MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND YOUTH

MOLDOVA STATE UNIVERSITY

FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE DEPARTMENT
ENGLISH PHILOLOGY CHAIR

GRADUATION PAPER

The Use of Slang in Modern American Press.

Written by:
The third-year student
Group 314
Safronova Alexandra
Scientific advisor:
Dr. Assistant Professor
Dumitru Melenciuc

Chisinau 2008
CONTENTS
Abstract……………………………………………………………….………....3
Introduction...........................................................................................................4
Chapter 1 The Slang in Modern English
1.1. The Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary…………………7
1.2. An Attempt to Define the Term “Slang”..................................................9
1.3 The Origin of Slang..................................................................................12
1.4. Characteristics of Slang…………………………………………….…...15
1.5. The American Variant of the English Language…..…………………...19
1.6. Attitudes towards Slang...........................................................................21
1.7. The Newspaper Functional Style.............................................................23
Chapter 2. The Peculiarities of the Use of Slang in Modern American Press.
2.1. The Use of Slang in Different Kinds of Articles...……………………...25
2.2. The Means of Informal Word-creation………………………………….27
2.3. The Peculiarities of the Use of Slang in Different Kinds of Articles..….32
2.3.1. The Gossip Column………………………………………….........36
2.3.2. The Announcements……………………………………………....38
2.3.3. The Crime Reports…………………………………………........ ..39
2.3.4. The Editorials on Political Topics……………………………...….40
2.3.5. The Reports…………………………………………………..….…41
2.3.6. The Editorials on Social Problems…………………………………42
2.3.7 The Sport Reports…………………………………………..…….…43
2.3.8. The Reasons for the Use of Slang in Modern Press………..……....44
Conclusion...............................................................................................................45
Summary…………………………………………………………………………..47
Bibliography............................................................................................................48
Appendix……………………………………………………………………….….50

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Abstract
Safronova Alexandra (2008). The Use of Slang in Modern American Press Qualification Paper.
Moldova State University Chisinau. - 87 pages.
The language of modern American press changes rapidly according to the dynamic
environment. The hypothesis suggests that slang words and expressions are frequently used in
modern press to discuss different topics. The study material for the research constitutes the number
of American authentic newspapers and magazines. The purpose of the research analysis is the
following: to investigate all the existing definitions of the term slang, to observe the frequency of
the use of slang in different types of editorials to clarify the functions of slang in different types of
editorials. The methods applied in the study are: comparative analysis of the effects produced by
slang in different types of articles, statistical analysis of the data received, and synthetic analysis of
the qualitative and quantitative results. After realization of our research a lot of interesting
peculiarities of the use of slang in newspapers have been singled out. First of all we found out that
being highly emotional, informative and possessing strong stylistic connotation slang must not be
understood as a symbol of antisocial language. So we can say that the hypothesis of our work
verified and the aim was attained but we went further and got the following conclusions: In the
announcements slang is used to make the editorial more precise and to express the double idea. In
crime reports slang is seldom used as a euphemism. In gossip column the abundance of slang can be
explained by the use of quotations and by the themes discussed there. In editorials about politics it
is used to add a humorous effect while in the editorials about social problems it creates a sarcastic
tone. Slang is used to talk and about good events such as sport. It was also observed that the
journalists having restrictions of time and space tend to use slang as it helps them to express the
idea more exactly and shorter than literary words.

