 226-651). On an oval bowl(see fig. objects have survived,butthe remains
11) datingfromthe end of this perioda providea glimpseof the luxurywares that
curlinggrapevinescrollis populatedwith were used at the royalcourtand dedi-
birdsand animalsand framesa small cated by rulers to their gods. P.O.H.

13 14
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17
 Weaponsare documentedinthe archaeo-
logicalrecordsof the NearEast fromat
least the Neolithicperiod.Theywere
initiallymade of stone and probablywood,
and as soon as metallurgywas exploited,
they were fashionedof copper,then
bronze,and lateriron.Ourknowledgeof
weapons and theiruse in warand the
huntis based on findsfromcemeteries,
settlements,and on representations.
Sennacherib,kingof Assyria(704-681
B.C.), was frequentlyat warwithhis
neighbors,andhis palacewallsat Nineveh
were linedwithstone reliefsdepictinghis
victories.Manyof the battlescenes are
bloodyand dramatic;others, likethe
Museum'sfragmentaryexample (fig. 15),
illustratetroopson the march.Heretwo
cavalrysoldiersare shown wearinghel-
mets, armor,and boots;theycarryspears,
swords,and bows forbothclose- and
long-rangecombat.Because of the rough
terrain-mountainsand a spring-the
soldierswalktheirhorses, an exampleof
Assyrianconcernforverisimilitude. The
horses weartassels, fordecoration,and
bells, to create a terrifyingnoise during
charges. The reliefsnotonly informus of
historicalevents, butthey also yielddocu-
mentationof contemporaryartifacts-in
this case, weapons, clothing,and eques-
trianparaphernalia.Archaeologicalfinds
oftenmatchitemsdepictedon the reliefs,
18
whichplayan importantrole indating
and attribution.
Althoughapproximatelyeightyexam-
ples of ironswords likethe Museum's
(fig.16) are known,notone is repre-
sented in artor has been excavatedby
archaeologists.Fortunatelythe culture
and generaltimeof theirmanufacture
are revealedby stylisticanalysisof both
the figuresand the blade shape. The two
beardedmale heads thatprojectfromthe
pommeland the crouchinglionson
eitherside of the ricassoresembleLuristan
styles fromthe late eighthand early
seventh centuries B.C., and the willow-leaf
blade is paralleledon plainswords exca-
vatedfromLuristantombsof the same
period.
The placementof the blade at right
angles to the hiltandthe complexmethod
of constructionmakethis class of sword
unique.Eachswordwas individually
hand-forgedand consists of aboutten
separate pieces neatlyjoinedto give the
impressionthatthe swordwas cast in
one piece. Whythese swordswere so
painstakinglymade is unknown,butthe
largenumbersuggests thatthey may
have signaledthe special rankof their
bearers. Identicalinform,they were
probablymanufacturedinone place.
The swordwitha giltbronzeguardand
a hollowgold hilt(fig.17) is moredifficult
to attributeto a specificarea. The iron
blade (notshown) is preservedin a gold
scabbarddecoratedwitha stampedor
punchedfeatherpatternon the obverse
and withfive pairsof spiralwireson the
reverse.The hiltand the two mountswith
P-shapedflanges are decoratedwith
granulationsand garnetand glass inlays.
These mountsheld leatherstrapsthat
allowedthe swordto hang froma beltfor
a "quickdraw."
Morethan a half-dozenotherexam-
ples of this formof swordand scabbard
are known,butnone are so elaborately
decorated;a few are also representedin
art.The double P-shapedmountsare
foundon swordsrecoveredfromEuropeto
the Eurasiansteppes, includingIran,and
are associated withthe nomadicTurkish-
speakingAvarsof the sixthand seventh
centuriesA.D.A rockreliefat Taq-i
Bustanin Iranprovidesthe only known
exampleof a Sasanian kingwearinga
similarswordand mounting;otherrepre-
sentationsof Sasanian swords depicta
differentformof attachment.Therefore,we
cannotbe certainwhetherourswordwas
once inthe armoryof a Sasanian king,
or whetheritand its mates were once in
the possession of an Avarchief. O.W.M.
15
16 17

19

The peoples of the Near East,
likethose of othercultures, were
preoccupiedwiththe world(of
eternallymysteriousspiritualIand
demonicforces. Theirartisti ic
impulseswere largelyexpre,ssed
inconceptualizingand dociJ-
20
mentingtheirmanifoldbeliefs, interpreta-
tions, and fears. AncientNear Eastern
artand textualmaterialeloquentlyreveal
howover the millenniathese people re-
solved theirneed to relateto and placate
the ever-presentspiritsand deities that
manifestedthemselves in natureand in
dailylife.
The gold necklace (fig. 19) is a good
example of how decorativeand spiritual
functionswere oftencombined.Itis com-
posed of doubleand triplestrandsof
hollowbeads withseven pendants,each
inthe formof a deityor a symbolof a
deity.Althoughapparentlycomplete,the
reconstructionof the morethantwo hun-
dredpieces is modern,so the original
positionof each element is not absolutely
certain.The two hornedfemales in long
flounceddresses most probablyrepre-
sent Lama,a protectivegoddess; the
centraldiskwithraysemanatingfroma
boss representsShamash, the sun god;
the crescent, the moon god, Sin;and the
forkedlightningsymbol, probablyAdad,
the stormgod. The two disks withgranu-
latedrosettes may be purelydecorative.
Whileno otherelaborateexample exists
in completeform,wallreliefsdepict
Assyriankingsof the firstmillenniumB.C.
wearingnecklaces likethis one withpen-
dantdivinesymbols, indicatingthatthey
were to be wornby royalty.The necklace
was most probablyapotropaic-that is, it
protectedthe royalwearerfromharm.
Similarindividualelements excavatedat
Larsain Mesopotamialead us to assume
thatthis necklace was made in the early
19
second millenniumB.C., and as Assyrian
examples attest, necklaces withapo-
tropaicfeatureshad a long historyin
the region.
The bronzehelmet(fig.20) withfour
raisedfiguresprominentlypositionedon
its fronthad apotropaicvalue in addition
to its immediatepracticalfunction.Each
of the figureswas sculptedfroma bitu-
men core overlaidwithsilverand gold
and then fastened to a bronzeplateriv-
eted to the helmet.Inthe centralposition
is a beardedmale deity,identifiedas a
mountain-water god bythe scales on a
conicalbackgroundand the waterflowing
fromthe vessel he holds. He is flanked
bytwo identicalgoddesses and protected
fromabove by a giantraptor.The
goddesses holdtheirhandsopen inrever-
ence beforetheirbreasts. They,too, are
placed againstbackgroundswithscales,
whichsuggests thatthey may be moun-
taindeities associated withthe male god,
who is probablydominantsince his crown
has multiplepairsof hornswhiletheirs
have onlysingle pairs.Because of the
style and deportmentof the figures
depicted,and the special techniqueof
manufacture,the helmetmaybe attrib-
utedto the Elamitesof the fourteenth
centuryB.C. Thatourhelmetwas wornby
a personof rankis suggested bythe
preciousmaterialused and the complex-
ityof the construction.Itssymbolicand
spirituallyprotectivevalue is impliedby
the presence of the deitiesinsuch a prom-
inentand chargedposition.
The Neo-Assyriancylinderseal (fig.
18) depicts a religiousscene commonly
foundon these ubiquitousobjects.A
humanworshiperis in reverencebefore
the stormgod Adad,who stands on a
bull,the animalusuallyassociated with
him.A bull-man,one of manymixed-
creaturespiritsdepictedby ancientNear
Easterners,appears in attendancebe-
hindAdad,and varioussymbols of other
deities-the standardsof Mardukand
Nabu,the seven dots representingthe
Pleiades, and the wingedsun disk-are
distributedunobtrusivelythroughoutthe
scene, whichinterestinglymixes the
anthropomorphic formsof the gods and
theirsymbols.Whilethe ownerprobably
used this device to seal documentsand
cargo, he no doubtalso carrieditas his
personaltalismanand sign of piety.O.W.M.
21
 his gods was not personal
diateone of manymodernbelievers.
Instead,itwas distantand formal,de-
finedessentiallythroughthe perfor-
mance of elaboraterituals.Ancientman's
primaryfunctionon earthwas to serve
the gods, whose decisions and actions
determinedthe outcome of all events and
mankind'sultimatefate.
Itseems thatthe common manwas
excludedfromall butthe majorreligious
festivals;in most ritualsparticipationwas
the privilegeand the responsibilityof
priestsand, most important,of the king.
These ritesare not clearlyunderstood,
and whatlittlewe knowcomes largely
throughtexts writteninvariousdialects,
visual representations,and archaeologi-
cal remains.
Mesopotamiandeities were conceived
in humanformand were believedto
reside in images erected in cultbuildings.
This imagewas the focus of the cultand
was carefullynurturedthroughmanypre-
cisely prescribedritualsforfeeding,cloth-
ing,and washing,inthe hope thatthe
god mightthen be pleased and disposed
to act favorablytowardhis subjects.
Cuneiformtexts tell us thatmost of the
cultimages-none of whichare entirely
preserved-were madeof preciouswoods
and were eitherdressed in elaborate
garmentsor covered entirelywithgold.
They had staringeyes inlaidwithpre-
cious stones, often lapis lazuli,forthe
pupiland shell or alabasterforthe sur-
roundingwhite.Statues of otherdeities
and of important,often royal,worshipers
were frequentlyplaced in the temples.
The gypsumstatue (fig.21) was foundat
TellAsmarinthe SquareTemple,which
was builtshortlybeforethe middleof the
thirdmillenniumB.C.Itis probablyan
imageof a piousworshiper,not a deity;
his hypnoticallystaringeyes may re-
semble those of his reveredgod.
Offeringsof foodanddrinkwere brought
to the deityeveryday;they were "con-
sumed"by it behinddrawncurtains.In
additionto the ritualfeeding, libations
were offered,usuallyof water,wine, beer,
oil, or the bloodof a sacrificialanimal.
These liquidswere pouredfroma special
vessel onto an altaror intoanothersa-
cred receptacleor object.Such a ceramic
vessel (fig.22), probablyfromSyria,is in
the shape of a two-storiedtowertopped
by a humanfigurewearinga conicalcap
and restrainingtwofelines bytheirtails.
Betweenthem is a narrow-neckedopen-
ing throughwhicha blessed liquidwas
poured,to flowfromone of the two doors
cut intothe frontof the towervessel.

