Development Reasearch

Environmental Issues in Developing Countries
In developing countries seeking to expand their economic activities, consideration for

environmental conservation often receives a low priority. In addition, approaches used in
industrialized countries often cannot be applied directly in developing countries. In this
context, NIES is conducting research on ways to conserve the environment that are
appropriate for developing country conditions.
Water quality and air pollution are serious problems in developing countries in the Asian region.
Air pollution in major cities marked by many factories and heavy vehicle traffic also have high
concentrations of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter (SPM), at levels Japan
experienced in the past. In addition, problems such as damage from acid rain and transboundary
pollution are growing more serious. Pollution of rivers and lakes from chemical substances
(including agricultural chemicals) and eutrophication (including abnormal growth of toxic algae)
are also occurring more frequently, while water shortages and tropical forest destruction are
worsening.
While many developing countries give economic development the greatest priority, many
problems remain with basic needs such as safe drinking water and food, as well as medical and
public health services. This situation often hinders progress in addressing environmental
problems. In some countries, including Bangladesh, China and India, negative health impacts are
growing over large areas due to fluorine and arsenic pollution in air and drinking water. In
China, problems caused by sandstorms from the inland deserts have attracted international
attention about aerosols and their long distance transport mechanisms. In addition, the local
ecological damage and impacts on water resources as a result of construction of the Three
Gorges Dam on the Changjiang (Yangtze) River have attracted international concern.
Extensive use of coal in the Chinese industrial town of Taigen causes some of the worst air
pollution in the country, and has been linked to respiratory diseases and lung cancer.
Besides those concerns, in recent years, in the context of growing internationalization, a pressing
need exists for responses to global environmental risks, such as transboundary acid deposition,
dioxins and endocrine disruptors, and global warming. To address such problems, NIES is
conducting the following types of research relating to the increasingly complex environmental
issues facing developing countries, in cooperation with international institutions and universities:
• Environmental monitoring
• Field and epidemiological studies to assess impacts on health and ecosystems (including
living organisms, rural agricultural productivity, hydrological cycles, scenery, etc.) and
development of response measures
• Studies for the purposes of environmental risk assessments of regional pollution and
global environmental change, as well as consideration of approaches to evaluate risk
awareness and raise the interest of the general public
• Water pollution countermeasures such as household wastewater treatment facilities and
purification technologies using soils and hydroponics based on "eco-engineering"
• Development of environmental restoration technologies such as "bio-manipulation" that
make use of the food chain to boost effectiveness
• Consideration of relationships between developed and developing countries (including
issues relating to trade and industrial relocation).
Water quality improvement system using "eco-engineering"
In addition, through the cooperation of the environmental ministers of China, Japan and Korea,
the three countries are working on new research cooperation activities for environmental
conservation in East Asia. NIES is involved in the research aspects of this work.
Sustainable Development
Author and Page information
• by Anup Shah
• This Page Last Updated Sunday, June 06, 2010
• This page: http://www.globalissues.org/issue/367/sustainable-development.
• To print all information e.g. expanded side notes, shows alternative links, use the print
version:
o http://www.globalissues.org/print/issue/367
This part of the globalissues.org web site attempts to introduce the issue of development and
sustainable development. Sustainable Development is often an over-used word, but goes to the
heart of tackling a number of inter-related global issues such as poverty, inequality, hunger and
environmental degradation.
In theory, development that is sustainable and not damaging to the planet is very possible. Of
course though, in reality there are a lot of politics and challenges involved as highlighted
throughout this site.
This section is woefully small to start off with, and hardly covers the issues in enough depth,
though over time, I hope to add more articles to the ones below.
12 articles on “Sustainable Development” and 6 related issues:
Sustainable Development Introduction
Last updated Wednesday, November 18, 2009.
The idea of sustainable development grew from numerous environmental

movements in earlier decades. Summits such as the Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil, 1992, were
major international meetings to bring sustainable development to the mainstream.
However, the record on moving towards sustainability so far appears to have been quite poor. The
concept of sustainability means many different things to different people, and a large part of humanity
around the world still live without access to basic necessities.
Read “Sustainable Development Introduction” to learn more.

Addressing Biodiversity Loss
Posted Sunday, June 06, 2010.
At the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth
Summit), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was born. 192 countries, plus the EU,
are now Parties to that convention. In April 2002, the Parties to the Convention committed to
significantly reduce the loss of biodiversity loss by 2010.
Perhaps predictably, that did not happen. Despite numerous successful conservations measures supporting
biodiversity, the 2010 biodiversity target has not been met at the global level. This page provides an
overview on how the attempts to prevent biodiversity loss is progressing.
Read “Addressing Biodiversity Loss” to learn more.

Poverty and the Environment
Last updated Saturday, February 12, 2005.
The causes of poverty and of environmental degradation are inter-related suggesting that
approaching sustainable development requires understanding the issues from many angles, not
just say an environmentalist or economics perspective alone.
Read “Poverty and the Environment” to learn more.
Non-governmental Organizations on Development Issues
Last updated Wednesday, June 01, 2005.
What does an ever-increasing number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) mean? NGOs
are non-profit organizations filling the gap where governments will not, or cannot function. In
the past however, some NGOs from the wealthy nations have received a bad reputation in some
developing nations because of things like arrogance, imposition of their views, being a foreign
policy arm or tool of the original country and so on. Even in recent years some of these
criticisms still hold. However, recently some new and old NGOs alike, have started to become
more participatory and grassroots-oriented to help empower the people they are trying to help, to
help themselves. This is in general a positive turn. Yet, the fact that there are so many NGOs
popping up everywhere perhaps points to failures of international systems of politics, economics,
markets, and basic rights.
Read “Non-governmental Organizations on Development Issues” to learn more.
Foreign Aid for Development Assistance
Last updated Sunday, April 25, 2010.
In 1970, the world’s rich countries agreed to give 0.7% of their gross national income as official
international development aid, annually.
Since that time, billions have certainly been given each year, but rarely have the rich nations
actually met their promised target.
For example, the US is often the largest donor in dollar terms, but ranks amongst the lowest in
terms of meeting the stated 0.7% target.
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Furthermore, aid has often come with a price of its own for the developing nations. Common
criticisms, for many years, of foreign aid, have included the following:
• Aid is often wasted on conditions that the recipient must use overpriced goods and
services from donor countries
• Most aid does not actually go to the poorest who would need it the most
• Aid amounts are dwarfed by rich country protectionism that denies market access for
poor country products while rich nations use aid as a lever to open poor country markets
to their products
• Large projects or massive grand strategies often fail to help the vulnerable; money can
often be embezzled away.
This article explores who has benefited most from this aid, the recipients or the donors.
Read “Foreign Aid for Development Assistance” to learn more.
G8: Too Much Power?
Posted Sunday, June 10, 2007.
Read “G8: Too Much Power?” to learn more.
Water and Development
Last updated Sunday, June 06, 2010.
Issues such as water privatization are important in the developing world especially as it goes
right to the heart of water rights, profits over people, and so on. This article looks into these
issues and the impacts it has on people around the world.
Read “Water and Development” to learn more.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Posted Saturday, July 07, 2007.
Corporate Social Responsibility is a bit of a buzz word and some feel that it has been diluted
from its original aims, while others are trying to find innovative ways to engage with businesses
to be more responsible in their practices.
Read “Corporate Social Responsibility” to learn more.
Energy Security
Last updated Sunday, August 08, 2010.
Energy security is a growing concern for rich and emerging

nations alike. The past drive for fossil fuel energy has led to wars, overthrow of democratically
elected leaders, and puppet governments and dictatorships.
Leading nations admit we are addicted to oil, but investment into alternatives has been lacking,
or little in comparison to fossil fuel investments.
As the global financial crisis takes hold and awareness of climate change increases, more nations
and companies are trying to invest in alternatives. But will the geopolitics remain the same?
Read “Energy Security” to learn more.
Brain Drain of Workers from Poor to Rich Countries
Posted Friday, April 14, 2006.
Brain drain is a problem for many poor countries losing skilled workers to richer countries. In
healthcare, the effects can often be seen vividly. For example, in many rich countries, up to one
third of doctors may be from abroad, many from Sub-Sahara Africa, while many African
countries have as little as 500 doctors serving their entire population. Reasons for this brain drain
vary, ranging from poor conditions domestically to attractive opportunities and active enticement
from abroad.
Read “Brain Drain of Workers from Poor to Rich Countries” to learn more.
United Nations World Summit 2005
Last updated Sunday, September 18, 2005.
The UN World Summit for September 2005 is supposed to review progress since the Millennium
Declaration, adopted by all Member States in 2000. However, the US has proposed enormous
changes to an outcome document that is to be signed by all members. There are changes on
almost all accounts, including striking any mention of the Millennium Development Goals, that
aim for example, to halve poverty and world hunger by 2015. This has led to concerns that the
outcome document will be weakened. Developing countries are also worried about stronger text
on human rights and about giving the UN Security Council more powers.
Read “United Nations World Summit 2005” to learn more.
World Summit on Sustainable Development
Last updated Saturday, September 07, 2002.
This section introduces some of the issues on the international summit (August 26 - September 4,
2002) where thousands of delegates met to discuss various issues comprising sustainable
development. Of course, there was a lot of controversy including differences between the global
North and South on all sorts of issues such as corporate-led globalization, privatization of
energy, water, health, etc. In addition there was also concern about motives and influences of
large corporations on the outcomes of the Summit.
Read “World Summit on Sustainable Development” to learn more.
United Nations on Development Issues
Last updated Wednesday, July 25, 2001.
The United Nations is the largest international body involved in development issues around the
world. However, it has many political issues and problems to contend with. But, despite this, it is
also performing some much needed tasks around the world, through its many satellite
organizations and entities, providing a means to realize the Declaration of Human Rights.