3
Introduction
This paper is devoted to the analysis of the use of slang in modern American press, its
peculiarities, means of its creation and its use in different kinds of articles.
The reason to choose the topic is determined by the increasing influence of the press on the
society. It plays a very important part in the social, political and cultural life of the people. That is
why we decided to investigate the language of newspapers and magazines.
Our work is an attempt to study the particular features of the use of slang in modern press.
We were interested in the way the slang words are used, the way of slang word creation and the
distribution of the slang words through different types of newspaper editorials.
The hypothesis set in our work was that slang words and expressions can be found in the
editorials consecrated to the various themes and that the field of application of the slang words is
much large than we could expect.
For the attainment of our aim and examination of the hypothesis the following working
objectives have been set:
1. To investigate all the existing definitions of the term slang.
2. To ascertain the peculiarities of the Newspaper Functional style.
3. To find out the major types of informal word and phrase creation.
4. To observe the frequency of the use of slang in different types of editorials.
5. To clarify the functions of slang in different types of editorials.
The methods applied in the study include:
Comparative Analysis of the effects produced by slang in different types of articles.
Statistical Analysis of the data received.
Synthetic Analysis of the qualitative and quantitative results.
The main goal of the study was to prove that slang can fulfill real communicative functions
and serve communicative needs.
The research material is based on the number of American newspapers and magazines.
The novelty of our theme consists in the investigation of the stylistic peculiarities of the
slang words in combination with their linguistic features. It is very important to find out whether the
slang can be used in press or not and if the newspapermen should be claimed for the use of informal
words and expressions.
The logic of the investigation prompted the following structure of the paper: The study
consists of an Abstract; Introduction; two Chapters; Conclusions; Summary and Bibliography.

4
 The Abstract consists of linked parts (background, problem, methods, results and
implications). The Background describes briefly the context to the study where the problem is
formulated. The problem includes the purpose of the study under investigation and some specific
research objectives and hypothesis. The methods outline the approach taken and the methods use to
investigate the problem. The results give major interpretations and findings. The implications state
the contribution of the work and its implications.
The Introduction provides the main goal, tasks and objectives of the Graduation Paper. It
also includes the methods applied in the study and its practical application that informs about where
and by whom the work is to be used. It includes as well the structure of the paper and its short
description
The first Chapter of the paper gives a general overview upon the problem and states the
main characteristics of „slang”. It dwells upon general knowledge about the phenomenon called
„slang”. It also discusses the issue of slang synonyms bringing to the attention their features, their
usage and their connection with „slang”. One of the most interesting linguistic phenomenon
stylistically and lexically is slang is at the same time very difficult to define, probably because of its
scope and variety. Although much has been said and written about slang, no one has yet given a
more or less satisfactory definition of the term, nor has it been specified by any linguist who deals
with the problem of the English Vocabulary. Lexicographers Samuel Johnson and Noah Webster
considered it low, crude and despicable. But we should bear in minds the words of the great
American poet Walt Whitman: ”Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of
dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, affections, tastes of long
generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low to ground”. But most consider the
definition given by Carl Sandburg the most interesting and close to reality. He said that: ”Slang is
language that takes off its coat, splits on its hands, and goes to work”.
The first Chapter of the paper also gives a general overview upon the formation of new
slang words and tries to scrutinize the most common word-building means in the non-literary
vocabulary system.
The Second Chapter of our work represents the result of our practical research. We
divided all the examples according to the kind of editorial they were met at, then according to the
way of informal word creation. We observed that generally the informal word-building means fall
into several groups. It was also interesting to find out the different effects the use of slang words
and expressions can produce on the reader. Finally we observed the peculiarities of use of different
means of informal word-creation in all the kinds of editorials.
In the Conclusions the most significant similarities and differences are mentioned as well as
further possibilities for research.

5
 In the Summary the main results of the experimental research are stated and it is aimed at
expressing the whole message briefly for those who want to find out what the study is about.
The Bibliography contains the alphabetical list of the Quoted Literature (the sources used in
the study for theoretical and practical research) and Dictionaries (sources used for checking
grammatical or linguistic mistakes).
In the Appendix are enclosed the examples of slang words and expressions which served as
study material.
To conclude it is important to point out that the theme of the diploma paper is very
interesting and actual for the present moment that is why we hope that the results of our research
would not be wasted. Our work can be interesting for the scholars of English language, students of
the language and for newspapermen, writing in English.