22
Across the top of the towera cylinder-
seal impressionshows a variationof the
presentationscene.
The figurineof a kneelingbull(fig.23),
fromearlythird-millennium Iran,is magnifi-
centlysculpted in silver(see p. 46). Itis
clothedas a human,in a textiledeco-
ratedwitha stepped pattern,and holds a
tall,spoutedvessel in its outstretched
hooves inthe postureof a supplicant.We
knownothingof the religiousritualsof
Iranfromthe beginningof the thirdmillen-
nium B.C. Contemporary Proto-Elamite
22
cylinderseals do show animalsin human
posturethatmaybe engaged in some
kindof ritualactivity.
Inadditionto the dailyritualssurround-
ingthe cultimage,the Mesopotamian
calendarwas fullof special days on which
particularriteshad to be observed by the
priestsand the king.The most important
of these was the New Year'sFestival,
which,aftermanychanges throughthe
ages, was celebratedinthe firstmillen-
nium B.C.during the spring month of
Nisan. InBabylon,the kingand priests
23
performedritualsforeleven days;the
highpointof the festivaloccurredwhen
the cultstatues of Marduk-the chief
Babyloniangod-and otherdeities were
paradedalongthe ProcessionalWay
leadingfromthe templeprecinctto the
Akituhouse. Outsidethe magnificent
IshtarGate, the wallsalongthe waywere
linedwithcolorfulglazed-brickimages of
lions(see fig. 9) stridingboldlytoward
the sacred destinationwhere a mys-
teriousand crucialritualmusthave
takenplace. H.P.
23
 Some of the most elaboraterepresenta-
tions of females inthe artof the ancient
Near East are images of divineand cult
figureswhose association withcertain
aspects of lifemade them essential to the
welfareof mankind.Fertility,procreation,
the growthof crops and livestock,and
such naturalphenomenaas thunder-
stormsand rainwere among the basic
concepts identifiedwithfemale divinities
by ancientpeoples. Representationsof
nude females in clay,stone, and metal
arethe simplestand mostobviousexpres-
sion of these concepts, and such figures
appearedthroughoutantiquityin many
regions and periods.A strikingexample
in clay fromnorthwesternIran(fig.25) is
hollowand probablyserved as a cult
vessel as well as a sacred image.The
exaggeratedwidthof the pelvis may be
intendedto emphasize the roleof women
as childbearers.
One of the most importantMesopota-
miangoddesses was Ishtar,a divinity
who combinedin her natureaspects of
bothlove andwar.She is frequentlyrepre-
sented on cylinderseals (fig.27) with

25

24
 2/

weapons risingfromher shouldersor

holdinga distinctivelion-headedweapon.
Herrightfoot rests on a lion,her animal
attribute.Ishtaris a goddess to whom
rulersturnedforaid, protection,and vic-
toryin battle.
A smallgold pendant(fig.24) repre-
sents a goddess worshipedin Anatolia.
The Hittitefigureholds a childon her lap,
thus underscoringher roleas a mother
goddess. The identityof this divinityre-
mains uncertain,butthe wide, disklike
headdress may representthe sun and
the figurethereforemaybe a sun goddess.
Althoughthe enthronedfigurerests on a
flatpodiumor base, a loop attachedto
the backof the headdress indicatesthat
this was a pendant,once suspended,
perhapsfroma necklace similarto
the examplefromMesopotamiainthe
Museum'scollection(see fig. 19). On
thatnecklace, smallfiguresof another
benevolentgoddess, Lama,are included
amongthe pendants.
Dancingfemale figuresdecorate a
Sasanian silver-giltewer (fig.26), a cere-
monialor cultvessel of a type datableto
the sixthor earlyseventh centuryA.D.
The appearanceof these images was
influencedby Romanrepresentationsof
maenads, female worshipersassociated
withthe cultof the Greekwine god
Dionysos,a complexdivinitywhose wor-
ship was particularly widespreadinthe
ancientworld.On the Sasanian vessels
the females are alwaysin a dancingpose
and holda select groupof objects, includ-
ing grape-and-leafbranches,birds,ani-
mals, and vessels. No texts remainfrom
this periodto explainthe appearanceor
functionof these females in the Sasanian
world,and we can onlysuppose that
they were associated withsome court
festivalof the Iranianyear. P.O.H.

26

25
 28
Forancientman the worldwas full
of supernaturalspirits,beneficentand
malevolent,who had to be constantly
appeased or repelled.By the thirdmillen-
niumB.C.a few of these spiritshad been
representedintangibleformsthat,al-
thoughmonstrous,were probablyless
frighteningthan previously,when their
formwas leftsolely to a believer'simagi-
nation.The specific identityof most of
these creaturesis not knownbecause
there is so littlecoincidence of textual
descriptionand visual representation.
Butoftentheirfunctionis suggested by
theirappearanceor fromthe contextin
whichthey are depicted.
Whenrepresentedin art,these super-
naturalcreatureswere alwaysmade up
of naturallyoccurringformscombined
in an unnaturalmanner.Wingswere
often used to transforma realcreature
intoa fabulousone, as was the mixingof
humanand animalfeatures (see fig. 64).
Untilthe last halfof the thirdmillen-
niumB.C. onlya few such mixedcrea-
26
29
tureswere represented;amongthemwere
the bull-man,the human-headedbull,
and the lion-headedeagle, Imdugud.But
duringthe Akkadiandynasty(2334-2154
B.C.)a richvarietyof these fabulouscrea-
tureswere placedintothe artisticrepertory.
On the illustratedseal (fig.30) is carved
the snake god, whose formis human
above and reptilianbelow;he is ap-
proachedfromfrontand behindby minor
deitieswithscorpionsor snakes forhands
and feet. One of these divinitiesis winged,
whilethe otherhas felines emergingwing-
likefromits back.The domainof the
snake god was the underworld,and be-
cause he is often associated withgrow-
ing vegetationor,as here, withscorpions
and felines and the gatepost of Inanna
(the Sumeriangoddess of love and war),
he is thoughtto be a fertilitydeity,per-
haps of Iranianinspiration.
Monstrousimages were often bor-
rowedfromothercultures,eitherwithor
withouttheiroriginalidentity.The image
of the sphinx-a creaturewitha lion's
bodyand a humanhead-was borrowed
fromEgyptand adaptedby the cultures
of westernAsia. Fromthe OldAssyrian
palace at the site of Acemhoyukcomes
an ivoryfigurineof a female sphinxwear-
ing Hathorcurls(fig.29). Allof its
elements are Egyptian,butthey are com-
binedina completelyun-Egyptian manner.
This ivorysupportis one of a groupof
fourthatmost probablyserved as decora-
tionfora throne.
Anexpertlycast silveraxe withgold-
foilgilding(fig.28) is decoratedwith
elements of the livelyiconographyof
superhumanheroes and demons that
was developedduringthe MiddleBronze
Age inwesternCentralAsia. The heroic
demon, composed of a humanbodywith
birds'heads, talons, and wings, is a crea-
turemost probablyborrowedfromeast-
ern Iran.Itis shownsometimesenthroned
and sometimes strugglingwithnaturalor
fantasticcreatures.Itsopponenton the
axe is a dragonlikecreaturedistin-
guished by a single horn,a curledbeard,
a ridgedruff,staggeredwings, a feline's
body,and bird'stalons. This same crea-
turealso served as a symbolof the
IranianShimashkidynastyof the late
third millennium B.C.
Representationsof fabulouscreatures
served notonlyas images of numinous
spirits,butalso as heraldicsymbolsfor
the propagandaof the secular state.
Althoughits meaningis not understood,
the hornedand wingedlionoccurs in
AchaemenidPersianiconography,fre-
quentlyinconjunctionwiththe king.On a
gold plaqueof this period(fig.31) are
two wingedand hornedlions,each rear-
ingwithits head turnedback.The plaque
was most probablysewn on a soft cloth
or leatherbackingthatserved as partof
the resplendentpanoplyof an Achaemenid
courtier. H.P.

27

Eveninthe densely populatedcities of
the ancientNearEast naturewas never
farfrommen'sdailylives. This is re-
flectedinthe art,where images of ani-
malswere used fromthe earliesttimes.
Theywere representedas naturalforms,
as symbolsof abstractconcepts, or as
attributesof one of the manyNear East-
ern deities. Alongwithdomesticated
sheep, goats, and bovids,images of wild
animalspredominate:lions,caprids,
mountainsheep, and wildbullsare espe-
ciallyimportant.
As earlyas the latefourthmillennium
B.C., when urbansocieties were firstform-
ing inthe lowlands,the lionwas clearly
32
34
associated withpower,bothsecularand
divine.The forepartof a lionemerges
froma bronzepeg-shaped foundation
figurine(fig.35). The platebeneaththe
lion'sextended paws is inscribedwiththe
name of Tishatal,a kingof Urkish,inthe
languageof the Hurrians,a non-Indo-
European,non-Semiticpeople who, from
the second halfof the thirdmillennium
B.C.,
were presentinthe northernpartsof
Mesopotamiaand Syria.Stylisticfeatures
suggest thatthisfoundationpeg-fright-
ening enough to scare offevildoers-was
made eitherby an Akkadianartistor by
one withinthe Akkadiansphere of
influence.
The yokedpairof long-hornedbulls
(fig.32) served as a decorativefinial,
perhapsfora ceremonialstandardor
chariotpole. Itis reportedlyfroman Early
BronzeAge royalburialat the site of
HoroztepeincentralAnatolia.These bulls
are examples of how importantanimal
featuresare oftenemphasized in ancient
Near Easternart.Herethe hornsare
morethanone and one-halftimes the
lengthof the animal'sbody,impossiblein
nature,butan effectivestylisticconven-
tion.The identificationof these earlybulls
as sacred or divineis based onlyon an
analogywithHittitebullsthatwere associ-
ated withthe weathergod Teshuba
29
30
 millenniumlater.
Near Easternartistsmust have care-
fullyobserved animalsin nature;the
renderingscapturetheiressence either
throughnaturalisticor stylizedconven-
tions. A fine sculptureof a wildmountain
sheep (fig.36), or mouflon,identical
to several foundat MohenjoDaro(an
urbansite of the thirdmillenniumB.C.
inthe valleyof the IndusRiver),shows
the animalresting;his hindquarters
are stronglytwistedto receivethe full
weightof his body.The physicalpower
of this creatureis emphasized bythe
closed outlinethatincorporateshis
sweeping hornsintothe massive volume
of his chest.
Thethree-dimensional,sculpturalqual-
ityof these animalscontrastswiththe
intricatelypatterned,two-dimensionalbod-
ies of the gazelles stridingaroundthe
side of a lovelygold cup (fig.34).
The heads at a rightangle to the bodies
are a featureshared by several similar
cups foundat KalarDashtand Marlik,
second-millennium B.C. sites of royal
burialssouth of the CaspianSea.
Fromthe earliesttimes in Mesopota-
miahuntingwildbeasts was a religious
responsibilitythatdemonstratedthe prow-
ess and potencyof a ruler.Fromthe time
of the Neo-AssyriankingAssurnasirpalII,
such huntingscenes were depictedon
the carvedstone reliefsinthe palaces;
excerptsfromthese compositionswere
copied in minorartsbothin Assyriaand
inthe lands underits domination.On an
ivorypanel (fig.33) fromnorthwestern
Iran,a male figure,possiblyroyal,is
seen aboutto thrusta spear intothe
breastof a chargingwildbullchased by a
royalchariot. H.P.