Unfortunately though, it is not perfect and is negatively affected by politics of powerful nations
that wish to further their own interests.
Read “United Nations on Development Issues” to learn more.
Trade, Economy, & Related Issues
Last updated Sunday, November 28, 2010.
Read “Trade, Economy, & Related Issues” to learn more.
Consumption and Consumerism
Read “Consumption and Consumerism” to learn more.
Causes of Poverty
Poverty is the state for the majority of the world’s people and nations. Why is this? Is it enough
to blame poor people for their own predicament? Have they been lazy, made poor decisions, and
been solely responsible for their plight? What about their governments? Have they pursued
policies that actually harm successful development? Such causes of poverty and inequality are no
doubt real. But deeper and more global causes of poverty are often less discussed.
Read “Causes of Poverty” to learn more.
Environmental Issues
Last updated Sunday, December 05, 2010.
Environmental issues are also a major global issue. Humans

depend on a sustainable and healthy environment, and yet we have damaged the environment in
numerous ways. This section introduces other issues including biodiversity, climate change,
animal and nature conservation, population, genetically modified food, sustainable development,
and more.
Read “Environmental Issues” to learn more.
Aid
Posted Monday, May 03, 2010.
There are numerous forms of aid, from

humanitarian emergency assistance, to longer term development aid. Some provide food aid, or
military assistance, but all these forms of aid seem to be accompanied with criticism, either
around inefficiency of delivery, or of political agendas or more. This section attempts to look at
some of these issues.
te: Monday, June 1 1992
Environmental problems and developing countries.

Publication: Finance & Development
Date: Monday, June 1 1992
Forests. Over the past decade, developing countries have been converting or degrading their
forests, coastal and inland wetlands, and other ecosystems at historically high rates. Tropical
moist forests, for example, are being burned and cut at a rate of 17-20 million hectares per year,
or 1 percent a year--if this continues, these forests will disappear within several generations. The
loss of forests can pose severe ecological and economic costs (e.g., lost soil and watershed
protection, local climate change, and destruction of habitat), not to mention a high human toll (in
1991, 5,000 Philippine villagers were killed by flooding caused in part by deforested hillsides).
Soils. Although less dramatic than images of advancing deserts, the gradual deterioration of
agricultural soils, largely through erosion, is a more widespread and serious problem than
desertffication. Total harvests and yields of important food crops are declining in some countries,
particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, even though yields are increasing globally, as well as in
developing countries as a whole. Soil depletion often occurs fragile lands from which the poorest
farmers attempt to wrest a living. Rough estimates suggest that in countries such as Costa Rica,
Malawi, Mali, and Mexico, the losses in on-farm productive potential alone may amount to 0.5-
1.5 percent of GDP annually.
Although official data show significant progress in the 1980s, nearly 1 billion people in the
developing world are still without access to cleanwater for drinking and bathing, and 1.7 billion
must contend with inadequate sanitation facilities. Moreover, the quality of service has
deteriorated in many areas. and the number of people without access to sanitation continues to
increase in urban areas. The result is a host of water-related diseases. Unsafe water is a major
contributor to the 900 million cases of diarrheal diseases annually, leading to 3 million deaths.
most of them children. At any time, there are 500 million people strifering from trachoma, 200
million from schistosomiasis or bilharzia, and 900 million from hookworm. Cholera, typhoid,
and paratyphoid also continue to wreak havoc with human welfare. water, irrigation, and
industrial use. This is a partiular acute problem in arid areas of the Middle East, as well as in
places such as Northern China, East Java, and parts of India. Groundwater is being depleted,
sometimes irreversibly. Moreover, existing withdrawals from rivers limit further expansion of
irrigation and in-stream uses (e.g., river transport, sediment flushing, and fish reproduction).
Air
Consistent monitoring of ambient air pollution is just over a decade old, but it shows that several
pollutants--stemming from energy use, vehicular emissions and industrial production--are
frequently over levels considered safe for health.
* For the 1.2 billion people living in urban areas in developing countries that do not meet World
Health Organization standards on dust and smoke, the threat of serious respiratory illnesses
looms large. Reducing such pollution, especially in China and India, could save 300,000 700,000
lives every year.
* Indoor air pollution from burning wood, charcoal, and dung inside homes--especially in rural
Africa and South Asia-endangers the health of 400 700 million people. Women and children
suffer most. with some of the same health consequences of those who smoke the equivalent of
several packs of cigarettes per day.
* High levels of lead. primarily from vehicle emissions, contribute to hypertension and high
blood pressure and hinder neurological development. Estimates for Bangkok suggest that the
average child has lost four or more IQ points by the age of seven because of elevated exposure to
lead.
Atmospheric changes
While much environmental damage and loss is evident today, other sources of potential danger--
including those that cross national boundaries--may not show their ill effects for decades hence.
Ozone depletion. This is the most immediate "global commons" problem, as scientists continue
to record alarmingly high atmospheric levels of ozone-destroying substances--primarily chlorine
monoxide, which origninates from chlorofluorocarbons. Ozone protects life on earth by
absorbing much of the ultraviolet radiation that causes skin cancer, cataracts, and possibly
immune-system damage in humans, and reduces the productivity of microscopic marine
organisms that are at the base of the occans' food chain.
Global warming. Increasing emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases raise
average temperatures on earth, and although the exact size of the effect remains unclear, average
world temperatures may rise by 1.5--4.5 degrees Celsius by the second half of the next century.
Recent research has reduced fears that ice caps might melt, causing sea levels of rise
precipitously, but there are still grounds for concern. Low-lying nations are nonetheless at risk,
and agriculture, forests, and ecosystems may not easily adapt to rising temeraptures and
consequent climate changes. The best estimates, still extremely crude, are the global warming
will impose costs 60 years from now equivalent to about 1 percent of world GDP.
Low-income countries are those with a GNP per capita of $610 or less in 1990. Middle-income
countries are those with a GNP per capita of more than $610 but less than $7.620 in 1990
High-income countries are those with a GNP per capita of $7,620 or more in 1990.
Source: All of the charts and data are taken from the Worm Development Report 1992.
Progress on Sustainability so far
As highlighted in the introduction page, the record on moving towards sustainability so far
appears to have been quite poor and the vast majority of humanity still lack access to basics such
as clean water, adequate sanitation, electricity and so on. And this is in the backdrop of an
increasing amount of wealth in fewer hands.
Given that previous international meetings on sustainable development seem to have had little
effect on the world's majority, the Johannesburg Summit was considered by some to appear quite
ambitious to say the least and many were skeptical as to whether anything of importance would
even come of this summit.
A broader agenda than the Rio Summit in 1992, the summit in Johannesburg also included a
huge number of delegates representing nations, business interests and non-profit environmental
and development/citizen/social justice groups. Various key issues were addressed, including:
• Poverty
• Water quality and availability
• Cleaner energy
• Health
• Good governance
• Technology
• Production and Consumption
• Oceans and Fisheries
• Tourism
These are just a sample and were all discussed in varying degrees. Other related issues such as
globalization, women's rights were also discussed.
Some understandably criticized the summit as over-ambitious to try and talk about so many
issues. Yet, true or not, it shows that there is at least an apparent growing recognition that
sustainable development (admittedly a somewhat overused word) means a myriad of inter-
related issues, not something solely in the realms of environmentalism, but also deep into
economics (which governs how resources are used), and a variety of sociopolitical issues.
Back to top
Outcome of the Summit
There were a number of outcomes in the summit's 'Plan of Action', on key areas (though many
marred with controversy, or praise, depending who you heard it from!). Some of them include
the following:
Water and Sanitation:
• Governments agreed to halve the number of people lacking clean drinking water and
basic sanitation by 2015.
• This agreement was perhaps the most positive outcome of the Summit.
Energy:
• Governments agreed in principle to take action to help the poor gain access to affordable
energy
• Yet, there were no specific targets on things like boosting renewable and "green" sources
such as solar or wind power, just wording to "substantially increase" the global share of
renewable energy.
• Various Oil-Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC) nations and the United States
opposed targets while Europe and various environmental and development organizations
wanted them.
• Definition of renewables also caused a stir because some wanted nuclear and hydro-
electric power to be included in this definition while others did not.
• Environmental organizations in particular did not like the outcome.
Global Warming:
• The agreement referred to the need to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, though various
organizations and nations were hoping for more concrete plans.
• Russia and some other nations announced they would ratify the Kyoto Protocol. This was
seen as positive, because earlier some had implied that they might not.
• Had they not, with the U.S. already rejecting the protocol, Kyoto might have headed for
collapse.
Biodiversity and Natural Resources:
• Nations agreed that by 2010, the rate at which extinctions of rare plants and animals are
occurring should be cut.
• There was commitment to restore fisheries to their maximum sustainable yields by 2015;
• To establish a representative network of marine protected areas by 2012;
• To improve developing countries' access to environmentally-sound alternatives to ozone
depleting chemicals by 2010.
• While these were on the positive side, World Wildlife Fund, one of the world's leading
conservation organizations felt the Summit didn't do enough.
Trade/Global Economic Related Issues:
• This was a thorny issue for some because it was argued that the WSSD was seen mainly
as a place to iron out World Trade Organization issues, and not really tackle
sustainability.
• Some WTO wordage changed specified (or implied) that environment shouldn't be
secondary to trade, which is a positive development.
• There was no new commitment or timetable to the E.U. and U.S. farm subsidies or the
crisis in commodity prices.
• Nothing changed in terms of aid, or debt relief.
• Oxfam, for example, described this as a wasted opportunity, only offering crumbs for the
poor.
• AllAfrica.com reports that "Several African delegates are known to be angry at the way
that the World Trade Organization's Doha agreements have dominated much of the
discussion - and particularly at attempts to give the WTO resolutions primacy over the
WSSD's own agreed positions. Africans also blame rich countries for the failure to make
progress on the ending of agricultural subsidies to their own producers, seen as restricting
developing countries' access to markets."