6
 Chapter 1 The Slang in Modern English.
1.1 Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary
The word stock of any language should be presented as a system in order to classify all the existing
words. For linguistic stylistics the special type of systematization is very important. We may
represent all the vocabulary of the English language as a combination of three main layers: the
literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary vocabulary can be divided into
the common literary and the special literary strata. The latest group also has some subdivisions
(terms, poetic words, archaic words, barbarisms and foreign words, literary coinages). In
accordance with the already-mentioned division of language into literary and colloquial, we may
represent the whole of the word-stock of the English language as being divided into 3 main layers
[12; 62, 64]:
 the literary layer;
 the neutral layer;
 the colloquial layer.
The literary and colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a
property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property that unites the
different groups of words within the layer may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer
of words is its bookish character that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the
colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character that makes it unstable, fleeting.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character that makes the layer the most stable of all.
The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English
vocabulary. They have no local or dialectical character. The colloquial layer of words is not
confined to a special locality where it circulates. I.R Galperin marks: “The aspect of the literary
layer is its markedly bookish character.”[12; 72]

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:

 common literary;
 terms and learned words;
 poetic words;
 archaic words;
 barbarisms and foreign words;
 Literary coinages
7
The colloquial vocabulary in its turn is also divided into the common colloquial and special
colloquial sections. And again the special part of the colloquial vocabulary is divided into the
following subgroups:
 common colloquial words;
 slang;
 dialectical words;
 vulgar words;
 jargonisms ;
 professional words;
 Colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term
Standard English Vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary
vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary)
vocabulary.

8
 1.2. An Attempt to Define the Term “Slang”.
Nowadays the cultural frames of our society allow the authors of the modern books to use
vulgar and swear words in their works of quite different style but slang is spread so much that now
can easily be found practically in all kinds of contemporary literary works. If speaking about the
modern press, especially about the “yellow” one we’ll find slang there in abundance. But the use of
slang in every day life is not only the one of the characteristics of criminals; it became a norm even
for high-educated people. “It tends to satisfy a variety of emotional and intellectual needs of
people: as an exercise of wit and humour slang is “jesting language” that gives fresh and pungent
names to things often mentioned in discourse”[23; 64]
I.R. Galperin points out that: “The aspect of literary layer is its lively spoken character.”
[12; 72] The neutral words possess the universal nature and having no stylistic connotation are used
both in literary and colloquial styles. But if the aspects of the special literary vocabulary can be
more or less well defined, the items of the special colloquial vocabulary have no clear
determinations. The notions of jargon, slang, cant, argot are mixed and every linguist gives his
own definition of these. That is why the concept of slang may be considered a question in modern
linguistics. Slang words cannot be distinguished from other words by sound or meaning.
A lot of linguists give slang no chance to appear on the pages of the books while others
remark that possessing a strong stylistic connotation it cannot be excluded from the literature,
being a strong expressive means. The abundance of the definitions of the term leads to the
confusion in comprehending what slang is among the scholars of the language. That is why it is
necessary to try to investigate all the possible variants of explanations of the word “slang”.
The word itself appeared in the middle of the eighteenth century and described the language of
criminals but since then every social group developed its own slang terms. But still some modern
linguists try to restrict the contemporary meaning of the word. Thus J. B. Greenough and C. L.
Kitteridge define slang as follows: “Slang ...is a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always
hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech but continually strating or forcing its way into the
most respectable company”[10; 55.] Even these two linguists who actively dislike slang and call it
“a vagabond language” confess that even the members of “the most respectable company” use it.
We can disagree with this definition because there is a contradiction here: “vagabond language”
can’t be used and known by “respectable” people if didn’t become a part of their own language. So
this definition approves the idea of diffusion of the slang through all our society.
“Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English” affirms that “Slang is a very informal
language that included new and sometimes not polite words and meanings, is often used among
particular groups of people and usually not used in serious speech or writing.” Though the