36

31
 Inthe ancientNear East plantmotifs
were incorporatedintodesigns on the
richlydecoratedpotteryof the prehistoric
periods.Theycontinuedto be repre-
sented, ina stylizedfashion,on a variety
of objectsthroughoutthe millennia.Favor-
ite designs includedsprigpatterns,rows
of trees, stylizedflowers,and chains of
leaves and buds.A schematicrepresenta-
tionof rowsof date palmsappears in
three registerson a finelycarvedchlorite
vase (fig.39) of the firsthalfof the third
millenniumB.C.The date palmof the oases
and riverareas of southernMesopotamia
and nearbyIranwas a majorsource of
food, of timberforlightconstruction,and
of frondsformats.
The reed, nativeto the marshes of
southernMesopotamia,is represented
duringthe Urukperiod(3500-3100 B.C.)
on cylinderseals, whichalso depictother
plantsand palmtrees in decorative,
nonrealisticdesigns. Inthe Akkadianpe-
riod (2334-2154 B.C.) trees and plants
were morerealisticallycombinedwith
naturalfeaturesto give the impressionof
actuallandscape.AnAkkadianseal (fig.
37) shows a huntingscene in whicha
manseizes a hornedanimal.Firtrees
and moundswithimbricatedpatternsindi-
cate thatthe setting is a mountainous
region,probablythe forestlandsto the
northor east of Akkad.
The ivorycarvingsfromthe Neo-
Assyrianpalaces at Nimrudincorporate
manyplantformsas decorativeelements
inthe designs. On one example exe-
cuted in Syrianstyle (fig.38) a goat is
naturalisticallyportrayedrearingup on its
hindlegs and nibblingat the leaves of a
highlystylizedshrubof intertwined tendrils.
The sacred tree was alwaysa popular
motif.Thisimaginary,decorativeplant,
composed of ornamentalleaves and
waterliketendrils,was repeatedmany
times on the ninth-century B.C. reliefsof
the NorthwestPalace at Nimrud(see
insidefrontcover). Frequently,attending
divinitiesare shown administeringsome
purifyingsubstance witha date palm
spathe and a bucket.The sacred tree
was a symbolof vegetallifeandfertility-a
significancethatwe attributeto most
plantmotifsand designs inthe artof the
ancientNearEast. B.A.P.

38 39

32
Ct' ds%a~
1^a~a
It";^~.~
:Ilg*'^~k;
?^^~6
htAfm
'-^
y
^ <**. '^w
 I'l' %~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ !

'~~~~~~~~~ / .tVI<

I? I ~ ~~ : '' ;rd/
/'/

-j ri~~~~~~~~~~4

7~~~~iii
L1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
i; ;