Health:
• Attempts to link women's rights and health services to human rights was opposed by
some nations and religious groups.
• There was agreement that recognition that access to healthcare be consistent with human
rights, and "cultural and religious values".
• Various groups criticized the U.S., the Vatican and some developing countries that tried
to oppose this stronger linkage due to issues around women's rights, abortion issues, etc.
• Countries agreed to phase out, by 2020, the use and production of chemicals that harm
human health and the environment.
Corporate Accountability:
• There was recognition that corporate accountability must be increased.
• Environment News Service commented that the U.S. attempted to "circumvent efforts to
develop new, binding international rules on environmentally irresponsible corporate
behavior" and wanted it to apply only to existing international agreements. However,
country delegates in the end rejected this and "conference delegates prevented the United
States from evading a commitment to corporate accountability for environmental crimes."
• The World Development Movement (WDM) were disappointed on the overall outcome
of the summit but on corporate accountability commented that, "The only glimmer of
hope is that for the first time proper regulation of multinational companies has been
placed on the agenda. The NGOs and developing countries that have achieved this in the
face of fierce opposition from rich governments deserve massive credit. But it will be a
long struggle to get a binding, enforceable agreement."
There were various other issues that had been discussed as well. In a lot of cases, there were only
agreements to do something, without any specific targets or action plans. It is easy for any
nation, or organization or business to say they support something, but as various organizations
have argued, this summit became an arena for nations and businesses to say they will do things,
while often avoiding actual obligations. In addition, because the sanitation agreement was the
only really concrete agreement, development and citizen groups saw the summit as a failure.
Various organizations, some leaders and delegates from developing countries were critical on
numerous aspects of the world system, especially on the agendas and interests of the richer
nations. The World Development Movement, for example, felt the summit was a failure for the
world's majority, and that "much of the failure can be attributed to the two major world powers -
the US for active obstruction and the EU for pursuing the politics of self-interest." (See their
article (PDF format) for the full report.)
The following from AllAfrica.com raises the issue that on the whole all the effort spent on
reinforcing past commitments meant little substance in implementation issues or efforts towards
new commitments:
A representative from the Youth Caucus -- a group of youth organisations working on
sustainable development -- told the closing plenary: "You have failed us."
"We are sick and tired of the empty promises and political posturing that we've witnessed time
and time again over the past ten years. We are fed up with your bracketing and debating the
placement of commas in the plan of action".
UN special envoy to the summit, Jan Pronk, told the BBC that the meeting had come "close to
collapse" and implied that delegates had only managed to maintain the status quo, rather than
advancing the summit's real objectives. "They were working till last night on reinforcing
advances made in the past," he said. That left very little time for talking about implementation."
— Akwe Amosu, WSSD in Johannesburg Ends on Uncertain Note, AllAfrica.com, 4 September
2002
There were various controversies over issues of governance, influence, power and politics, and
lack of truly democratic processes at the international level. For example, numerous developing
country leaders commented on the interest and agendas of rich nations and multinationals as
having a detrimental impact on the poor, increasing and causing poverty, and that the legacy of
colonialism was still being felt hard. (Indeed, some such as Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe made
scathing attacks on Britain's Tony Blair, for example. While he might have had some fair points
about the impacts of colonialism -- to which many in the audience applauded or approved -- his
ruthless actions are hardly a positive alternative.)
As another example, many accused the U.S. of attempting to water down any final agreements.
On the final day of speeches, many protestors (including many Americans) and even delegates
from countries around the world, jeered U.S. Secretary of State, Colin Powell as he delivered his
speech in the closing part of the Summit (President George Bush was not in attendance). The
actions of the U.S. have been highly controversial during the Summit. Even U.S. protests groups
have been vocal and dismayed at their leaders. AllAfrica.com, detailing some of this criticism on
U.S. actions, even reports that "Following the [NGO] press conference [on the final day of the
Summit], members of NGOs from the United States pinned a large U.S. flag to the wall outside
the briefing room, On it they had written: "Thank you, President Bush, for making the U.S. so
hated."".
The above-mentioned WDM article also highlighted another emerging trend: the growing
subordination of government responsibilities to their citizens to multinational pressures and
interests. Many businesses were also at the Summit, some with these additional agendas, some
with hopes to participate in the drive towards sustainable development. But, the interests of
powerful nations and certain large influential businesses and industries did have an impact on the
summit, as they have in all international talks and agreements.
For more on the outcomes, including perspectives/opinions, the following offer some views
(links at the end of this section to other web sites also provide more information in general):
• The official Plan of Action. (Link is to a PDF formatted report.)
• From the BBC:
o Summit conclusions at a glance, September 4, 2002
o Pressure groups condemn summit, September 3, 2002
• Summary of Contentious Text (PDF) from the Centre for Science and Environment, in
India, summarizes paragraph numbers and text that has been contentious. The
compilation also lists which nations supported or opposed the contentious text, together
with some commentary.
• WSSD press releases and briefings from WDM.
• World Wildlife Fund (WWF) WSSD news section
• Sustainable Development: An Expensive Trip To Nowhere? by Radha D'Souza, 4
September 2002, looks at the structural problems and institutional level issues around the
U.N. itself.
• World Wire Special Coverage provides a number of articles from around the world.
• Global Development Plan A Flop, say Activists by Thalif Deen, Terra Viva, Inter Press
Service, 4 September 2002 also provides some summary.
The remainder of this section introduces at some of those issues relating to business interests,
governments, non-governmental organizations, etc.
Back to top
Public-Private Partnerships, Corporate Interests and Globalization
A much-talked about issue during the build up to this summit has been the multinational
corporate interests and influence.
Transnational businesses are major entities in global affairs. Some have considerable resources at
their disposal. Business partnerships with governments, at national and local level is increasing
in many parts of the world, as it is recognized that business processes can bring positive benefits.
Compared to the Rio Summit (and others such as the Kyoto meeting on Climate Change in
1997), a number of businesses came to the Summit appearing to support sustainable
development.
Ten years ago at the Earth Summit in Rio, world business leaders were mostly in attendance to
say "no" to any proposals for firm action to reduce greenhouse gasses, as well as to demands for
more investment in reducing pollution and controlling toxic wastes.
But what a difference a decade can make. ... Businesses, or at least some business leaders, have
decided to embrace the call for sustainable development. Dozens of CEOs and hundreds of other
of corporate officials arrived in Johannesburg this week with briefcases full of proposals for
"partnership initiatives" to enhance sustainability.
— Jim Cason, Business Embraces Call for Sustainable Development, allAfrica.com, August 29,
2002
However, at the same time, especially in the developing world, but also in the industrialized
nations, business interests at the expense of people has led to a lot of concern about transnational
corporations' (TNC) influences in international meetings and summits.
The above quoted article, for example continues that, despite various big businesses turning
towards sustainability, "The criticism, however, has continued, and some groups believe the
United Nations has become too cozy with big business. "What we're worried about is that many
businesses are draping themselves in the blue of the United Nations in order to get themselves
some brownie points to look good to governments, to look like they're doing the right thing
around the world, when in fact their actual practices on the ground may be very different to those
they profess on paper," said Matt Phillips of Friends of the Earth in an interview with the BBC."
In addition, "Most of the business projects, not surprisingly, are proposals that will expand the
reach of the business community while also - at least in principle - improving sustainability."
In addition, the shift towards voluntary commitments rather than obligatory ones is highlighted
by some as an indication of business interests highlighting the willingness to appear to do
something but without being confined by those obligations:
The shift towards private-public partnerships in both the Type I (obligatory) and Type II
(voluntary) agreements of the WSSD represents part of wider abdication of responsibility on the
part of developed countries to fulfill their commitments to facilitate sustainable development in
the south. Plus, allowing northern-controlled agencies, such as the World Bank, to initiate the
implementation of crucial programmes, including through its role as lead agency of the Global
Environmental Facility (GEF), once again limits the policy choices of developing countries in
their attainment of sustainable development.
Johannesburg will thus serve as a test of the political will of northern countries, both to accept
the weight of their present and historical contribution to depletion of natural resources, and to
assume primary responsibility for the costs of rebalancing the earth's ecosystems for the benefit
of the world's peoples. This responsibility will involve not only the contribution of substantial
financial resources to aid developing countries in bearing the adjustment costs of sustainable
development, but a commitment to reorienting current unsustainable production and
consumption patterns and reforming the global economic system which form the basis of the
present ecological devastation and human misery.
— Celine Tan, Why trade and finance groups should get involved in the WSSD process, Third
World Network, Malaysia, July 2002
But the move towards voluntary actions is also criticized as an excuse for governments, as well
as businesses to shun away from commitments as well.
While this summit saw delegates from all over the world attending, including most world
leaders, the most powerful leader in the world, U.S. President George Bush did not attend.
The decision for Bush not to attend also seems to have some business-oriented reasons behind it,
amongst other factors.
Some of the more right-wing oriented big business-backed think tanks and others have urged and
applauded George Bush's decision not to attend in person. Certain big businesses have long been
afraid of making costly commitments to reduce environmental burdens. Some of the free market
"fundamentalist" think tanks believe that any form of regulation on them would have a negative
impact on the economy, while others fear a sort of "global government" agenda. (Side Note»)
Evolutionary economist and author, Dr. Hazel Henderson, is quite scathing on the Bush position
(and it also puts the onus on U.S. delegates there to defend that position):
US Secretary of State Colin Powell will have a tough job in Johannesburg. Powell must provide
public relations and "spin" on US President George Bush's continued "go-it-alone" disdain for
multilateral cooperation. Bush's stance is rooted in the laissez faire ideology of his corporate
supporters, the fundamentalist, right wing of his party and the "rugged individualism" philosophy
of the US "wild west".