9
definition is not a very bad now as it does not name those “particular groups of people” criminals
and vagabonds it does not show all the nuances of such commonly used and so hardly definable
word.
Webster’s “New Word dictionary of American Language” provides three entries for the
term:
1. Originally, the specialized vocabulary and idioms of criminals, tramps, etc. the purpose
of which was to disguise from outsiders the meaning of what was said; now usually called cant.
2. The specialized vocabulary and idioms of those in the same work, way of life, etc.; now
usually called shop-talk, argot, jargon.
3. colloquial language that is outside of conventional or standard usage and consists of both
coined words (blurb, whoopoee) and those with hew or extended meanings (rubberneck, sap);
slang develops from the attempt to find fresh and vigorous, colourful, pungent, or humorous
expression, and generally either passes into disuse or comes to have a more formal status.
Here one can see a typical example of an almost insuperable definition because it blends
practically all the subdivisions of special colloquial vocabulary. But still the explanation is not a bad
one because it does not attribute the slang only to the vagabonds and criminals but to other social
groups as well and even notes that slang makes speech fresh and adds to it a humorous effect.
The “New oxford English dictionary” defines slang as follows:
a.) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character;
language of a low and vulgar type.
b) The cant or jargon of a certain class or period;
c) Language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated
speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”
This definition even if taken as a mixture of all the three subsections does not give us an
accurate understanding of the notion slang. Again the negative connotation of the word is clearly
seen while its stylistic functions are neglected. A lot of linguists pejorate the meaning of this term.
This phenomenon was explained by I.R. Galperin in his book “Stylistics” in such a way: “The
attitude of many Englishmen towards the thing called slang is also revealed in the fact that it is
assigned to the class of so-called social evils together with drunkenness, prostitution and the use of
narcotics.”[12;97.]
But there also exist and definitions that lead closer to the better understanding of the notion.
For example “Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Compass” affirms that slang
is “very informal words and expressions that are common in spoken language, especially used by
particular group of people, for example, children, criminals, soldiers, etc.” It is very interesting to
observe that not only the criminals and vagabonds are in the list of the social groups using slang but

10
and the children and soldiers who are not considered to be “social evils”. Moreover children are
mentioned first in this list. So the modern linguists begin to change their attitude towards the
concept of slang if viewed as a whole. But it wouldn’t be right to say that ages ago there were no
people with a positive attitude towards the notion of slang. For example Walt Whitman in 1885
said the following : “Slang ... an attempt of common humanity to escape from bald literalism, and
express itself illimitably ... the wholesome fermentation or education of those processes eternally
active in language, by which froth and specks are thrown up, mostly to pass away, though
occasionally to settle and permanently crystallize.” A very interesting saying which makes the
concept of slang obtain rather a positive than a negative connotation. But the controversial
definition by Eric Partridge comes up to the comprehension of the term “slang”, if applied to the
modern life, closer than all the others. “Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It
originates, nearly always in speech. To coin a term on a written page is almost inevitably to brand
it as a neologism which will either be accepted or become a nonce-word, but, except in the rarest
instances that term will not be slang.”[20;36.] It is really true that slang is more frequently used
than literary words because nowadays it is spoken not only by criminals but and by the groups of
people which can’t be called antisocial. There is another very interesting definition of the term,
given by an American poet, Carl Sandburg: “Slang is the language that takes off its coat, spits on
its hands, and goes to work.”[11; 306.] So the slang must not be understood by us as a symbol of a
language used only by vagabonds and criminals. It is also widely used by workers soldiers and even
children and teenagers. That is why it must not be neglected by writers and journalists. They often
need to develop their own style and tend to use many stylistic devices. The use of slang perfectly
suits these needs. Thus H. Wentworth and S. Flexner in their “Dictionary of American Slang” write:
“Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words to suggest an escape
from the established routine of everyday life. When slang is used our life seems a little fresher and
a little more personal. Also, it is sometimes used for the pure joy of making sounds or even for a
need to attract attention by making noise.” The characteristics of the slang listed by H. Wentworth
and S. Flexner are the ones especially needed by the newspapermen.
Thus coming to a conclusion that no exact definition of the term “slang” exists, it is
important to underline that the attitude to it changes with the time and its stylistic functions are
appreciated by certain groups of modern linguists.