?5i~~~~~~~~~~/
~~
1~~ 7/

~~;j//
~~~~
~2 4~
40
The Scythianswere one of the nomadic
tribesthatroamedthe steppes northof
Iran,Mesopotamia,and Anatoliainthe
firstmillenniumB.C. They are knownto us
fromthe writingsof theirneighbors,the
earliestrecordsbeing those of the As-
syriansand Urartians.By the timeof the
AssyriankingEsarhaddon(681-668 B.C.)
Scythiannomads had infiltrated intothe
rich,settled lands south of the Caspian.
Herodotus,the fifth-century Greekhisto-
rian,who wroteaboutthem in Book IV
of his monumentalhistory,tells of sump-
tuous royalburialsof Scythianchieftains,
whichhave been confirmedbythe
41
discoveriesof burialmoundsin south-
ern Russia. The tombs covered by the
moundswere filledwithweapons and
horse equipmentas wellas intricately
and lavishlycraftedpieces of jewelry,
drinkingvessels, and combs.
Typicalof Scythianartis the so-called
animalstyle, whichchieflyrepresented
such creaturesas stags, panthers,boars,
and birdsof prey.The animalsare ren-
dered in a decorative,stylizedfashion,
as illustratedby griffin-shapedappliques
(fig.41), partof a groupof ornaments
that has been attributedto a fifth-
centuryB.C.treasurefoundat Maikopin
the KubanRiverregionnorthof the Black
Sea. The Scythianswere great horse-
men and theirpassion foradornment
extendedto the harnesses wornby their
43
horses. The boarclasp (fig.42) of carved
bone coveredwithgold is probablya dec-
orativeelementforthe strapsof a harness.
The Scythiananimalstyle influenced
the artof othernomadictribes.This is
reflectedin a rareexampleof fourth-
century B.C.Thracian workmanship, a
silverbeaker(fig.40) probablymade in
the regionof present-dayRumaniaor
Bulgaria.Similarbeakershavebeen found
in a princelytombat Agighiol,nearthe
Danubedelta in eastern Rumania.The
Museum'scup depicts several animals,
some realand some fantastic.Aneight-
legged stag has antlersterminatingin
birds'heads, whichform partof the
decorative borderaroundthe rim.
A bronzebeltclasp (fig.43) has an
intricateopenworkdesign witha horse
and smallerfiguresof a foal, a dog, and a
bull-all enclosed bya framewithbosses.
Manybeltclasps of this same type and
style have been foundin ancientColchis,
nowwesternGeorgiainthe Soviet Union.
Recentlyit has been suggested thatthey
date to the firstto thirdcenturyA.D.These
small,portable,and highlydecorative
objects preservedmanyof the featuresof
the earlier,nomadicanimalstyle. B.A.P.

35
 Beginninginthe early1930s and contin-
uingto the present,the Metropolitan
Museumhas been a sponsor of archaeo-
logicalexcavationsinthe Near East.
BeforeWorldWarIIthe Museumsup-
portedexcavationsat Qasr-iAbuNasr
and Nishapurin Iran,and at Ctesiphonin
Iraq;duringthe 1950s its concernwith
archaeologicalactivityincreaseddramati-
cally.Inthe past threedecades excava-
tions and researchhave been conducted
withotherinstitutionsat fourteensites in
Iran,five in Iraq,two each in Syriaand
Jordan,and one inTurkey.The Museum
has helpedto financethese projects,and
membersof itscuratorialstaffhaveserved
as directorsor codirectorsof several
excavations.As a resultof its support,
the Museumhas acquiredmuchmaterial
frommanyculturesand periods,butits
supporthas not alwaysbeen contingent
on receivingobjects in return.
The Metropolitan Museumfirstpartici-
36
patedin excavatinginthe NearEast in
1931-32, when itjoinedforces withthe
GermanState Museumsat the site of
Ctesiphonin Iraq.Andfrom1932 to 1934
the Museumitselfsponsoredthree sea-
sons of excavationsat Qasr-iAbuNasr,a
few miles southeast of Shirazin south-
westernIran.The site consists of a large
townand fortressand dates fromthe late
Sasanian and earlyIslamicperiodsfrom
the sixthto the eighthcenturyA.D.Remains
of earlierAchaemenidarchitectureand
carvingsthathad been transportedfrom
nearbyPersepoliswere also recovered.
The Achaemenidmaterialwas subse-
quentlyrestoredto Persepolis,and a
largenumberof objectscame to the
Museumas its share of the finds.These
includeseals and sealings, coins, pottery,
and objectsof glass, stone, bone, and
metal.One of the metalobjectsacquired
is a bronzestand (fig.46) thatprobably
helda lampor candle. Qasr-iAbuNasris
44
a significantsite because itdates to the
transitionfromthe Sasanian to the Is-
lamicperiod,and the extensivearchitec-
tureand objectsfurnishus withevidence
of the cultureduringthisperiodof change.
Nippurin southernMesopotamiawas
firstexploredinthe mid-nineteenthcen-
turyand firstexcavated,bythe University
of Pennsylvania,from1889 to 1900. Com-
mencingagainin 1948 and continuingto
1961, seven campaignswere sponsored
bythe OrientalInstituteof the University
of Chicagoandthe Universityof Pennsyl-
vania,the latterreplacedin 1953 bythe
AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch.
The Metropolitan Museumactivelypartici-
patedinthe campaignsof 1957-58
and 1960-61.
Ancienttexts indicatethatNippurwas
a majorreligiouscenterratherthana
powerfulsecularstate, and the archaeo-
logicalremainsdocumentthatreputation.
A largetempleprecinctcalled the Ekur
46
48
witha templeof the god Enlilwitha zig-
gurat,a templeof the goddess Inannathat
was rebuiltmanytimes overthe millennia
(fig.44), and scribalquartersare the
mainarchitectural and culturalfeaturesat
the site. Seven brickfoundationboxes of
the kingShulgiwere discoveredbeneath
the templeof Inanna,whichdates from
the ThirdDynastyof Ur(2.112-2004 B.C.),
and three boxes of his father,Urnammu,
were discoveredbeneaththe Ekurfoun-
dations;they are amongthe most nota-
ble artifactsfoundthere. Each box con-
taineda bronzepeg statuetteof the king,
representedcarryinga basketof mortar
forthe ritualbuildingof the temple.One
of the Shulgistatuettes(fig.45) is inthe
Museum'scollection.
A massive area withfortification walls
five miles longsurroundingan area of
some nine hundredacres, the Assyrian
site of Nimrudin northernMesopotamia
has concernedarchaeologistssince
37
 4950 50
1845-54, when AustenHenryLayard
excavatedthere. He was followedby
WilliamKennettLoftusin 1854-55, and
George Smithin 1873 and 1876, and
three-quartersof a centurylaterby Max
E. L.Mallowan,who conductedthirteen
campaignsbetween 1949 and 1963. The
Metropolitan Museumsupportedeleven
of these campaigns,from1951 to 1963-
its longestand most fruitfulinvolvementin
archaeologicalresearchinthe NearEast.
Nimrudhas manypreservedpalaces
and temples builtby variousAssyrian
kings,each yieldingquantitiesof artifacts.
The Citadel,inthe southwestcorner,and
the militaryarea called FortShalmaneser,
inthe southeast, are particularlyinterest-
ing because fromthe palaces, fort,and
wells were recoveredthe most extraordi-
naryfindsat the site, the Nimrudivories:
thousandsof carvingsin reliefand inthe
round,depictingbattle,ritual,and genre
scenes, executed inthe styles of the
Assyrianand neighboringcultures,in

38
particular Syrianand Phoenician.Forits
supportthe Museumreceivedaboutone
hundredfortyivories,two of whichare
illustratedon p. 37. One is masterfully
sculptedin Phoenicianstyle and depicts
a Nubianbringingan oryxand a monkey
as giftsto the Assyrianking(fig.48). The
other,in Syrianstyle, is the head of a
womanwithnecklace and braidedhair
(fig.47). Eachshows the skilland preci-
sion of ancientartistswithdifferent
backgrounds.
Hasanlu(fig.49) in northwesternIran
was excavatedin 1936 by AurelStein;
from1956 to 1974 bythe Universityof
Pennsylvania;and from1959 on, with
the Metropolitan. Itwas settled inthe
sixthmillenniumB.C.and was occupied
throughthe Bronzeand IronAge periods.
The mostextensivelypreservedlevel is
PeriodIV,or IronAge II,datingfromthe
twelfthor eleventhcenturyB.C.to close to
800 B.C., when the site was violently
destroyed.The precedinglevel, PeriodV,
IronI,dates frombetweenthe fourteenth
andthe twelfthor eleventhcenturyB.C.
The continuityof cultureof the two peri-
ods is indicatedby architecturalfeatures
andmonochromepotterycommonto both.
Thousandsof artifactsmade of terra-
cotta, bronze,iron,gold, silver,and ivory
were foundinthe monumentalPeriodIV
buildings,whichare characterizedby a
columnedcentralhallsurroundedby
storageroomsand an entrancethrough
a grandportico.Withineach hallare
hearths,benches, and a raisedthrone
area. Whetherpalaces or temples,the
buildingsclearlyhad a majorstate
function.
TheMuseumhas acquiredmanydiverse
artifacts,some of whichare characteristic
of Hasanluand notfoundelsewhere.
Amongthese are bronzelionsjoinedto
ironshanks (fig.50), whichare associ-
ated withvictimsat the largestbuilding
uncovered,BurnedBuildingII.The lion
pinswere worntwo or threeto a garment.
Because the artifactsrecoveredfrom
PeriodIVwere in use at the timeof the
destruction,archaeologistshave a sig-
nificantand preciselydatedcorpusof
material.
In1967,1970,1973, and 1974, the
Metropolitan Museumand the British
Instituteof PersianStudiesjointlyexca-
vatedthe site of Nush-iJan, forty-two
miles south of HamadaninwesternIran.
Builton the summitof a naturalshale
outcropthirty-sevenmetershigh,the site
dramaticallydominatesthe surrounding
plain(fig.51). Threeperiodsof occupa-
tionwere revealed,the earliestof which
is Median,datingfromthe lateeighth
century to about 600 B.C.,followed by
Achaemenidand Parthianlevels. The
best preservedis the Median,containing
fourlargemud-brickbuildings.
The CentralTempleat Nush-iJan is
unparalleledinthe Near
architecturally
East. Lozenge-shaped,it has a free-
standingfirealtar,suggestingthatthe
buildingwas a templeforfire-worshiping
ceremonies.Sometimebeforethe aban-
donmentof the site, the templewas
painstakinglyfilledwithstones and mud,
allowingthe buildingto be preservedto a
heightof eight meters.Whythis "burial"
occurredis a mystery.The adjacentFort
Building,identifiedas such by its but-
tressed wallsand arrowslots, had four
parallelmagazines,suggesting thatit
also served to store goods. Ina passage-
way a hoardof 200 silverobjects
-earrings, bars, quadrupleand double
spirals(fig.52)-was discoveredin a
bronzebowl.The OldWesternBuilding,
one of the earliest,also has an altarand