— Hazel Henderson, Bush's Agenda in Johannesburg, Terra Viva, Inter Press Service, August
28 2002
Yet, arguably, if it were even possible for the Summit to have produced some binding outcome
that could be regarded as positive, it would likely be that the perceived costs of making such
changes would have a negative impact on the wealthy, who currently benefit from the current
global system as it is structured. While potentially addressing (or at least highlighting again) the
concerns of the poorer around the world, the hope was that this summit may provide one small
(maybe quite tiny) step towards protecting their rights and their environment from external
factors that they have little control or say over. (Side Note»)
No doubt that from these business interests and free market ideology, there is some valid
criticism as well. Some environmental "extremists" may unwittingly be suggesting policies
which might hamper long term economic development for poorer nations. Yet, at the same time,
points are made for example that economic growth leads to better environmental qualities. But,
this is an ideologically based oversimplification, because it ignores those very same political
factors and influences surrounding economic growth, development and the environment that
have been pushed by and turned out to be beneficial for various business interests at the expense
of these other issues.
For example, economic growth of the wealthy countries has been at the direct cost to poorer
nations (for centuries controlling, extracting and using much of their resources), and more
recently, by things like exporting pollution to the poorer regions, which makes the wealthier
nations' environment appear even cleaner while regions in the South get even dirtier. Graphs and
charts might show a nice correlation between economic growth and environmental health, but
they doen't necessarily capture these political decisions. (This, while the U.S. for example is still
the world's largest polluter, as highlighted in various discussions and global meetings regarding
climate change.) Years of devastating structural adjustment in much of the third world by the
rich nation-heavy IMF and World Bank has meant that the third world nations have been opened
up for easier exploitation of labor and environment.
As another example of an ideological comment, the above-linked article about some valid
criticism, from the corporate-funded American Enterprise Institute, mentions that at the Summit,
"the undemocratic influence of nongovernment organizations (NGOs), the radical fringe's agenda
of global environmental governance, and the socialist-redistributionist impulse will all be on
display. On the other side of the ledger, however, are signs that the sustainable development
project may be turning away from its Malthusian roots toward a broader and more productive
view of the relationship between economic development and environment quality."
Rhetoric aside, this passage above ignores interests from other ideological camps, such as
"undemocratic" business interests (which wield considerably more power and influence than
NGOs and have contributed to a lot of the world's environmental and social problems, while at
the same time being largely unaccountable). (Side Note»)
In addition, the claims that NGOs are non-democratic is only in the sense that it is assumed that
sovereign governments are democratic in their real actions (as opposed to rhetoric). As
mentioned on this site, for example on the NGO page, there have been numerous problems that
are also at the hands of certain types of NGOs. While there are no doubt problems with many
NGOs, many, from the third world especially are highlighting issues that their leaders and other
leaders and elites around the world are unwilling or unable to address for a number of reasons.
• Many NGOs are beginning to work with people in local and grassroots situations more
effectively, often when governments don't.
• From a business interest perspective, many NGOs are indeed critical of transnational
corporate interests. In that context then, NGOs are seen by them as "undemocratic", when
they are just as legitimate a part of civil society as businesses are.
• Furthermore, the business interests being spoken for are not exactly democratic
themselves.
• The power wielded by just a handful of corporations is enormous, more than many
nations, compared to NGOs and other segments of society.
• Business lobbies and related groups do not have even the theoretical accountability to the
public at large but to their industries and companies. Their resources and influence are
immense.
Furthermore, the rising number of NGOs could be regarded as relating to failures of state and
markets to provide all the requirements of society. It is worth bearing in mind the sheer size of
global inequality, to give an idea why there are so many NGOs popping up. An aspect of this
inequality and some associated problems is highlighted by the United Nations here:
Today's consumption is undermining the environmental resource base. It is exacerbating
inequalities. And the dynamics of the consumption-poverty-inequality-environment nexus are
accelerating. If the trends continue without change - not redistributing from high-income to low-
income consumers, not shifting from polluting to cleaner goods and production technologies, not
promoting goods that empower poor producers, not shifting priority from consumption for
conspicuous display to meeting basic needs - today's problems of consumption and human
development will worsen.
... The real issue is not consumption itself but its patterns and effects.
... Inequalities in consumption are stark. Globally, the 20% of the world's people in the
highest-income countries account for 86% of total private consumption expenditures - the
poorest 20% a minuscule 1.3%. More specifically, the richest fifth:
• Consume 45% of all meat and fish, the poorest fifth 5%.
• Consume 58% of total energy, the poorest fifth less than 4%.
• Have 74% of all telephone lines, the poorest fifth 1.5%.
• Consume 84% of all paper, the poorest fifth 1.1%.
• Own 87% of the world's vehicle fleet, the poorest fifth less than 1%.
Runaway growth in consumption in the past 50 years is putting strains on the environment never
before seen.
— Human Development Report 1998 Overview, United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) [Emphasis Added]
Yet, ignoring the ideological biases, there is some valid criticism of such agendas, such as the
Malthusian perspectives (as also discussed on this site's population section.)
Population issues, for example, and various agendas and perspectives on the issue between
different types of NGOs were apparent in the last summit as the following highlights:
Some northern environmentalists further infuriated those from developing countries [at the 1992
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil] by suggesting that rapid population growth among the
world's poor was the primary driving force behind rainforest destruction, degradation of
agricultural lands, and other threats to the future health of the global environment. Vocal
advocates for developing countries resented being portrayed as environmental villains. Anil
Agarwal and Sunita Narain of the Centre for Science and the Environment in New Delhi, India,
observed, "It is ironic that those who have exploited global resources the most are now preaching
to those who have been largely frugal and sparing." The editors of Third World Resurgence
added, "The poor are victims and not culprits in environmental degradation. Much of the
depletion and contamination of resources have been done to meet the consumption demands of
the affluent. Changing consumption habits of the affluent is thus the priority in curbing the rate
of depletion or pollution of resources." After all, even though the population was growing
rapidly in countries like Bangladesh, each additional American consumed many times more than
each additional Bangladeshi.
— Michael Brower and Warren Leon, The Consumer's Guide to Effective Environmental
Choices, (The Union of Concerned Scientists, 1999), p.9 (Link is to online extract)
It should be noted that when big business weren't at Rio or other such meetings as much, they
were criticized by many for not caring. Now, when they were present, they have been criticized
for being there! However, that argument doesn't in and of itself negate the criticism, based on
their interests, influence, power and past actions in other international meetings and summits. No
doubt, there are many in industry and even some business interests that may be regarded as
genuinely attempting to meet some of these challenges. Private corporations can provide many
resources to tackle these issues, and are often driven by the incentive to profit, which can be a
big driver to push for development quickly. Of course this has led to the often justifiable
criticism or observation that this drive for profit can be counter to the drive for sustainability.
Yet, if it were possible to manage all this well, this can also be potentially a beneficial
arrangement, which is where the appeal for public-private partnerships can come from; the so-
called win-win situation. However, as nice as that sounds, as various international meetings have
shown, from Kyoto and other global warming meetings, to various World Trade Organization
summits, etc, there has been genuine concern about big-business interests that are harmful to the
third world (and people of the first world even). These are serious issues that can't just be
ignored.
For a while now, U.N. partnerships with certain major multinational corporations have been
quite controversial because some of the major corporations it has partnered up with have been
major human rights violators, or major contributors to environmental degradation. In many
international agreements in recent years, corporate interests and strong influences have been
criticized by many, especially from the developing world. It is therefore not surprising that this
summit has also received criticism in relation to corporate interests.
A serious concern emerging from the preparatory process of the WSSD is the influence of big
business in shaping the outcomes of the WSSD. Through the Business Action for Sustainable
Development (BASD), transnational corporations are reprising the role they played at Rio
through the Business Council for Sustainable Development (BCSD). Not only are TNCs
(through the developed countries) blocking efforts to frame a regulatory mechanism to govern
their activities within the WSSD official agreements, they are presenting themselves as viable
partners in the delivery of sustainable development programmes, especially in the key areas of
water, energy, health, agriculture and biodiversity.
Actively engaging in these partnerships are developed countries who have allowed their
corporate lobbies to determine their priorities for negotiations during the Prepcoms. The Draft
Plan of Implementation is sprinkled very liberally with language exhorting the virtues of 'public-
private partnerships' and calling for public-private partnership implementation of WSSD
programmes.
— Celine Tan, Why trade and finance groups should get involved in the WSSD process, Third
World Network, Malaysia, July 2002
Christian Aid highlights a similar concern to the above from the Third World Network, that
while companies increasingly play an important role in investment and long term development,
technology and skills transfer and job creation, "a company's prime motivation is to make a
profit, not to educate a nation or provide clean water for every village." In addition,
"In preparation for the WSSD, corporate lobby groups representing hundreds of transnational
corporations set up Business Action for Sustainable Development. This has the specific purpose
of getting private sector concerns high up the Summit agenda. They have succeeded. The
negotiating document, or Draft Plan of Implementation, encourages further broad and rapid
liberalisation, public-private partnerships, and what are known as 'Type II outcomes'. This is
where small working groups of companies, governments and non-governmental organisations
come together to: 'translate political commitments into action', entrenching the role of the private
sector in sustainable development. But at the same time these same companies have lobbied to
ensure that minimum standards do not become mandatory. In other words, they want to police
themselves."
— Daniel Graymore & Isabella D. Bunn, A World Summit for Business Development?,
Christian Aid, August 2002
Back to top
Governments and Political Leaders: failing people and the environment?
As well as business interests, both positive and negative, national interests too were a major (the
biggest) factor in how the Summit ended and what was in (and out) of the final Plan of Action.
It has been pointed out by many (and also discussed on many sections on this web site) how
business interests and governments of some of the industrialized countries have often gone hand
in hand, from lobbying, to mega donations, shared ideologies, pressure for government and
political leaders to meet business demands else face the prospect of losing jobs as companies can
easily relocate, etc. In that context, there have been a number of criticisms about various
Northern governments as well leading up to this Summit.