11
1.3. The Origin of Slang.
During the middle ages, certain writers such as Chaucer, William Caxton and William of
Malmesbury represented the regional differences in pronunciations and dialects. The different
dialects and the different pronunciations represented the first meaning for the term “slang”.
However, our present-day meaning for slang did not begin forming until the 16 th or 17th century.
The English Criminal Cant developed in the 16 th century. It was a new kind of speech used by
criminals and cheats, meaning it developed mostly in saloons and gambling houses. The English
Criminal Cant was at first believed to be foreign meaning, scholars thought that it had either
originated in Romania or had a relationship to French. It was slow developing. In fact, out of the
four million people who spoke English, only about ten thousand spoke the English Criminal Cant.
By the end of the 16th century this new style of speaking was considered to be a language without
reason or order. During the 18th century schoolmasters taught pupils to believe that the English
Criminal Cant (which by this time had developed into slang) was not the correct usage of English
and slang was considered to be taboo.
However, slang began to be present in popular plays. The first appearance of the slang was
in a play by Richard Brome and later appeared in poems and songs by Copland. By the 1700’s the
cultural differences in America had begun to influence the English-speaking population and slang
began to expand. Furthermore, certain events happened in the 18th century that helped to the
development of slang such as Westward expansion, the Civil War and the abolitionist movement.
By this time scholars such as Walt Whitman, W.D. Whitney, and Brander Matthews all considered
slang to be the life of the language. Walt Whitman wrote: “slang was a wholesome… of common
humanity to escape the form bald literalism, and express itself illimitably” This was a turning point
of slang. It was starting to escape the harsh criticism of being associated with criminals or
foreigners. It was not until the early 1920’s that slang had gained the interest of popular writers. It
was during the post-World War 1 era, that society gained new attitudes about slang. The new
demand for entertainment, mass-media and slangy fiction appeared.
Today modern American slang has been shaped and reshaped by the different cultures and
the emergence of technology, which has left our society with varieties of slang from extremes like
Street/Drug slang to African-American slang. According to I.R.Galperin, slang seems to mean
everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English.
Slang tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups (for example, loggers,
police, medical professionals, and computer specialists) are prominent originators of both jargon
and slang; other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto
residents, labor unions, citizens-band radiobroadcasters, sports groups, drug addicts, criminals, and

12
even religious denominations (Episcopalians, for example, produced spike, a High Church
Anglican). Slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members. They may thus
contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the
speaker’s background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely adopted
by members of the subculture. At this point slang and jargon overlap greatly. If the subculture has
enough contact with the mainstream culture, its figures of speech become slang expressions known
to the whole society. For example, cat (a sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley (a white man),
The Man (the law), and Uncle Tom (a meek black) all originated in the predominantly black Harlem
district of New York City and have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied
to any geographic region within a country. All languages, countries, and periods of history have
slang. This is true because they all have had words with varying degrees of social acceptance and
popularity.
Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures that
flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena,
varying widely in form and content that depend on the nature of the groups and their relation to
each other and to the dominant culture [ 4; 4]. Slang invades the dominant culture as it seeps out
of various subcultures. Some words fall dead or lie dormant in the dominant culture for long
periods. Others vividly express an idea already latent in the dominant culture and these are
immediately picked up and used. [3; 374]
As time goes by some of them are not longer thought of slang and are used more widely.
Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an
individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with
sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by
others.”[22;10.] If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the
emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will
gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group.
A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant
culture. Thus slang--e.g., "sucker," "honkey," "shave-tail," "jerk"-expresses the attitudes, not always
derogatory, of one group or class toward the values of another. Slang sometimes stems from within
the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behavior, and attitudes; e.g., "shotgun wedding,"
"cake eater," "greasy spoon." Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an
individual speaker or writer who, single-handed (like Horace Walpole, who coined "serendipity"
more than 200 years ago), creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it
is difficult to determine the origin of a slang term. Indeed, all slang words were once cant, jargon,
argot, dialect, nonstandard, or taboo. For example, the American slang to neck (to kiss and caress)

