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Luis E. Navarro-Serment
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Introduction
The main focus of our research is in the exploration of the effectiveness of a group of
small robots employing distributed sensing platforms. We believe that with proper
coordination, a set of small, disparate entities can effectively achieve the
functionality of a larger robot while retaining the ability to operate in unknown
domains. However, with small size comes the disadvantages of limited mobility range,
limited energy availability, and possibly reduced sensing, communication and
computation ability due to size and power constraints. Because limitations in size are
immediately extended to power and processing capabilities, it was realized early that
our robots would have to coordinate and cooperate to achieve any useful tasks. To
that end, we designed and constructed a team of heterogeneous, centimeter-scale
robots and construction of a team of centimeter sized robots called Millibots. The
robot team exploits modular sensing, processing and mobility to achieve a wide range
of tasks that include mapping and exploration as well as support for fire rescue. From
the operator’s point of view, the team can be controlled as a single logical entity. We
focus on how the team can exploit communication and sensing to perform missions
such as mapping, exploration, surveillance and support for rescue operations.
To achieve extended team operation in the face of uncertainty, we have developed a
localization system that uses sonar-based distance measurements to determine the
positions of all the robots in the group. In [1] we describe how the team coordinates
sensing and action to utilize localization and maintain group position. Furthermore,
by incorporating Bayesian techniques in data fusion, we are able to integrate
individual robot sensing to generate composite area maps. This technique is further
extended to merge ranging and heat information to detect and isolate potential warm
bodies in a fire rescue scenario.
In this document we describe the most recent sensor platform for the Millibots: the
Directional Infrared Detector Module (DIRM). Heat sources, such as open flames, hot
zones or unconscious people, are usually worth to be explored. Particularly, detection
of people and people activity could be a mission itself. Objects that generate heat
also generate infrared radiation (IR), which can be easily detected. For this reason we
designed a directional IR detector module (DIRM), which provides the Millibots with
means of increasing their sphere of awareness when exploring an uncharted space
(Figure 1).
The Directional Infrared Detector Module
(DIRM)
The heart of the DIRM is a pyroelectric infrared sensor (often known as PIR sensor).
Pyroelectric sensors are made of ferroelectric crystals that generate a surface electric
charge when exposed to IR. However, a pyroelectric sensor only produces an
electrical output when the level of incident radiation changes. Electrical output is a
function of the rate of change in detector temperature rather than temperature
itself. This characteristic is one of the reasons why pyroelectric sensors are widely
used as thermal motion detectors for detecting people. However, if the incident
radiation changes slowly, the electrical output of the sensor will be small and may not
be detected regardless of the magnitude of the source. To enable the detection of
immobile heat sources, we have designed a DIRM that is capable of detecting both
mobile and immobile heat sources such as warm bodies or overheating equipment.
The sensor is mounted to a rotary platform that smoothly rotates and sweeps the
sensor across an arc of about 170 degrees. If the sensor points towards a heat source
while sweeping the area, it will produce an electrical output in response to the
change of incident radiation.
Design considerations
Although the concept of rotating pyroelectric sensors is simple, several factors
complicate the detection process. First, pyroelectric sensors below a temperature
of Tc, known as the Curie point, exhibit a large spontaneous electrical polarization.
This behavior is analogous to piezoelectric materials and can cause the sensor to
produce spurious signals when subject to acoustical or mechanical excitation. Smooth
motor operation and proper detector isolation are required to minimize this effect.
Secondly, electrically induced noise produced by the motor as it rotates affects the
signal conditioning circuit of the sensor, consequently degrading the detection
quality. We included a dedicated voltage regulator to filter out electrical noise and
provide clean power to the module. For example, Figure 2 shows the current drawn
from the servo while sweeping across a full 170 degrees arc. The current supplied by
the battery increases considerably, from less than 10 mA to over 350 mA. This is a
primary source of noise, which had to be taken into account. Finally, the third factor
to consider is the incident radiation itself. We are primarily interested in the
detection of heat sources. However, the pyroelectric sensor detects only a
temperature change, regardless of whether this change was positive or negative.
Although all bodies tend to reach a thermal equilibrium, under normal operation
conditions it is likely to detect several temperature variations inside the same room.
Consider for instance a normal office, in which the air conditioner is set to keep the
room temperature at 25°C. The temperature inside the room on the average
measures 25°C; however, we can measure warmer temperatures in areas closer to the
computer monitor or a window bathed in sunlight, and cooler temperatures in areas
closer to the vents. When the pyroelectric sensor is swept across this office, it
produces a distinct output whenever the temperature of the zone it is crosses either
cooler or warmer regions. For this reason, we adjusted the module so that it only
produces a response from large variations in incident IR.
Fig. 2. R/C servo current
Functional description
Figure 3 shows a block diagram of the DIRM. A Fresnel lens captures the incident IR
and focuses it towards the pyroelectric sensor increasing the sensitivity of the sensor
and improving its directional response. The resultant signal passes through a low pass
filter, which removes any high frequency noise generated by mechanical vibration.
The output of the filter is then fed into a differentiator, which produces an output
voltage proportional to the rate of change of the incident IR. The frequency response
of this differentiator is also rolled off at high frequencies, further reducing the
effects of undesired signals. The window comparator produces a logic output
whenever the rate of change of incident IR exceeds a given set point. An 8-bit
PIC16F84 microcontroller processes the logic signals and controls the rotating
platform and reports information to the team leader.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the DIRM
The DIRM can sweep an arc θ = 173° in approximately 5 sec. This arc is divided into
14 segments; each segment is associated with a zone zi, , of length θ /14
degrees. The microcontroller samples the output of the window comparator about 10
times per zone and records the corresponding digital output. Data is reported back to
the team leader in a message containing two bytes, which contain the digital output
associated with each one of the 14 bearing zones.
Figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of the DIRM. The heart of the module is the PIC
microcontroller. This device is in charge of parsing commands received from the host
computer via the RF transceiver, controlling the servomotor, sampling the
pyroelectric sensor output, controlling the temperature sensor and emitting signals
for the localization system [2]. The microcontroller is In-Circuit Programmable;
connector J2 is used for that purpose, along with the switches S1 and S2. The
pyroelectric sensor (Eltec 442-3) is connected to J1. The signal conditioning circuit, a
voltage reference and the window comparator are built around a single LM324 quad
op-amp (U1). An inverter (U4) serves as a driver for the ultrasonic transducer (XTAL2).
This transducer produces localization signals [2].
Similarly, a thermal occupancy map would only indicate the direction of the heat
source but provide no indication of the size or distance to the source. However, by
fusing the information from both sensor types together, the team is able to assess
that there is an object of interest located in the corner of the derived map.
Furthermore, if properly equipped, the team can further exploit its heterogeneous
nature by directing a robot with a video camera to return a snap shot of the area. By
exploiting multiple sensor modalities, the sum of the team's combined experience can
provides invaluable assistance in many areas.
References
[1] Grabowski, R., Navarro-Serment, L.E., Paredis, C.J.J. and Khosla, P.K., 2000.
Heterogeneous Teams of Modular Robots for Mapping and Exploration. Autonomous
Robots. (special issue on heterogeneous and distributed robotics). Volume 8, No. 3, June
2000. pp. 293–308.
[2] Navarro-Serment, L.E, Paredis, C.J.J., and Khosla, P.K. 1999. "A Beacon System for the
Localization of Distributed Robotic Teams," In Proceedings of the International Conference
on Field and Service Robotics, Pittsburgh, PA, August 29-31, 1999.
[3] http://www.sharpmeg.com/products/opto/pdf/gp2d02.pdf