As an example of the concern of differing agendas, a European Union and United States
negotiating document advocated using the Earth Summit to promote trade liberalisation and
corporate-led globalisation, while not proposing legally binding mechanisms to protect the
environment or vulnerable communities, as Friends of the Earth reveals. And this was while
ideas about some sort of World Environmental Organization, similar in idea to the World Trade
Organization, (but to balance it out as well) is also given a cold shoulder.
Friends of the Earth also criticized the European Union (EU) regarding its position on trade and
globalization related issues discussed at the Summit, saying that,
"In discussions all day yesterday [August 27, 2002, the second day of the Summit] the EU said
that they would not support a UN text that would set an international framework on corporate
accountability and corporate social responsibility. This proposal was originally put forward by
the G77, the group of developing countries, in negotiations on globalisation, trade and finance."
— EU loses earth summit leadership role, Friends of the Earth, 28 August, 2002
As another example, "Canada's negotiators to the WSSD admitted [to] the federal government's
support of the private sector's control of human rights and environmental outcomes of this
conference." according to the Council of Canadians.
Transparency International criticizes both rich and poor nations, pointing out that "Corrupt
political elites and unscrupulous investors kill sustainable growth in its tracks" as it released its
2002 Corruption Perception Index. In addition, the chairman of the organization pointed out that,
"Political elites and their cronies continue to take kickbacks at every opportunity. Hand in glove
with corrupt business people, they are trapping whole nations in poverty and hampering
sustainable development. Corruption is perceived to be dangerously high in poor parts of the
world, but also in many countries whose firms invest in developing nations."
Thus corporate-oriented but rich government-led globalization has been a major factor in
environmental issues, social and economic issues, especially for the third world due to the
impacts and influence they have in international bodies such as the WTO, IMF, World Bank, and
on agreements and negotiations, as discussed throughout this web site. The right to sovereignty is
affected and people have even less ability to make appropriate decisions for their own
communities, also highlighted in part by the following:
"While it is wonderful that Rio + 10 will attempt to breathe new life into its basic agreements its
chances for long-term success are next to nil if nations remain caught in the present double-bind,
which prevents even those willing to act on behalf of nature from doing so. The root causes of
the present global environmental malaise do not only reflect a failure of "political will," they are
also caused by a fundamental loss of national powers to operate in the best interests of nature or
human beings."
— Globalization and the United Nations, International Forum on Globalization, August 26,
2002
Back to top
NGOs Sidelined?
As mentioned above, Non governmental organization, ranging from international to local
grassroots groups were present throughout the summit. Their issues and interests ranged from
environment, development and poverty, social justice and other single and multi-issue
campaigns. While some business interests argued that NGOs are undemocratic, as mentioned
above, a lot of business interests could be considered undemocratic and unaccountable, and even
more of an issue considering the enormous global impact that various industries have, in terms of
power, influence and wealth. That aside, NGOs were recognized participants of the Summit, by
the United Nations. Various NGOs have long been recognized as legitimate 'third' entity of
society (the other two being nation states and corporations.)
But, NGOs are not one group, or even a lose group bound by a common set of goals. Hence,
there were diverse range of opinions, ranging from being against the Summit in total, to
supporting and campaigning hard to pressure governments for harder and more concrete
agreements.
Anuradha Mittal from Food First, taking part at the Summit, describes how some NGOs on the
opening day were not able to attend the meetings:
The international civil society has faced being shut out of trade talks. It has faced increasing
brutality of police at the trade summits whether it is Seattle, Genoa, Washington, DC, or Quebec.
But over 6000 accredited NGOs to the World Summit on Sustainable Development came to
Johannesburg with different expectations.
This morning, however, thousands of delegates were in for a shock when they were turned away
from the Standton Center where the official summit is being held. The reason given: over the
weekend the organizers realized that the building has capacity for holding only 6,000 individuals
and the government delegates are over 5,000 in number (several corporate officials are part of
government delegations). So while the WSSD Secretariat was processing endless applications of
NGO accreditation, they failed to inform the civil society delegates that they will not be able to
participate in the official meeting. Instead they handed out 1,500 passes, allowing first 1,500 to
enter the building, enraging thousands who were treated with contempt and even threatened. To
deal with delegates anger, they have now removed the passes. Instead the first 6,000 delegates
will be allowed in after the gates open at 8:30 am. Government delegates (including corporate
executives) however, will have access to the building at all times.
— Anuradha Mittal, Latest from the WSSD, Day One, Institute for Food and Development
Policy (also known as Food First) August 26, 2002
Some groups have argued that human rights is also a central component to sustainable
development. That giving people more rights to make more decisions for themselves is key.
Mary Robinson, U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights and former President of Ireland,
has added that aspect of accountability that human rights should bring, also adding that, "the
private sector is getting 'too much emphasis without accountability'," in an interview with Inter
Press Service (31 August, 2002).
Some of the more grassroots-oriented organizations are often on the streets with ordinary people
staging protests and the like. These have occurred for decades on all sorts of aspects of
globalization.
As with other international meetings and summits, this one too saw many protests. To
accompany it, there was a police crackdown with more accusations of heavy-handedness. The
police claims security alerts that activists are planning violent protests, yet, a peaceful march of
activists that included children and elderly was dispersed using percussion grenades to make
loud sounds and produce smoke, to intimidate people.
(See this site's section on protests around the world for more about protests that have occurred
for years on all sorts of global issues and the violence that has accompanied it, usually mostly
from the authorities.)
As corporate globalization in the past few years has seen an increase in poverty, inequality and
environmental degradation, ordinary citizens composed of activists, scientists, academics,
intellectuals and others have formed various groups and non-profit organizations to try and
highlight these inequalities from a human/environmental perspective.
This has also come at a time when a lot of governments around the world, from the most
powerful to many of the poorest are seen cosying up or caving in to monied and corporate
interests. Business-backed think tanks may claim such NGOs as undemocratic and
unaccountable, and in the West where a large number of us benefit and live in comparative
luxury, it might be hard to look inward to find a contributory cause to the world's problems. Of
course due to the wide variety of NGOs many are not united by any common goals (in
comparison, some basic business interests are common across industries). Some NGOs are
indeed quite hostile on some issues while ignoring others. Yet, many more are popping up, with
broader and multi-issue agendas and goals. These are often the ones being more critical of both
governments and businesses.
When NGOs and others from around the world try to highlight this, it can be easy to shake off
and dismiss as special agendas, and having other interests. In addition, when governments and
businesses are failing people, NGOs offer additional voices (which are often more participatory
and involving wider society, though not always) that add to the debates, which participatory
democracy should be all about.
The goal of governance initiatives should be to develop capacities that are needed to realise
development that gives priority to the poor, advances women, sustains the environment and
creates needed opportunities for employment and other livelihoods.
UNDP 1994 Initiatives for Change
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been at the forefront of the growing
international consensus that good governance and sustainable human development are
indivisible. And we believe that developing the capacity for good governance can be - and
should be - the primary way to eliminate poverty. Notions of good governance and the link
between governance and sustainable human development vary greatly, however, both in
academic literature and among development practitioners.
So, what is sustainable human development?
We define human development as expanding the choices for all people in society. This means
that men and women - particularly the poor and vulnerable - are at the centre of the development
process. It also means "protection of the life opportunities of future generations...and...the natural
systems on which all life depends" (UNDP, Human Development Report 1996). This makes the
central purpose of development the creation of an enabling environment in which all can enjoy
long, healthy and creative lives.
Economic growth is a means to sustainable human development - not an end in itself. Human
Development Report 1996 showed that economic growth does not automatically lead to
sustainable human development and the elimination of poverty. For example, countries that do
well when ranked by per capita income often slip down the ladder when ranked by the human
development index. There are, moreover, marked disparities within countries - rich and poor
alike - and these become striking when human development among indigenous peoples and
ethnic minorities is evaluated separately.
There are five aspects to sustainable human development - all affecting the lives of the poor and
vulnerable:
• Empowerment - The expansion of men and women's capabilities and choices increases
their ability to exercise those choices free of hunger, want and deprivation. It also
increases their opportunity to participate in, or endorse, decision-making affecting their
lives.
Co-operation - With a sense of belonging important for personal fulfillment, well-being and a
sense of purpose and meaning, human
• development is concerned with the ways in which people work together and interact.
• Equity - The expansion of capabilities and opportunities means more than income - it also
means equity, such as an educational system to which everybody should have access.
• Sustainability - The needs of this generation must be met without compromising the right
of future generations to be free of poverty and deprivation and to exercise their basic
capabilities.
• Security - Particularly the security of livelihood. People need to be freed from threats,
such as disease or repression and from sudden harmful disruptions in their lives.
UNDP focuses on four critical elements of sustainable human development: eliminating poverty,
creating jobs and sustaining livelihoods, protecting and regenerating the environment, and
promoting the advancement of women. Developing the capacities for good governance underpins
all these objectives.
What, then, is governance? And what is good governance?
The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that promotes, supports and
sustains human development - especially for the poorest and most marginal. But the search for a
clearly articulated concept of governance has just begun.
Governance can be seen as the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to
manage a country's affairs at all levels. It comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions
through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their
obligations and mediate their differences.
Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent and accountable. It is also
effective and equitable. And it promotes the rule of law. Good governance ensures that political,
social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the
poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development
resources.
Governance has three legs: economic, political and administrative. Economic governance
includes decision-making processes that affect a country's economic activities and its
relationships with other economies. It clearly has major implications for equity, poverty and
quality of life. Political governance is the process of decision-making to formulate policy.
Administrative governance is the system of policy implementation. Encompassing all three, good
governance defines the processes and structures that guide political and socio-economic
relationships.