mayhave been a temple.This building
was not buriedbutallowedto decay be-
forethe finalabandonment.The fourth
buildingis rectangularand has a col-
umnedhallof the same basic planas the
contemporaryhallat nearbyGodinTepe
and those at the earliersite of Hasanlu.
Nush-iJan is significantforits unique
and well-preservedMedianremains.
Atpresentonlyone otherprobable
Mediansite has been excavated,Godin
Tepe;the capitalcityat Hamadan
remains unexcavated. O.W.M.
 Inthe late1920s, largequantitiesof bronze
artifactsbegan to circulateinthe art
market,and by 1930 theirsource was
recognizedas Luristan,a mountainous
regionin westernIran,borderingMeso-
potamiaand Elam.Aside froma few
archaeologicalcampaigns, especially
those of ErichSchmidtat SurkhDumin
1938 and LouisVandenBergheat many
sites from1965 to 1979, the great major-
ityof Luristanbronzes derivefromclan-
destinedigging.The Metropolitan Museum
has in its collectionforty-oneobjects,
twenty-fourof them bronzes,fromSurkh
Dum.Because so manybronzes have
been dispersed so widely,it is impossible
to estimatethe numberin existence, but
there mustbe thousands.
We do not knowthe ancientname and
languageof Luristan,or whythe bronzes
were made, or whatconstitutedthe econ-
omy thatsupportedtheirmanufacture.It
is also difficultto identifythe fullrangeof
culturalartifactsand to establishtheir

56

40
chronology. Nevertheless, we are able to
recognize as classic Luristantypes the
stylized standards and finials, horse
cheekpieces, hammered and cast pins,
bracelets, whetstone handles, weapons,
and quivers. And although ancient cul-
tures existed in the region from as early
as the thirdmillennium B.C., the typical
Luristanbronzes did not appear untilthe
early first millennium B.C.They reached
full production in the eighth and seventh
centuries B c and mysteriously termi-
nated a century before the advent of the
Persian empire.
Each of the four objects shown here is
a typical Luristanbronze, representing
one of a variety of forms for its class. The
openwork pin (fig. 54), was excavated at
Surkh Dum along with other examples,
some enclosed within walls, others stuck
in cracks or joints. This pin depicts a
squatting female who holds at bay two
horned animals, represented only by their
heads and necks that curve into a frame.
The female may be in a birthingposition,
and because it came from a sanctuary,
the pin may have been dedicated by a
woman seeking a healthy delivery.
Horse bits with figured cheekpieces
(fig. 56) and iconic finials are ubiquitous
and represent the most characteristic
forms of the Luristancorpus. The cheek-
pieces are in the shape of horses, lions,
mouflons, goats, or fantastic creatures. If
they were in fact buried in graves, then it
was probably the custom for an individual
to carry his personal bit with him to the
next world, to serve for future ridingor
symbolically to represent the horse itself.
Finials were also presumably taken by
their owners to their graves. Mounted on
bottle-shaped supports, a number of
which survive, they occur in a great vari-
ety of forms, often depicting heraldic ani-
mals or a central figure between two
animals. On the Museum's example (fig.
53) a detached male head is held by two
heraldic felines. Because of the large
number known, we may assume that
finials existed in most Luristanhouseholds.
serving as icons or representations of
the many spirits and deities who required
to be placated and worshiped constantly.
The quiver plaque (fig. 55) was once
attached to a leather backing and is
decorated with seven uneven horizontal
panels in repousse with superbly ren-
dered mythological scenes. Rampant
winged bulls flanking a tree and a proces-
sion of antelope frame three narrative
panels. At the top are horned and winged
humanoids holding a lion at bay, followed
by rampant lions flanking a small figure
who holds lions and a central figure
seemingly threatened by two bulbous-
nosed creatures. We cannot interpret
these scenes, but clearly they represent
mythological or cultic events of some
importance. A small number of other
Luristanquiver plaques exist, but none is
so richlyembellished as the present
example. O W.M
41

57
Clay, so abundant and useful a resource,
was developed and exploited throughout
Near Eastern history. The great potential
42
of fired clay was first understood in the
seventh millennium B.C. From that point
on, pottery was the most common type of
object to come from the ancient ruins of
Near Eastern civilizations. In the Chalco-
lithic period of the fourth millennium B.C.,
painted decoration on pottery flourished,
particularlyin Iran.Artisans first painted
geometric designs in dark brown or black
on buffclay vessels, which were made on
a slow wheel. Gradually they included
more and more animal figures in their
decorative schemes. A large storage jar
(fig. 58) is similar in shape, fabric, and
painted decoration to ones found at the
central Iraniansite of Tepe Sialk in
levels III6-7. Ithas on its side schematic
silhouettes of three mountain goats, whose
enormous ridged horns arch majestically
over their bodies. The zigzag-and-band
decoration separating the goats is typical
of Sialk pottery of this early period.
More than a thousand years later, from
4
I~~~~~ -~~~
s~~~~~~~ ' r
I
.~~~1
1i
the site of Tureng Tepe in the Iranian
Gurgan Plain just to the east of the Cas-
pian Sea, a completely different but
equally successful variety of pottery
(fig. 57) was produced. Its gray-colored
surface-the result of firing in a reduc-
ing rather than oxidizing kiln-is textured
with six registers of crisscross patterns
made by burnishing the surface to a
high polish.
Duringthe second millennium B.C.the
technology was developed for both the
glazing of pottery and the manufacturing
of glass vessels. A large jar (fig. 59)
glazed with green, blue, brown, yellow,
white, and black and decorated with pet-
als above bulls kneeling before trees is
one of three in the Museum's collection
reportedly from the early first-millennium
B.C site of Ziwiye in northwestern Iran. It
is similar in shape and decoration to
examples excavated at the Assyrian city
of Assur on the Tigris. H.P.
_iiiiii L
_illflffBflffIPqlHfs58
59
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I
 Inantiquitythe manymountainrangesof
the NearEast, includingthe Taurusof
easternTurkey,the Zagrosof western
Iran,and the Caucasus betweenthe
Blackand Caspianseas, were richin
metallicores. Atseventh-millennium B.C.
sites such as Cayonu,TellRamad,and
AliKoshthe earlieststages of metalwork-
ingtechnologyare documented.
Towardthe end of the fourthmillen-
nium B.C., the burgeoning urban centers
inthe lowlandsbegan to demandmetals
to makeobjectsforthe rulingelite and for
the growingtemplecomplexes. Bythis
time,the basic propertiesof some nonfer-
rous metals-especially copper,gold,
silver,and lead-were understood.Itwas
known,forexample,thatthe shape of
60
44
metalcouldbe alteredby heatingitto a
liquidstate, pouringit intoa mold,and
lettingitcool and harden.Metalswere
also shaped by alternatelyhammering
and heatingthem in a process nowcalled
annealing.Artisanshad learnedas well
-probably bytrialand error-that when
some metals are mixedintheirliquid
state, they combineto forma metallic
alloy,a new materialthatis often,when
liquid,morefluidand, when cool, harder
than its components.
The propertiesof meltability,malle-
ability,and miscibilityare the basis of two
of the most importanttechniquesof an-
cient metalworking-hammeringand
casting. Hammeringwas used to make
orto finishall kindsof objects.Vessels,
such as the elaboratelydecoratedone
(fig.62) fromLuristan,were made en-
tirelyby hammering.The shape was
formedbyraisingorsinkingthe bronze-a
copper-and-tinalloy-by hammerblows.
This particularvessel was made intwo
parts,joinedin the middleby bronze
rivets.Six registersof birds,trees, and
hornedand stridinganimalswere ham-
meredup fromthe vessel's surfaceinthe
repousse technique.The bodies were
then elaboratelydecoratedwithchased
lines createdby a dulltoolthat,when
struck,pushed the metalto eitherside.
Goldis a soft metal,easily workedby
hammering.A westernIraniantrapezoi-
dal plaqueof the firstmillenniumB.C. (fig.
64) was made inthe same way as
6
62
 /

Aw2;J,

/
/
 the decorated bronze vessel: by ham-
mering, repousse, and chasing. A most
impressive example of the hammering
technique is the lovely silver figurine of
an antelope (fig. 61), which is identified
here on the basis of stylistic and icono-
graphic traits as the creation of a Proto-
Elamite master of the third millennium
B.C. Boththe gazelle and the contempo-
rary kneeling silver bull (see fig. 23) were
made from separate pieces of silver ham-
mered into shape; each piece was then
fitted into the other and finallyjoined by
silver solder.
By the fourth millennium B.C., lost-wax,
as well as open- and bivalve-mold cast-
ing had been developed. Inthe inge-
nious lost-wax process the desired image
is sculpted in wax, which is then sur-
rounded with a clay investment that hard-
ens into a mold when baked. The mold
has a negative space, corresponding to
the burnt-wax image, into which is poured
molten metal that hardens into the shape
of the original wax model. The third-
millenniumB.C. ibex stand (fig.60),
of copper alloyed with arsenic, is among
46
the earliest examples of the more com-
plex technique of lost-wax casting around
a central ceramic core.
A handsome silver plate (fig. 63), a
product of the last part of the Sasanian
period(fifthto earlysixthcenturyA.D.),
combines the metalworking techniques
described above with others. The plate
itself was hammered into its final shape
from a cast ingot. The low-relief decora-
tion was formed by carving away the
background close to the figures, while
the higher relief of the bodies of the king,
his horse, and the rams was made from
separate cast or hammered pieces that
were crimped into place. The linear de-