Governance encompasses the state, but it transcends the state by including the private sector and
civil society organisations. What constitutes the state is widely debated. Here, the state is defined
to include political and public sector institutions. UNDP's primary interest lies in how effectively
the state serves the needs of its people. The private sector covers private enterprises
(manufacturing, trade, banking, cooperatives and so on) and the informal sector in the
marketplace. Some say that the private sector is part of civil society. But the private sector is
separate to the extent that private sector players influence social, economic and political policies
in ways that create a more conducive environment for the marketplace and enterprises.
Civil society, lying between the individual and the state, comprises individuals and groups
(organised or unorganised) interacting socially, politically and economically - regulated by
formal and informal rules and laws.
Civil society organisations are the host of associations around which society voluntarily
organises. They include trade unions; non-governmental organisations; gender, language,
cultural and religious groups; charities; business associations; social and sports clubs;
cooperatives and community development organisations; environmental groups; professional
associations; academic and policy institutions; and media outlets. Political parties are also
included, although they straddle civil society and the state if they are represented in parliament.
The institutions of governance in the three domains (state, civil society and the private sector)
must be designed to contribute to sustainable human development by establishing the political,
legal, economic and social circumstances for poverty reduction, job creation, environmental
protection and the advancement of women.
Much has been written about the characteristics of efficient government, successful businesses
and effective civil society organisations, but the characteristics of good governance defined in
societal terms remain elusive. The characteristics?
• Participation - All men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either
directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests. Such
broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to
participate constructively.
• Rule of law - Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, particularly the
laws on human rights.
• Transparency - Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes,
institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and
enough information is provided to understand and monitor them.
• Responsiveness - Institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders.
• Consensus orientation - Good governance mediates differing interests to reach a broad
consensus on what is in the best interests of the group and, where possible, on policies
and procedures.
• Equity - All men and women have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.
• Effectiveness and efficiency - Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs
while making the best use of resources.
• Accountability - Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society
organisations are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders. This
accountability differs depending on the organisation and whether the decision is internal
or external to an organisation.
• Strategic vision - Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good
governance and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such
development. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social
complexities in which that perspective is grounded.
Interrelated, these core characteristics are mutually reinforcing and cannot stand alone. For
example, accessible information means more transparency, broader participation and more
effective decision-making. Broad participation contributes both to the exchange of information
needed for effective decision-making and for the legitimacy of those decisions. Legitimacy, in
turn, means effective implementation and encourages further participation. And responsive
institutions must be transparent and function according to the rule of law if they are to be
equitable.
These core characteristics represent the ideal - and no society has them all. Even so, UNDP
believes that societies should aim, through broad-based consensus-building, to define which of
the core features are most important to them, what the best balance is between the state and the
market, how each socio-cultural and economic setting can move from here to there.
UNDP is faced increasingly with post-crisis situations and disintegrating societies. For them, the
issue is not developing good governance - it is building the basic institutions of governance. The
first step is towards reconciliation - building society's ability to carry on a dialogue on the
meaning of governance and the needs of all citizens.
Relationships between governance and human development
Each domain of governance - the state, the private sector and civil society - has a unique role in
promoting sustainable human development (see box overleaf).
The state
In countries where electoral processes exist, the state is composed of an elected government and
an executive branch. The state's functions are manifold - among them, being the focus of the
social contract that defines citizenship, being the authority that is mandated to control and exert
force, having responsibility for public services and creating an enabling environment for
sustainable human development. The latter means establishing and maintaining stable, effective
and fair legal-regulatory frameworks for public and private activity. It means ensuring stability
and equity in the marketplace. It means mediating interests for the public good. And it means
providing effective and accountable public services. In all four roles, the state faces a challenge -
ensuring that good governance addresses the concerns and needs of the poorest by increasing the
opportunities for people to seek, achieve and sustain the kind of life they aspire to.
The state, of course, can do much in such areas as upholding the rights of the vulnerable,
protecting the environment, maintaining stable macroeconomic conditions, maintaining
standards of public health and safety for all at an affordable cost, mobilising resources to provide
essential public services and infrastructure and maintaining order, security and social harmony.
State institutions can also empower the people they are meant to serve - providing equal
opportunities and ensuring social, economic and political inclusion and access to resources. But
people can be empowered only if their legislatures, electoral processes and legal and judicial
systems work properly. Parliaments of freely and fairly elected members representing different
parties are crucial to popular participation and government accountability. Effective legal and
judicial systems protect the rule of law and the rights of all. Open elections mean public
confidence and trust - and so political legitimacy. States should also decentralise political and
economic systems to be more responsive to citizens' demands and to changing economic
conditions.
In developed and developing countries alike, the state is being compelled to redefine its role in
social and economic activity - to reduce it, reorient it, reconfigure it. The pressures for change
stem from three sources:
• The private sector wants a more conducive market environment and a better balance
between state and market.
• Citizens want increased accountability and responsiveness from government, as well as
greater decentralisation.
• Global pressures from supranationals and worldwide social and economic trends are
challenging the identity and nature of the state.
The private sector
The state is a big force for development - but it is not the only one. Sustainable human
development depends in part on creating jobs that provide enough income to improve living
standards. Most states now recognise that the private sector is the primary source of
opportunities for productive employment. Economic globalisation is fundamentally changing the
ways in which industries and enterprises operate. In many developing countries, private
enterprise must be encouraged and supported to be more transparent and competitive in the
international marketplace.
Equitable growth, gender balance, environmental preservation, expansion of the private sector
and responsible and effective participation in international commerce cannot be achieved by the
market alone, however. States can foster private sector development that is sustainable by:
• Creating a stable macroeconomic environment.
• Maintaining competitive markets.
• Ensuring that the poor (especially women) have easy access to credit.
• Nurturing enterprises that generate the most jobs and opportunities.
• Attracting investment and helping to transfer knowledge and technologies, particularly to
the poor.
• Enforcing the rule of law.
• Providing incentives for human resource development.
• Protecting the environment and natural resources.
Civil society
Civil society also has to protect the rights of all citizens. As the state and the private sector are
being reshaped and their relationships redefined, civil society is changing in important ways.
Unresponsive government and unrelenting economic and social pressure have undermined some
traditional civil society organisations and strengthened others - and in many cases forced people
to organise in new ways. Civil society is thus more than just society. It is the part of society that
connects individuals with the public realm and the state - it is the political face of society.
Civil society organisations channel people's participation in economic and social activities and
organise them into more powerful groups to influence public policies and gain access to public
resources, especially for the poor. They can provide checks and balances on government power
and monitor social abuses. They also offer opportunities for people to develop their capacities
and improve their standards of living - by monitoring the environment, assisting the
disadvantaged, developing human resources, helping communication among business people.
More fundamentally, civic networks ease the dilemmas of collective action by institutionalising
social interaction, reducing opportunism, fostering trust and making political and economic
transactions easier. Well-developed civic networks also amplify flows of information - the basis
for reliable political, economic and social collaboration and public participation of civil society
members. These relationships and social norms make up a nation's social capital.
Civil society organisations do not always pursue the qualities of good governance. Nor are they
always the most effective development agents. That is why states, while recognising and
protecting the democratic rights of civil society organisations, must also ensure that the rules of
law and values that reflect societal norms are adhered to. Democratic institutions, particularly
local ones, can be important in ensuring that all in society have a voice, as well as ensuring that
there are transparent and fair ways to reach consensus.
Like private enterprises, civil society organisations need adequate capacities to fulfill their
potential. They also need an enabling environment, including a legislative and regulatory
framework that guarantees the right of association, incentives to facilitate support and ways for
civil society organisations to be involved in public policy-making and implementation.
Strengthening the enabling environment for sustainable human development thus depends not
only on a state that governs well and a private sector that provides jobs that generate income. It
also depends on civil society organisations that make political and social interaction easier and
that mobilise society to participate in economic, social and political activities.
The global context
The transformation from command to market-oriented economies, the emergence of democratic
political regimes in the former Soviet Union, the rapid development and global proliferation of
new technologies, the pervasive spread of telecommunications systems, the growing importance
of knowledge-based industries and skills and the continuing integration of the world economy
through trade and investment - all these have created the foundation for a new age of sustainable
human development. But all carry risks as well. Is it to be a breakthrough or a breakdown?
Changes in the world's economic, political and social systems have indeed brought
unprecedented improvements in human living conditions in both developed and developing
countries. Consider the profound breakthroughs in communications, transport, agriculture,
medicine, genetic engineering, computerisation, environmentally friendly energy systems,
political structures, peace settlements. The list goes on.
But these changes also bring new uncertainties and challenges as the world steps into the 21st
century. Signs of breakdown are everywhere: disintegration of families; destruction of
indigenous societies; degradation and annihilation of plant and animal life; pollution of rivers,
oceans and the atmosphere; crime, alienation and substance abuse; higher unemployment; and a
widening gap in incomes and capabilities. Not a pretty picture.
The trend towards globalisation deserves special attention. It is manifest in the growth of
regional blocs that cooperate in such areas as trade and legal frameworks, in the power of
intergovernmental bodies such as the World Trade Organization and in the spread of
transnational corporations. Globalisation has profound implications for governance the final
impact of which we cannot yet determine. First is the increasing marginalisation of certain
population groups. Those who do not have access to the technological/information revolution are
in danger of becoming part of a structural underclass. Second is the erosion of state sovereignty
as transnational bodies increasingly mediate national concerns and press for universal laws.
Third is the increased globalisation of social and economic problems, such as crime, narcotics,
infectious diseases and the migration of labour. Finally, international capital and trade are
decreasingly accountable to sovereign states.
Governance can no longer be considered a closed system. The state's task is to find a balance
between taking advantage of globalisation and providing a secure and stable social and economic
domestic environment, particularly for the most vulnerable. Globalisation is also placing
governments under greater scrutiny, leading to improved state conduct and more responsible
economic policies.
Because each domain of governance - state, private sector, civil society - has strengths and
weaknesses, the pursuit of good governance requires greater interaction among the three to
define the right balance among them for sustainable people-centred development. Given that
change is continuous, the ability for the three domains to continuously interact and adjust must
be built-in, thus allowing for long-term stability. UNDP's Initiatives for Change recognises that
the relationships among government, civil society and the private sector:
are key determinants in whether a nation is able to create and sustain equitable
opportunities for all of its people. If a government does not function efficiently and
effectively, scarce resources will be wasted. If it does not have legitimacy in the eyes of
the people, it will not be able to achieve its goals or theirs. If it is unable to build
national consensus around these objectives, no external assistance can help bring them
about. If it is unable to foster a strong social fabric, the society risks disintegration and
chaos. Equally important, if people are not empowered to take responsibility for their
own development within an enabling framework provided by government, development
will not be sustainable.
Developing countries must ensure that everyone can participate in economic and social
development and take advantage of globalisation. They must build a political system that
encourages government, political, business and civic leaders to articulate and pursue objectives
that are centred around people and a system that promotes public consensus on these objectives.
What role can UNDP play in this?
We are already doing much. As of 1995 a third of our resources were allocated for governance.
Ongoing development cooperation in management development and governance, including cost-
sharing, amounts to about $1.3 billion. Management development and governance allocations
vary significantly across regions. In Africa, the Arab States and Eastern Europe and the CIS, the
largest total contribution (UNDP and cost-sharing) is allocated to aid management and
coordination. Within the Asia and the Pacific region, however, the largest allocation is for
economic and financial management, while the Latin America and the Caribbean region tends to
emphasize planning and support for policy formulation. Within global and interregional
programmes, the largest allocations are those dealing with planning and support for policy
formulation, decentralisation and strengthening civil society.
UNDP policy for governance programming is driven by three major forces:
1. Our mandate We support the implementation of declarations and agreements reached at
global UN conferences, many of which have specific references to governance. The most
recent mandate for governance is Executive Board decision 96/29 in which the Board
endorses the mission statement.
1. Our mission To promote sustainable human development.
1. Our comparative advantage We have institutional strengths that, together, set us apart
from other external partners concerned with governance issues:
• Impartiality - We can work as an agent for change with all actors.
• Customer orientation - We pursue our mandate within national priorities.
• Long time frame - We view development from a long-term perspective and seek to
maintain a presence in programme countries.
• Experience - We have 50 years of experience in capacity development.
• Trust - UNDP has won the trust of governments and other partners in programme
countries.
• Universality - Field presence in 137 countries ensures ongoing dialogue, learning and
cooperation.
Reference; http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/chapter1.htm
Participatory development and good governance
Any debate over "participatory development" and "good governance" is inseparable from the end
of the Cold War, the "lost decade" of the 1980s, and evolving discussions over development
strategies from the economic growth orientation of the 1950s to the structural adjustment and
sustainable development of the 1980s. Since the Cold War's end, donor countries have come to
demand that development aid be more effectively and efficiently implemented and started to
seek new aid strategies capable of garnering the support of their people and of replacing the
strategy based on East-West ideological conflict. There is growing awareness that in order for
aid to have visible effects, to protect human rights, and to promote democratization, donors must
become actively involved in reforms of developing nations' political systems, policies, and
implementing structures. The period since the 1980s has seen a global trend toward political
democratization and pluralism, economic liberalization, and transitions to a market-oriented
economy, although varied from country to country and region to region. In this light, increasing
attention has come to be paid to the importance of broader people's participation.
In December 1989, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)'s
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) released a "Policy Statement on Development
Cooperation in the 1990s." It cited sustainable development, concern for the environment, and
participatory development as the most important issues on the development aid agenda for the
1990s. Addressing the importance of participatory development, it states that stimulating
productive energies of people, encouraging broader participation of all people in productive
processes, and a more equitable sharing of their benefits, must become more central elements in
development strategies and development cooperation.
This strategy is premised on four essential approaches:

1. investment in human resources in the broad sense, including education and training,
meeting the needs for food and health care, and efforts to eradicate AIDS and narcotics
problems;
2. strengthening of political systems, government mechanisms, and legal systems in which
democracy and respect of human rights are secured;
3. effective use not only of central governments, but also of local organizations and self-
government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector; and
4. the establishment of open and competitive market economy structures to mobilize
individual initiative and dynamic private enterprise.
This document is the report of our study on many related questions in the context of this
international debate:
1. Why is it necessary to incorporate the concepts of participatory development and good
governance into the implementation of Japan's aid to developing countries?
2. How should they be incorporated?
3. What should be taken into account in the actual process of aid planning and
implementation?
4. What specific types of aid will promote participatory development and good governance
in developing countries?
5. What are the relevant challenges and points to be borne in mind when implementing aid?
What is participatory development?
The objective of economic and social development in developing countries is to set in motion a
process of self-reliant and sustainable growth through which social justice can be achieved.
Development within a developing society aims, we believe, at building into society the
mechanisms that will ultimately permit self-reliant growth without foreign assistance, at
sustaining stable growth patterns for economic development in harmony with the environment,
and at providing equal and appropriate opportunities to take part in development to overcome
income gaps, regional disparities, and inequalities between men and women.
For this to be possible, the central focus of development is not necessarily to boost production of
material goods; instead, it should be to foster and enhance people's capability to have a role in
their society's development. To this end, people should be willingly involved in a wide range of
development activities, as agents and beneficiaries of development. It is this participation that is
important. We believe it is needed both as a goal and as a tool of development.
Our study committee regards participatory development as an approach to development that is

designed to enhance sustainability and self-reliance and to achieve social justice through
improvements in the quality of people's participation. For us, the focal point of participatory
development should be the qualitative enhancement of participation in local societies which can
be defined as groups of rural communities and as administrative and developmental units.
The government-led development approach adopted by many developing countries beginning in

the 1950s and 1960s was, on the one hand, effective and efficient as a method of planned and
concentrated investment of scarce resources into industry. Given insufficient participatory
capabilities of local people and local societies, however, it tended on the other hand to put the
intended beneficiaries of development these very local people and societies in a passive position.
This government-led approach to development left intact, or even widened, deep-rooted
problems including economic and social disparities between social classes, between genders,
between regions, and between urban and rural areas, in effect reinforcing the position of the
classes and regions that benefited from development. Regrettably, this has undermined and
counteracted the effectiveness and sustainability of development projects and of development
itself.
Participatory development is not an attempt to replace the top-down development approach with
a local-community-led approach. Rather, it is a viewpoint that simultaneously stresses the need
for the government-led approach in terms of national-level economic planning and coordination
of development planning and the demerits of widening disparities and worsening poverty
inherent in that approach when used alone. Participatory development attempts to introduce a
bottom-up style of development in order to remedy the government-led approach's shortcomings,
specifically by focusing on qualitative improvements in local society's participation.
This participation must not be transient; it must entail the sustainable upgrading of participation
quality. For this to happen, the underlying conditions must be met to facilitate the long-term
process of participation and its self-reliant sustainability. The long-term process of participation
cited here is: raising the awareness of local people, forming community groups, upgrading their
requisite resource management abilities, and creating norms or internalizing their mechanisms,
and improving capabilities for external negotiations. The shaping and planning of this
participatory process requires both a long-term vision and a willingness to selectively improve
and bolster traditional community systems as tools of development. Support from NGOs is
needed to help accumulate the organizational learnings and experiences of local groups and to
train leaders.
To create the conditions for promoting sustainable participation, governments must create and
adapt basic legislation and institutions that guarantee political and economic freedoms as well as
strive to meet a broader range of basic human needs (BHN: food, housing, health and medical
care, education, etc.). Governments also need to relax regulations in order to remove obstacles to
economic participation, improve financial management, build infrastructure, and train business
people and entrepreneurs. These are important components of good governance (discussed
below), which is the basis of participatory development.
What is good governance?
As the basic premise for discussing good governance, this study committee has decided to define
governance from its functional aspect: whether governments achieve their stated objectives
effectively and efficiently? We regard "good governance" as such that should help countries to
achieve sustainable and self-reliant development and social justice. Good governance can
therefore be understood as comprising two concepts: the ideal orientation of a state that works
best to achieve self-reliant and sustainable development and social justice; and the ideal
functioning of government that operates most effectively and efficiently.
The key point of the former, i.e., the ideal orientation of a state, hinges on whether the state's
basic attitudes are democratically oriented. Elements contributing to this include, for example,
the legitimacy and accountability of the government, the securing of human rights, local
autonomy and devolution of power, and civilian control of the military.
The latter, the functioning of the government, depends on whether a government has the requisite
political and administrative structures and mechanisms and the capability to function effectively
and efficiently. Elements contributing to the latter concept of good governance include the basic
laws and institutions of a nation, the administrative competence and transparency,
decentralization of its administration, and the creation of an appropriate market environment; all
of these are needed to support people's participation in every aspect of politics, the economy, and
society. These are therefore necessary components of good governance as "the government
functioning as the basis for participatory development."
The relationship between participatory development and good governance
Participatory development and good governance are related in the following way: participatory
development, with its central focus on raising the quality of participation by local societies and
thus better achieving self-reliant and sustainable development and social justice, is one important
form of people-oriented development. Good governance is the foundation of participatory
development inasmuch as it provides the government functions needed to promote participation
and create the environment in which participatory processes take place.
Yet good governance as a function of government does not refer solely to support for
participatory development: as participatory processes evolve, good governance develops into
such functioning that supports wider and more mature people's participation. In this sense,
participatory development promotes good governance in its turn. The projection of the concept
of good governance onto the national system--an orientation of a state--then progressively boosts
people's trust in their government, inasmuch as, through good governance, government services
improve in effectiveness and efficiency. Thus in the long run, good governance evolves into
stronger aspirations for further democratization. The strength of a state's desire for democracy
also influences the process of formation of political and administrative structures and
government's capability to translate this national stance into action. In turn, this, too, influences
the evolution of participatory development. Participatory development and good governance are
consequently interrelated, as are the two component elements of good governance, the ideal
orientation of the state and the ideal functioning of government.