tails were either chased into the silver or
engraved-a process of cutting instead
of pushing away strips of metal. A ring
base was attached with solder to the
bottom of the plate. Except for the king's
face and hands, all the decoration is
gilded with an amalgam of gold and
mercury. Niello, a shiny black, hard com-
pound of silver and sulphur, accents the
king's quiver and bow, and the rams'
horns,tails, and hooves. H.P.
64
 I

rl tt..u ~1
' IlIiaD
.:':
-A%i
L-.
i,i

I
48
 Pieces of jewelryare mentionedin an-
cient Near Easterntexts as royalgifts,
partsof bridaldowries,tribute,and booty.
They are also recordedin the inventories
of templesandworkshops.Althoughthere
musthave been manysuch precious
objects,only a few have been preserved.
A majorexceptionis the jewelrydating
fromthe mid-thirdmillenniumB.Cfound
by SirLeonardWoolleyin his excava-
tions at UrinsouthernMesopotamia.The
65 headdress ornament(fig.66), made of
gold pendantsinthe formof poplarleaves
and carnelianand lapis-lazulibeads, be-
longedto one of the lavishlyadorned
female attendantsin the "King'sTomb."
She also woretwo necklaces of gold and
lapis lazuli,gold hairribbons,and two
silverhairrings,allof whichare now in
the Museum'scollection.The largenum-
berof objects made of preciousmaterials
attestsnotonlyto greatwealthand sophis-
ticatedtechnicalability,butalso to a
far-reachingtradenetwork:the materials
had to be importedintosouthernMeso-
potamia(see p. 15).
A rareexample of second-millennium
B.C.craftsmanshipis the gold necklace
withpendants(see fig. 19) illustratedon
page 20. The granulationis particularly
finelyexecuted. Similarjewelryelements
of gold-medallions, crescents, and
beads-found in recentexcavationsat
Larsain southernMesopotamiasuggest
thatthe Museum'spiece maydate from
the nineteenthor eighteenthcenturyB.C.
Ourknowledgeof jewelryof the first
Ns
67
66
I
millenniumB.C. is augmentedbydetailed
representationson the stone reliefsfrom
the Neo-Assyrianpalaces. Forexample,
inthe relief(see fig. 3) fromthe North-
west Palace at Nimrud,whichshows
the kingAssurnasirpalIIand an attendant,
one can see the richarrayof jewelry
worn-necklaces, bracelets,armlets,and
crescent-shapedearringswithpendants.
Plaques sewn on garments-also
called bracteates-were commonin the
fifth-century Scythiangravesof southern
Russia (see fig. 41). Goldappliqueswere
also popularin AchaemenidPersia.The
lion-headbracteates(fig.67) have five
ringson the back,allowingthemto
be attachedto clothgarmentsor tent
hangings.
The gold necklace (fig.65) is made up
of elements fromthe Achaemenidperiod,
includinga head of Bes-an Egyptian
god-plaques of a male figurewitha
horse, and lotusterminals.Similar
jewelryelements were excavatedat
Pasargadae,where morethanone hun-
dredthirtyimages of Bes, humanheads
in profile,and the heads of ibexes and
lionswere foundtogetherin a jar.
The sumptuousobjectswornbythe
Persiansare confirmedby Herodotus
(VII,83): "Ofallthe troopsthe Persians
were adornedwiththe greatestmagnifi-
cence.... they glitteredalloverwithgold,
vast quantitiesof whichthey wore about
theirperson."Herodotusalso tells us that
Persiantentscapturedat PlateainGreece
were"adornedwithgoldandsilver." B.A.P.
49
C.1
0
Q)
 Clothingin the Near East was commonly
made of goat's hairand sheep's wool.A
formof dress frequentlyrepresentedin
Sumerianand Akkadianartis the calf-
lengthskirtcoveredwithtuftsof wool
(see figs. 21, 70). Wrappedaroundthe
lowerbodyand occasionallydrapedover
one shoulder,this distinctivegarment
was wornthroughoutthe thirdmillennium
B.C. in Mesopotamia.Intime, longergar-
ments (see figs. 2, 69) made of a single
piece of wool or linenfabricreplacedthe
earlierskirt.The robes had fringedbor-
ders or severalhorizontalbands of fringes
(see figs. 20, 27). Sleeved garmentsand
shawls (see fig. 3, inside covers) of the
Neo-Assyrian period (883-612 B.C.)re-
tainedthisfringedborderand were also
enrichedwithwoven and embroidered
designs and metalappliques.
On a relieffromthe Achaemenidpal-
ace at Persepolis(fig.68), one figureis
in Persiandress and wears a longfull-
sleeved tunicof a lighttextile.A second
figureis in Mediandress, a knee-length
tunicand close-fittingtrousersof thick
wool or leather-clothing appropriatefor
a horseman.The folds of a similartunic
and trouserswornbythe Sasanian king
(see fig.63) indicatethat inthis case the
fabricis thin,perhapssilk. Impractical as
this materialwas forhuntingwear,itwas
representedto symbolizethe luxurious-
ness of royaldress.
Throughthe millennia,in the artof the
Near East, a cap decoratedwithbull's
horns(see figs. 20, 27) signifiedthatthe
wearerwas a god. Onlyrarelydidhuman
rulers claim divinityand adopt this
headgear. A headdress wornby south-
ern Mesopotamianrulersin the latethird
and earlysecond millenniaB.C. is a wool
cap (see figs. 2, 69). Laterinthe second
millennium B.C.andearlyinthe firstmillen-
niumB.C.a high,fezlikecap (see fig. 3)
was wornin Mesopotamiaby nobles and
kings.Underthe AchaemenidPersiansa
new crownwithstepped crenellations
made its appearance.This
form,enrichedby many
elements such as crescent
moons, sun rays,wings,
and globes, became the
royalcrownof Sasanian
70 ^^^^9 P.O.H.
kings(see fig. 5).

69

51
 About3000 B.C. writingwas inventedin
Mesopotamia as a method of recording
and storing primarilyeconomic informa-
tion. In Egypt early records were kept on
papyrus. But since Mesopotamia was
located along the banks of the Tigris and
Euphrates, where clay was plentifuland
inexpensive, this material was used for
the earliest documents. Writingwas done
with a reed or bone stylus on small pillow-
shaped tablets, most of which were only
a few inches wide and fit easily into one's
palm. The stylus left small marks in the
clay that we call cuneiform, or wedge-
shaped, writing.
The earliest script was pictographic
-rendering realistic drawings of objects
familiarin everyday life. It is not certain
who developed this picture writing;we
can only inferfrom archaeological rec-
ords that it was the Sumerians, who
soon after developed a system in which
drawings in clay were replaced by signs
52
representing the sounds of the Sumerian
language.
Cuneiform was adopted by other
cultures, and its use quickly spread
throughout the Near East. The early
Elamites, who lived to the east of Mesopo-
tamia (in the area of modern-day Iran),
and various groups of Semitic-speaking
peoples, who dwelt along the Tigris and
Euphrates, also used cuneiform signs in
their writing. By the second millennium
B.C., cuneiformwritingwas widelyused
by many cultures in the Near East. Later
the Urartians,in the northernmost parts of
Mesopotamia, also used cuneiform, which
can be seen on the band above the sec-
ond arcade on the Urartianbell (fig. 74)
inscribed with the king's name, Argishti.
Hundreds of thousands of cuneiform
tablets have been excavated in the Near
East, while countless others still lie bur-
ied beneath the rubble of ancient, unexca-
vated cities. The Museum has over five
 hundredtexts and inscriptionsdating
fromearlySumeriantimes (ca. 2800 B.C.)
untilthe firstcenturyA.D.
MostMesopotamiantabletsare re-
cords of commercial,legal,or admin-
istrativeactivities.One of the earliest
Mesopotamianlegal documentsinthe
Museum'scollectionis a smallSumerian
stone stele (fig.71), probablyfromthe
E-nunTempleof the god Sharaat Umma.
The stele has been interpretedas either
a recordof the purchaseof properties
and commoditiesbythe priestUshumgal
or as a recordof his bequest of these
propertiesand commoditiesto various
people, includinghis daughter.
The clay envelope of a tablet(fig.73)
dates to the OldAssyrianColonyperiod
inAnatolia(1920-1750 B.C.). The actual
tabletcontainedin the envelope is a legal
depositionregardingtheft,swornin a
courtof law.The clay envelope is im-
pressed on each side (herethe obverse)
fivetimeswithtwodifferentcylinderseals.
Recordsand inscriptionsalso com-
memoratedroyalachievements,such as
the buildingof a palace, or extolledmili-
taryvictories.The rimof the Achaemenid
gold bowl(fig.72) is inscribed"Darius,
the great king"in OldPersian,Elamite,
and Neo-Babylonian.
The writtenrecordfromthe ancient
NearEast is extensive. The documents
provideinformationneeded to under-
standthe political,economic,social, legal,
intellectual,and religioustraditionsof
mankind'sfirstcivilizations. i.s.

73 74

53
 Seals were prized possessions in the
ancient Near East and served as propi-
tious amulets for their owners. They were
impressed on the clay that sealed doors,
storage jars, and bales of commodities
as well as on clay tablets and envelopes
(fig. 73). They are miniature works
of art carved with designs whose style
and iconography vary with period and
region. Seals first appeared in northern
Syria and Anatolia during the late sixth
millennium B.C. in the form of stamps. In
Mesopotamia, from the mid-fourthmillen-
nium untilthe first millennium B.C., the
cylinder was the preferred shape.
The cylinder seal (fig. 75) depicting
women with their hair in pigtails was
excavated in the Inanna Temple at Nippur.
Similar seals with pigtailed figures of
the late Urukand Jemdet Nasr periods
(ca. 3200-2900 B.C ) have been found
at sites from Egypt to Iran.
The Akkadian period (2334-2154 B.C.)
produced some of the most beautiful and
I*
I
f l
fi;; /
t", -
r.
rI
.;,e.;
fA
" 'i !tW: : '
:.
TN
54
iconographically varied seals in the an-
cient Near East. The lapis-lazuli
seal (fig. 76) depicts the struggle of a
nude hero and his allies, bull-men, to
protect the herd animals from lions.
Many seals of the Third Dynasty of Ur
through the Old Babylonian period
(2112-1595 B.C.)show scenes of pre-
sentation and worship. On an amethyst
example (fig. 77) are a male figure with a
mace and a suppliant goddess, both of
whom are represented on many con-
temporary seals in virtuallythe same
manner. The ownership of the seal is
indicated by the inscription: "NurSha-
mash, comptroller in the palace, son of
Dummuqum, servant of Rimsin [king