How should participatory development and good governance be made a part of Japanese
ODA?
Participatory development and good governance should not be added as a new field of Japanese
ODA but should underlie all aid as part of its conceptual basis.
A tide of political democratization and economic liberalization based on competitive principles
has been sweeping the world and stimulating, in its wake, the drive toward a new role for
government. A shift is also occurring in development strategies, away from a single focus on
economic growth and toward greater emphasis on sustainable development. Many countries,
moreover, are becoming aware (albeit to varying degrees) of the need to provide opportunities
for broader participation as a complement to government-led development approaches. Yet in
consideration of the present widening disparities in developing countries such as those between
the rich and the poor groups of society, it is necessary to review past methods of promoting
economic and social development in developing nations.
The points to examine are namely: (i) whether local societies, the assumed beneficiaries of
development, have adequately reaped the rewards, and whether the capability of local people and
communities to participate has been fostered in such a way as to compensate for the deficiencies
of the government-led approach, (ii) whether arrangements within the framework of top-down
decision making and the government functions that support it could have worked to narrow gaps
and promote participation by local societies, and (iii) whether development aid has stimulated
developing countries themselves to remedy the distortions at their roots.
Japan's aid projects have been implemented in a wide range of fields and are producing tangible
results. These projects have involved the cultivation of human resources, for development
practitioners and leaders engaged in development tasks in developing countries, improvement of
social services, and infrastructure building. More recently, they have expanded to include areas
recognized as being especially important in development: environmental conservation, the
rectification of regional disparities, and the fulfillment of basic human needs (BHNs). In order
for Japan to ensure that its development aid takes root more firmly and contributes more
significantly to the realization of social justice and sustainable and self-reliant development by
developing countries in the future, it is important for Japan to include the concept of
participatory development in the scope of its aid and to implement aid in such a way that
developing nations' governments promote participatory development voluntarily and are capable
of carrying out good governance.
In other words, it is extremely important to clarify how the results of development projects have
contributed to human development in aid planning, implementation, and evaluation. To clarify
this, it is necessary both to strive to more accurately understand the economic and social
conditions and needs of the intended ultimate beneficiaries and reflect them in aid planning and
implementation and to give support for the building of community organizations and institutions
to enable more people to take advantage of aid achievements and participate in development
themselves at the local and regional level. It is also important to assist recipient governments to
create organizations and institutions that will enable them to promote policies that improve
people's social capabilities. Aid to strengthen the public sector must create the structures and
foster the competence needed by governments to assume roles as effectively and efficiently to
promote their people's broad-based capabilities and to respond to the people's expression and
will.
Basic perceptions of participatory development and good governance in Japanese ODA
Japan's basic aid philosophy, which is based on previous efforts made at Japanese project sites
and concepts basic to Japanese aid in the ODA Charter approved by the Japanese cabinet in June
1992, are summarized in the following four points:
1. Japan's ODA must seek to improve economic and social capabilities for people as agents
of development through broad-based participation in aid implementation in developing
nations (the participatory development approach). Aid aiming at social justice and at
ensuring the sustainability and self-reliance of development is aid that will build the
foundations for democracy in developing countries.
2. As stated clearly in the ODA Charter, aid must respect developing countries' ownership
of development by assisting their self-help efforts. That is why it is extremely important
for development to be conducted through aid recipients' own initiatives and capabilities.
For this to be possible, it is necessary to provide aid to the point where governments can
better equip themselves to promote their own participatory development. At the same
time, aid project goals must be set with an awareness of the degree to which inhabitants,
local communities, and other independent organizations are taking part in development
and how much progress has been made toward such participation.
3. In light of the historical, social, and cultural diversity of developing countries, the ideal
form of democracy will not be the same for each developing nation. To promote
democratization, it is therefore necessary to be aware of the differences in initial
conditions, pace, and methods of development. It must also be realized that a country's
democratization should be realized by its people, at the pace and in the manner decided
by its people. For this reason, Japan's aid must focus on building the foundations of
democratization in developing countries through aid to promote participatory
development and encourage good governance.
4. In order to incorporate participatory development and good governance into aid, Japan
must fully understand the individual diversity of cultures, traditions, and social structures
of communities in developing countries and respect beneficiaries' initiatives. It must be
understood that the effects of enhancing people's sustainable participatory capabilities
and of government services do not become visible in the short run. In order not to impede
development's sustainability and self-reliance in pursuit of short-term aid efficiency, aid
schemes and systems must incorporate a long-term perspective and flexible values.
Promoting democratization, securing human rights, and reducing excessive military

expenditures
The ODA Charter advocates as a basic principle of aid the paying of careful attention to recipient
nations' democratization, securing of basic human rights and freedoms, and trends in military
expenditures. How should Japan's aid respond to these points from the perspective of
participatory development and good governance?
It is vital for developing countries to build a basis on which to promote more genuine
democratization, respect for human rights, and reduction of excessive military expenditures. In
accordance with its ODA Charter, Japan must continually bear in mind democratization trends in
a developing nation as a whole and operate positive and negative linkage, as it has in the past. At
the same time, it must carry out "promotional aid for democratization" to support the building of
a basis for democratization and more effective responses to encourage developing countries to
promote democratization themselves.
Promotional aid for democratization aid refers to Japanese constant support for the construction
of an appropriate basis for contributions to promotion of democratization, securing of human
rights, reduction of excessive military expenditure, etc., that are tailored to that country in line
with Japan's approach to participatory development and good governance. As we will explain
later, this is done both through aid to promote participatory development in recipient countries
and through aid to promote good governance for the basis of participatory development.
How Japan should implement aid for participatory development and good governance
In order to discuss specific Japanese ODA programs to support participatory development and
good governance in developing countries, it is necessary to distinguish the parts that should
become objectives of aid in the framework of Japan's ODA from the aid specifically designed to
promote participatory development and good governance.
Japan's development aid objectives have two aspects, one focusing on economic and social
development, the other on democratization. We believe that Japanese aid, the product of these
objectives, should contribute to recipients' self-reliant and sustainable development and greater
social justice; it should also contribute to the formation of a state whose legitimacy derives from
the people's will, while securing for human rights, accountability for state actions, and the
potential for achieving devolution of power.
In other words, Japan should conduct aid for ensuring participatory development and good
governance with the goal of realizing sustainable, self-reliant development and social justice and
as a step toward fostering equal opportunity for participation and the people's well-being, i.e.,
laying the basis for democratization
Three specific types of aid are needed to achieve these aid objectives:
1. aid to promote participatory development,
2. aid to promote good governance as the basis for participatory development, and
3. aid for good governance to promote democratization.
The first category, aid to promote participatory development, consists of three subcategories of
goals. The first consists of strengthening people's groups and other grassroots organizations that
form the basis for participation and establishing and enhancing their own production and
development capacity, independent management abilities, and skills in external negotiations. The
second is to amplify the self-reliant capabilities of socially disadvantaged people, including rural
and urban poor, who more than any other group tend to be excluded from development, by
improving their access to basic education and creating job opportunities. The third is to promote
recipient governments' potential for participatory development, i.e., their competence and
willingness at the central and local government levels to listen to the voices of local people and
increase their opportunities for participation.
The second category, aid to promote good governance as the basis for participatory development,
has five subcategories of goals supporting good governance needed to secure the resources and
opportunities for people's participation that underlie participatory development:
• establishing laws and institutions,
• strengthening administrative competence,
• clarifying and ensuring the transparency of administrative responsibility,
• promoting decentralization, and
• building a market environment.
The components of the third category, aid for good governance to promote democratization, vary
depending on the directions, speed, and process of democratization chosen by the country; it
should not be the imposition of "democracy" under external pressure. Here, we are thinking
about aid to back up democratization efforts when a specific developing country has identified
institutional and political transitions aimed at the achievement of democratization through, for
example, the resolution of a civil war or the introduction of multiparty system, and has directly
requested aid for that purpose. Three aid goal subcategories are conceivable: assistance in
establishing electoral systems, stronger protection for human rights, and the establishment and
strengthening of freedom of speech and the press.
We have compiled here some examples that can be referred to in the formulation of specific aid
programs in accordance with the three above-mentioned aid categories.
Given the diversity of developing countries, it would be impossible for every conceivable type of
aid to be fully covered by these sample programs; in some cases, different programs of aid need
to be integrated simultaneously, instead of responding to a need through a single program one by
one. Some countries may indeed no longer require the types of aid mentioned in these examples.
Individual consideration therefore is necessary to determine which actual aid programs should be
selected or combined and in what sequence they should be implemented in the relevant
developing country in accordance with its initial economic, social, and political conditions and
the stage of people's participation in its development.
Issues and considerations in aid implementation
The following issues and considerations should be examined in connection with the
incorporation of the above-described basic perceptions into Japan's ODA and the provision of
specific types of aid:
• Emphasis on dialogue between developing countries and other donor nations and
organizations,
• Establishment of a basis for strengthening ties with local NGOs,
• Consolidation and application of Japan's experience in good governance,
• Development of standards and methods for evaluating participatory development and
good governance aid,
• Monitoring and information gathering about democratization trends in recipient nations
to implement aid in accordance with the basic principles of the ODA Charter,
• Training of participatory development and good governance staff,
• Promotion of more open Japanese ODA implementation structures,
• Improvement and application of Japanese ODA implementation methods designed to
support local residents' self efforts toward participatory development,
• Introduction of social analysis to promote participatory development in the aid project
cycle.
Source: Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Participatory Development and Good
Governance Report of the Aid Study Committee
Louise Niven
• 2 December 2010, 21:12

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