of Larsa].'
The carnelian seal (fig. 78) with a
design of two lion-griffinsattacking a
mountain goat belongs to the Middle
Assyrian period (1350-1000 B C ), when
a naturalistic style was favored. The rest
of the design includes a bird, a star, and
?'
-
r
"ge-
75
t
.,
11 /,-
S-;
1
,:
I_-
f
76
77
a thistlelike flower. Landscape elements
were frequently depicted on seals of
this period.
The seventh-century B C Neo-Assyrian
seal (fig. 79) was found in the Nabu
Temple at Nimrud. Seals were frequently
deposited as offerings in temples, which
were also centers of economic activity.
From the Neo-Assyrian period (883-
612 B C ) stamps began to be used along
with cylinders. This was apparently due
to the adoption in Mesopotamia of the
Aramaic script, written on papyrus or
leather that was sealed with small
clay dockets, more easily impressed with
a stamp. In the Neo-Babylonian period
(625-539 B.C.) symbols of gods were a
major part of the seal design. The exam-
ple below (fig. 80) is engraved with a
male worshiper standing before an altar
surmounted by a spade, symbol of
Marduk,chief god of the Babylonian
pantheon, and the stylus of Nabu, god of
writing. B.A.PR
/
78
tf i4 ..1 ^"- : -
iF--
f
*
/
79
80
 Mesopotamia (South) Mesopotamia (North) Iran Levant Anatolia Egypt
3500 B.C. 3500 B.C.

Uruk 3500-3100 Proto-Urban Susa II Chalcolithic

3000 B.C. Jemdet Nasr 3100-2900 Proto-Elamite Susa III , Archaic 3100-2686 3000 B.C.

Early Dynastic I-lila

2900-2500 Sumero-Elamite Susa IV Early Bronze Troy II Old Kingdom 2636-2160

2500 B.C. - Early Dynastic IIIb 2500 B.C.

2500-2334
Akkad suzerainty in Susa Alaca Hiuyk royal tombs
Akkad Dynasty 2334-2154
Neo-Sumerian period
Gudea of Lagash
2144-2124
Third Dynasty of Ur Old Elamite First Intermediate
2112-2004 2160-2060
,ffNnv' i'"
luu R V0 2000 B.C.
Isin-Larsa period
Assyrian Colony period Middle Kingdom
2017-1763 Old Assyrian period 2060-1786
1920-1750
Old Babylonian period
Second Intermediate
1894-1595 Middle Bronze Old Hittite Empire 1786-1570
Hammurabi 1792-1750 1650-1400 Hyksos 1667-1559

1500 B.C. 1500 B.C.

Kassite Dynasty 1595-1157 Mitannian Empire

Hittite Empire 1400-1200 New Kingdom 1570-1085
1600-1350
Late Bronze
Second Dynasty of Isin Middle Assyrian period Middle Elamite
1156-1025 1350-1000 Iron I Destruction of Uqarit by Sea Peoples
ThirdIntermediate
IUU D.C. Iron Age 1000 B.C.
Hasanlu IV Kingdoms of Israel NEeo-Hittite and
Iron II
and Judah Arramaean states Third Intermediate
ca. 1200-800
Iron III 1085-656
Neo-Assyrian Empire Phoenicians
883-612 Neo-Elamite
Median Empire UrartianKingdom 850-600
Neo-Babylonian Empire Phrygian Kingdom 775-690
625-539 Late Dynastic 656-332
500 B.C. 500 B.C.
Achaemenid Empire
550-331
Alexander the Great Alexander the Great
331-323 Capture of Tyre 332 Macedonian period
Capture of Babylon 331 Antigonid and 332-305
0 B.C./ Seleucid Empire Seleucid Empire Seleucid Empires Ptolemaic period 305-30 0 B.C./
_
A.D. M, -
Roman perno A.D.
Parthian period Parthian period Roman period Roman period 30 B.C.-A.D. 325
200 B.C.-A.D. 224

Sasanian Empire 226-651 Sasanian Empire Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire Coptic period 325-641

500 A.D. ~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---- 500 A.D.

II~~~~~~~~~~~~~

CREDITS
Front cover: Stag vessel. Silver with gold inlay
Anatolia, Hittite,Empire period, 15th-13th century
B.C.L. 611/16in. (17 cm.), H. 71/16 in. (18 cm.). Lent by
Norbert Schimmel (L.1983.119.1)
Back cover: Detail of frieze on the stag vessel
depicted on front cover showing a male god stand-
ing on a stag and facing a man who is pouring liquid
from a spouted vessel.
Inside front cover: Relief with two registers of sa-
cred tree attended by divinities. Alabaster. Northern
Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurna-
sirpal 11(883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 893/4
in. (227.9 cm.), W.83 in. (210.8 cm.). Giftof John
D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.3)
Inside back cover: Relief of bird-headed divinity
Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, North-
west Palace of Assurnasirpal II(883-859 B.C.), Neo-
Assyrian period. H. 905/8(230.2 cm.), W. 713/8in.
(181.3 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1931
(31.72.3)
1. Head of a dignitary Arsenical copper. Western
Asia, late 3rd millennium B.C.H. 131/2in. (34.3 cm.).
Rogers Fund, 1947 (47 100.80)
2. Seated statue of Gudea. Diorite. Southern Meso-
potamia, probably Tello, Neo-Sumerian period, 2144-
2124 B.C.H. 175/16 in. (44 cm.) HarrisBrisbane Dick
Fund, 1959 (59.2)
3. Relief of king and attendant. Alabaster. Northern
Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurna-
sirpal 11(883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 92
in. (233.7 cm.), W.901/4in. (229.2 cm.). Giftof John
D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.4)
4. Cylinderseal and modern impression. Chalcedony
Iran,Achaemenid period, 550-450 B.C.H. 7/8in.
(2.2 cm.), Diam. 7/16in. (1.1 cm.). Collection of Mrs.
WilliamH. Moore, Lent by Rt. Rev. Paul Moore, Jr.
(L.55.49.126)
5. Head of a king. Silver,with mercury gilding. Iran,
Sasanian period, A.D.4th century H. 153/4in. (40
cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1965 (65.126)
6. Bull head. Limestone. Southern Iran, Persepolis,
Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.H. 181/2in.
(47 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.83)
7. Statuette of man carrying box on head. Arsenical
copper. Mesopotamia, Sumerian, Early Dynastic II
period, 2750-2600 B.C.H. 147/8in. (37.8 cm.).
HarrisBrisbane Dick Fund, 1955 (55.142)
8. Male head used as a spout. Ceramic, originally
glazed. Iran,Parthian period, ca. A.D.1st-2nd
century H. 81/4in. (20.9 cm.). Giftof WalterHauser,
1956 (56.56)
9. Panel with striding lion. Glazed brick. Southern
Mesopotamia, Babylon, Processional Way,
Neo-Babylonian period, reign of Nebuchadnezzar II
(604-562 B.C.).W.891/2in. (227.3 cm.), H.
381/4in. (97.2 cm.). Fletcher Fund, by exchange,
1931 (31.13.2)
10. Ewer.Gold. North-centralAnatolia, late 3rd millen-
nium B.C.H. 7 in. (17.8cm.), Diam. 43/4in. (12.1
cm.). Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1957 (57.67)
11. Oval bowl. Silver with mercury gilding. Iran,
Sasanian period, A.D.6th-7th century L. 93/16in.
(23.3. cm.), W.43/8in. (11.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund,
1959 (59.130.1)
12. Vessel in shape of horse's head. Silver with gold
foil. Iran,Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.
L. 81/16in. (20.4 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.87)
13. Rhyton with forepart of a panther. Silver with mer-
cury gilding. Iran,Parthianperiod, ca. 1st century B.C.
H. 107/8in. (27.5 cm.). Purchase, Rogers Fund,
Enid A. Haupt, Mrs. Donald M. Oenslager, Mrs.
MurielPalitz, and Geert C. E. Prins Gifts; Pauline V
Fullerton Bequest; and Bequests of MaryCushing
Fosburgh, Edward C. Moore, and Stephen Whitney
Phoenix, by exchange, 1979(1979.447)
14. Vessel with forepart of a lion. Gold. Iran,
Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.H. 63/4in.
(17.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1954 (54.3.3)
15. Relief with cavalrymen in the mountains. Ala-
baster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nineveh, Palace of
Sennacherib (704-681 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period.
H. 22 in. (55.9 cm.), W.34 in. (86.4 cm.). Giftof
John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.16)

55
 16. Sword.Ironwithcarnelianinlays.Iran,Luristan,
ca. 750-650 B.C. L. 193/4in.(50.1 cm.). Giftof
H. DunscombeColt,1961 (61.62)
17. Detailof swordhiltand scabbard. Goldover
wood withgarnetand glass paste jewelsand gilt-
bronzeguard.Iran,Sasanianperiod,ca. A.D. 7th
centuryFullI. 391/2in. (100.3 cm.). RogersFund,
1965 (65.28)
18. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Yellow
chert.Mesopotamia,Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca. 9th-
8th centuryB.C. H. 17/16in. (3.7 cm.), Diam. 5/8in.
(1.6 cm.). Giftof MatildaW.Bruce,1907 (07.155.1)
19. Necklacewithpendants.Gold.SouthernMeso-
potamia,ca. 19th-18thcenturyB.C.L. 1615/16in.
(43 cm.). FletcherFund,1947 (47.la-h)
20. Helmet.Bronzewithgold and silverfoilover
bitumen.SouthwesternIran,Elamite,ca. 1300 B.C.
H.61/2in.(16.5 cm.), W.811/16 in.(22.1 cm.). Fletcher
Fund,1963 (63.74)
21. Standingmalefigure.Gypsum.SouthernMesopo-
tamia,TellAsmar,SquareTemple,ShrineII,Sumerian,
EarlyDynasticIIperiod,2750-2600 B.C. H. 115/8
in. (29.5 cm.). FletcherFund,by exchange, 1940
(40.156)
22. Cultvessel inshape ofa tower.Ceramic.Syria(?),
ca. 19thcenturyB.C. H. 123/8in.(31.4 cm.), W.31/4
in. (8.3 cm.). RogersFund,1968 (68.155)
23. Kneelingbullholdingvessel. Silver.Southwest-
ern Iran,Proto-Elamite period,ca. 2900 B.C. H.67/16
in. (16.3 cm.), W.21/2in. (6.3 cm.). Purchase,
Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1966 (66.173)
24. Pendantof seated goddess holdingchild.Gold.
Anatolia,Hittite,Empireperiod,15th-13thcentury
B.C. H. 11/16in. (4 3 cm.). Lentby NorbertSchimmel
(L.1983.119.3).
25. Femalefigure.Ceramic.Iran,ca. 900B.C.H.125/16
in.(31.3 cm.), W.61/4in. (15.9 cm.). HarrisBrisbane
DickFund,1964 (64.130)
26. Ewer.Silverwithmercurygilding.Iran,Sasanian
period,ca. A.D. 6th-7th century.H. 133/8in.(34 cm.).
Purchase,Mr.and Mrs.C. DouglasDillonGiftand
RogersFund,1967 (67.10)
27. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Hematite.
Mesopotamia,OldBabylonianperiod,ca. 1850-1700
B.C. H. 11/16 in. (2.7 cm.), Diam. 9/16 in. (1.4 cm.).
Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH. Moore,Lentby Rt.Rev.
PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.180).
28. Shaft-holeaxe. Silverwithgold foil.Northern
Afghanistan,ca. 2000-1750 B.C.L.57/8in. (15,cm.).
Purchase,HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,James N.
Spear and SchimmelFoundationInc.Gifts,1982
(1982.5)
29. Furniture ornamentof femalesphinx.IvoryAna-
tolia,Acemhoyuk,ca. 19thcenturyB.C.H.5 in. (12.7
cm.), W.11/2 in.(3.8 cm.). Giftof Mrs.George D.
Pratt,in memoryof GeorgeD. Pratt,1936 (36.70.8)
30. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Meta-
diorite.Mesopotamia,Akkadianperiod,2334-2154
B.C. H. 11/4in. (3.2 cm.), Diam. 11/16in. (1.7 cm.).
Giftof WalterHauser,1955 (55.65.5)
31. Ornamentwithconfrontedleoninecreatures.
Gold. Iran,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 6th-5th century
B.C. H.53/8in. (13.6 cm.), W.37/8in. (9.8 cm.).
RogersFund,1954 (54.3.2)
32. Standardwithtwo long-hornedbulls.Arsenical
copper.North-central Anatolia,reportedlyfrom
Horoztepe.EarlyBronzeAge period,2300-2000
B.C.H.61/4in.(15.9 cm.), W.53/4in. (14.6 cm.).
Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1955 (55.137.5)
33. Panelwithbullhunt.IvoryNorthwestern Iran,
reportedlyfromZiwiye,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H.21/4
in. (5.7 cm.), W.63/16in. (15.8 cm.). FletcherFund,
1951 (51.131.5)
34. Cupwithfourgazelles. Gold.Northwestern Iran,
ca. 1000 B.C.H.to rim21/2in. (6.3 cm.), Diam.of rim
33/8in. (8.5 cm.). RogersFund,1962 (62.84)
35. Foundationpeg withlion.Bronze.NorthernSyria
or Mesopotamia,Hurrian, ca. 2200 B.C. H.45/8 in.
(11.7 cm.), W.31/8in. (7.9 cm.). Purchase,Joseph
Pulitzer Bequest, 1948 (48.180)
36. Recumbentmouflon.Marble.IndusValleyca.
2500-2000 B.C. L. 111/16in.(28 cm.). Anonymous
Giftand RogersFund,1978 (1978.58)
37. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Serpen-
tine.Mesopotamia,Akkadianperiod,2334-2154 B.C.
H. 11/8 in. (2.8 cm.), Diam. 11/16 in. (1.8 cm.). Bequest
of W.Gedney Beatty,1941 (41.160.192)
38. Plaquewithgoat. IvoryNorthernMesopotamia,
Nimrud,FortShalmaneser,Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca.
56
8th centuryB.C.H.65/16in.(16 cm.). RogersFund,
1961 (61.197.6)
39. Vase.Chlorite.Mesopotamiaor Iran,EarlyDynas-
tic 1/I11period,2750-2334 B.C.H.91/4in. (23.5
cm.). Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917 (17.190.106)
40. Beaker.Silver.LowerDanuberegion,Thracian,
ca. 4thcenturyB.C.H. 73/8in.(18.7 cm.). Rogers
Fund,1947 (47.100.88)
41. Griffindress ornaments.Gold.NorthernBlack
Sea region,reportedlyfromMaikop,Scythian,ca.
5thcenturyB.C.H. 1 in. (2.5 cm.). FletcherFund,
1924 (24.97.50, 51)
42. Boarclasp. Goldon bone core withsilverback-
ing. Scythian,ca. 500 B.C. L.23/4in. (7 cm.), H.
13/8in. (3.5 cm.). Giftof ChristosG. Bastis, 1979
(1979.352.1)
43. Beltclasp. Bronze.Caucasus, ca. A.D.1st-3rd
centuryL.6 in.(15.2 cm.), H.53/4in.(14.6 cm.).
RogersFund,1921 (21.166.7)
44. Deep soundinginthe InannaTempleat Nippur
showingthe workmenuncoveringUrukperiodlevels.
Thisviewwas takenduringthe 1960-61 season of
the JointExpeditionto Nippurof the OrientalInstitute
and the AmericanSchools of OrientalResearch,
Baghdad.(Photograph:OrientalInstitute,
Universityof Chicago)
45. Foundationfigurine.Copper.SouthernMesopo-
tamia,Nippur,InannaTemple,Neo-Sumerianperiod,
UrIIIdynasty,reignof Shulgi(2094-2047 B.C.).H.
in. (31.3 cm.). RogersFund,1959 (59.41.1)
125/1A6
46. Stand.Bronze.Iran,Qasr-iAbuNasr,Sasanian
period,ca. A.D.6th-7th centuryH. 161/2in. (41.9
cm.). RogersFund,1934 (34.107.1)
47. Femalehead. IvoryNorthernMesopotamia,
Nimrud,BurntPalace, Neo-Assyrianperiod,ca. 8th
centuryB.C.H.2 in. (5 cm.). RogersFund,1952
(52.23.3)
48. Figureof a tributebearer.IvoryNorthernMeso-
potamia,Nimrud,FortShalmaneser,Neo-Assyrian
period,ca. 8thcenturyB.C.H. 55/16 in. (13.5 cm.),
W.213/16 in. (7.2 cm.). RogersFund,1960 (60.145.11)
49. Aerialphotograph of thecentralmoundof Hasanlu
innorthwestern Iranas seen fromthe southwesttaken
duringthe 1962 season. (Photograph:University
Museum,Universityof Pennsylvania)
50. Lion-shapedpin.Bronze,iron.Northwestern
Iran,Hasanlu,Citadel,BurnedBuildingII,
Gatewayarea, LevelIV,9th centuryB.C.L.5 in.
(12.7 cm.), H. 11/2in. (3.8 cm.). Mrs.Constantine
Sidamon-Eristoff Gift,1961 (61.100.10)
51. Viewof TepeNush-iJan inwesternIrantaken
duringthe firstseason of excavations(1967).(Photo-
graph:BritishInstituteof PersianStudies)
52. Doublespiral.Silver.WesternIran,Nush-iJan,
Medianperiod,7thcenturyB.C.L.2 in. (5.1 cm.), W.
11/8in.(2.9 cm.). H. DunscombeColtGift,1969
(69.24.1)
53. Finial.Bronze.Iran,Luristan,ca. 8thcenturyB.C.
H.33/8in.(8.5 cm.), W.13/4in.(4.4 cm.). Giftof
George D. Pratt,1932 (32.161.20)
54. Pin.Bronze.Iran,Luristan,SurkhDum,ca. 8th
centuryB.C.L.55/8in.(14.3 cm.). RogersFund,
1943 (43.102.1)
55. Quiverplaque.Bronze.Iran,Luristan, ca. 8th-7th
centuryB.C.L.21 in.(53.3 cm.), W.6 in. (15.3 cm.).
RogersFund,1941 (41.156)
56. Bitand cheekpieces fora horse. Bronze.Iran,
Luristan,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.
a. H.41/2in.(11.5 cm.), W.51/8in. (13 cm.)
b. H. 43/16in. (10.6 cm.), W.51/8in. (13 cm.)
c. L.81/2in.(21.5 cm.) [mouthpiece].
Bequestof CoraTimkenBurnett,1957(57.51.40a-c)
57. Jar.Ceramic.NortheasternIran,TurengTepe,
ca. 1900 B.C.H.81/2in.(21.7 cm.), Diam.
61/4in. (15.8 cm.). RogersFund,1948 (48.98.24)
58. Jar.Ceramic.CentralIran,ca. 3100 B.C. H.207/8
in.(53 cm.). Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest,
1959 (59.52)
59. Jar.Glazedceramic.Northwestern Iran,report-
edly fromZiwiye,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. 171/4
in.(43.5 cm.), Diam.of rim43/8in. (11 cm.).
Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest, 1955 (55.121.2)
60. Vesselstandwithibexsupport.Arsenicalcopper
withshelland lapis-lazuliinlaySouthernMesopotamia,
Sumerian,EarlyDynasticIIIperiod,2600-2334 B.C.
H. 1511/16 in. (40 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1974 (1974.190)
61. Antelope.Silver.Iran,Proto-Elamiteperiod,ca.
2900 B.C.L.4 in. (10.2 cm.). RogersFund,1947
(47.100.89)
62. Vase. Bronze.Northwestern Iran,ca. 10th-9th
centuryB.C.H. 1311/16 in. (34.8 cm.), Diam.of rim
4 in. (10.2 cm.). Purchase,Joseph PulitzerBequest,
1964 (64.257.la)
63. PlatewithPerozor KavadI huntingrams.Silver
giltwithniello.Iran,Sasanianperiod,A.D.late5th-
early6thcenturyH. 11/16 in.(4.3 cm.), Diam.85/8
in.(21.9 cm.). FletcherFund,1934 (34.33)
64. Plaquewithfriezes.Gold.Northwestern Iran,
reportedlyfromZiwiye,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H.
83/8in.(21.2 cm.), Max. w.105/8in. (27 cm.). Top
fragment:Annand GeorgeBlumenthalFund,1954
(54.3.5). Bottomfragment:RogersFund,1962
(62.78.1a,b)
65. NecklacewithBes head and figuredplaques.
Gold Iran,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 5th-4th
centuryB.C.H. 19/16in.(4 cm.), L.141/8in.
(35.9 cm.). Dodge Fund,1965 (65.169)
66. Headdressornament.Gold,carnelian,and lapis
lazuli.SouthernMesopotamia,Ur,RoyalCemetery,
Grave789, Sumerian,EarlyDynastic Ilaperiod,
2600-2500 B.C.L.153/16 in.(38.5 cm.). Excoll.:
The UniversityMuseum,Universityof Pennsylvania.
Dodge Fund,1933 (33.35.3)
67. Dressornamentsinshape of lionheads. Gold.
Iran,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 5th-4th centuryB.C.
H. 17/8in.(4.7 cm.), W.21/4in.(5.7 cm.) and H.
2 in.(4.9 cm.), W.23/8in.(6 cm.) respectively
Giftof KhalilRabenou,1956 (56.154.1,2)
68. Reliefwithservantscarryingfood. Limestone.
SouthernIran,Persepolis,Achaemenidperiod,ca.
4th centuryB.C.H.341/16in.(86.5 cm.), W.251/2
in. (64.8 cm.). HarrisBrisbaneDickFund,1934
(34.158)
69. Statueof Ur-Ningirsu. Chlorite.SouthernMeso-
potamia,probablyTello,Neo-Sumerianperiod,ca.
2123-2119 B.C.H.215/8in. (55 cm.). Head:Rogers
Fund,1947 (47.100.86).Body:Lentby Museedu
Louvre,Departementdes AntiquitesOrientales(inv.
A. 0. 9504) (L.1984.1)
70. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Lapis
lazuli.Mesopotamia,Kish,EarlyAkkadianperiod,
ca. 2334-2278 B.C.H. 11/6 in.(2.8 cm.), Diam.5/8
in. (1.6 cm.). Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH. Moore,
Lentby Rt.Rev.PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.17)
71. Stele of Ushumgal.Alabaster.SouthernMeso-
potamia,Sumerian,EarlyDynasticI period,2900-
2750 B.C.H.813/16 in.(22.4 cm.). Fundsfromvarious
donors,1958 (58.29)
72. Inscribedbowl.Gold.Iran,Achaemenidperiod,
ca. 6th-5th centuryB.C.H.41/2in.(11.4 cm.),
Diam.73/4in. (19.6 cm.). HarrisBrisbaneDick
Fund,1954 (54.3.1)
73. Envelopefortablet.Ceramic.Anatolia,Kultepe,
OldAssyrianperiod,ca. 1900 B.C.Gr.h. 71/2in.
(19 cm.), D. 11/8in. (2.8 cm.). Giftof Mr.and Mrs.
J. J. Klejman,1966 (66.245.5b)
74. Inscribedbell.Bronze.Anatolia,Urartian, ca.
8thcenturyB.C.H.37/16in.(8.7 cm.). Giftof Mr.and
Mrs.NathanielSpear,Jr.,1977 (1977.186)
75. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Pink
limestone.Mesopotamia,Nippur,InannaTemple,
LevelXVB,LateUruk-Jemdet Nasrperiod,ca.
3200-2900 B.C.H. 3/4in.(2cm.), Diam.13/16in.
(2.1 cm.). RogersFund,1962 (62.70.74)
76. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Lapis
lazuli.Mesopotamia,EarlyAkkadianperiod,ca.
2334-2279 B.C.H. 11/2in. (3.8 cm.), Diam.7/8in.
(2.2 cm.). Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH. Moore,Lent
by Rt.Rev.PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.178)
77. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Amethyst.
Mesopotamia,Isin-Larsaperiod,reignof Rimsin
(1822-1763 B.C.). H. 15/16in. (3.3 cm.), Diam. 1/16in.
(1.7 cm.). Bequestof WalterC. Baker,1971
(1972.118.20)
78. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Carnelian.
Mesopotamia,MiddleAssyrianperiod,14th-13th
centuryB.C.H. 11/4in. (3.2 cm.), Diam.5/8 in.
(1.1 cm.). Collectionof Mrs.WilliamH.Moore,Lent
by Rt.Rev.PaulMoore,Jr.(L.55.49.90)
79. Cylinderseal and modernimpression.Steatite.
Mesopotamia,Nimrud,NabuTemple,Neo-Assyrian
period,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. 13/8 in.(3.5 cm.).
Seal h. 15/16in.(2.4 cm.). RogersFund,1958
(57.27.8)
80. Stampseal and modernimpression.Graychal-
cedony Mesopotamia,Neo-Babylonianperiod,ca.
6th century B.C.L. 7/8 in. (2.2 cm.), W.3/4in. (1.8
cm.). Fundsfromvariousdonors,1893 (93.17.100)
T
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48

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