13
was originally student cant; flattop (an aircraft carrier) was originally navy jargon; and pineapple (a
bomb or hand grenade) was originally criminal argot. When subcultures are structurally tied, little
of their language leaks out. Thus the Mafia, in more than a half century of powerful criminal
activity in America, has contributed little slang. When subcultures weaken, contacts with the
dominant culture multiply, diffusion occurs, and their language appears widely as slang. [15; .347]
Criminal narcotic addicts, for example, had a tight subculture and a highly secret argot in the
1940’s; now their terms are used freely by middle-class teenagers, even those with no real
knowledge of drugs
The main sources of slang change from period to period. Thus, in one period of American
slang, frontiersmen, cowboys, hunters, and trappers may have been the main source; during some
parts of the 1920s and '30s the speech of baseball players and criminals may have been the main
source; at other times, the vocabulary of jazz musicians, soldiers, or college students may have been
the main source. A slang expression may suddenly become widely used and as quickly date (23-
skiddoo). It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus, from
omnibus) or with an altered, possibly tamed meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual
connotations). Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic
beverage).
In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up both the circulation and
the demise of slang terms. Television and novels have turned criminal cant into slang (five grand
for $5000). Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Youth subcultures
tend to give birth for many slang words. Drug-related expressions (such as pot and marijuana) were
virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth; and in the
1970s and ’80s they were widely known.

14
1.4. Characteristics of Slang.
Generally slang is formed by root-words. These are the words of German origin and some
words borrowed from the old French language in 13-15 th centuries. Later other tendencies of
originating of the new slang words appeared. “Informal words or phrases may be created by using
the existing neutral elements in special senses, usually transferred by metaphor, metonymy and
simile, and, in some cases, by antonomasia and hyperbole.” “The change of existing words can
also be achieved by the extension and narrowing of meaning.”[23;71.] The new slang words are
also made by means of compounding, blending, affixation, back clipping, back formation, front
clipping, middle clipping, clipped phrases, and acronyms. I.V. Arnold points out that “a shortened
word is always in some way different from its prototype in meaning and usage.”[2;83.] The new
slang words can also be created by combination of sounds: onomatopoeia, rhyming terms,
reduplications.
As far as word formation is concerned American Slang follows the accepted patterns of all
other layers, namely "change of meaning", "derivation", "composition", "shortening", and "back-
formation" and the like. It will not be reasonable to say that the most important peculiarities of
slang concern the plane of form but not of content, or vice versa. It must be noted that the lexical
meaning of a slang word contains not only the denotation component, but also an emotive
component and it is the marked member of a stylistic opposition.
In a general sense there are depicted and registered three types of word formation:
1) Changes in meaning;
2) Changes in form;
3) Individual coinages and nonce-words.
According to this one might conclude that slang words can be created in several well-denned
ways. The new words can be created in several well-defined ways. For example they may be
formed by means of change of meaning, form, pronunciation, or part of speech of the old ones; one
can borrow them from foreign languages; one can coin new combinations of old words and word
parts; or one can consciously contrive some type of code or acrostic device based on known words.
One of the types of semantic change is "Generalization” [1; 120]. Generalization includes any
process by which a single word comes to have more than one meaning.
The other process of generalization is "Concatenation", a linguistic means by which an old word
takes on a series of new meanings, each not directly related to the basic concept but rather related to
a previous new one. “Specialization” is another type of semantic change. It occurs less frequently
than generalization, the reverse process whereby a word loses some of its various meanings to
become identified with but one concept.

15
 According to Soudek's work, one of the characteristic peculiarity of the American non-
standard vocabulary, in comparison with the British one, is that first place is occupied by affixation
and the second by word composition. According to structural-morphological peculiarities, word
composition, as affixation, is based on the literary-standard rules. According to E.B. Ivanova’s
investigation in the literary standard system of English language, from 2576 examples 58,2% are
formed by using the following pattern “noun + noun”, while in the substandard system – only 51%
out of 3260 [25; 32]
Analogy functions in the system of literary-standard system and it is spread in the mass-
media and advertising language too. The “Watergate Scandal” brought to life a plenty of
neologisms with the second component “gate” meaning all kinds of political scandals: “Hollywood
gate” (the scandal in connection with D.Bergman, a Hollywood film-producer, accused of
misappropriating 100 thousand dollars), “Dallas gate” (the scandal that flew out in Dallas) etc. [24;
103], the repeated component of the analogous composition served the word forming elements: “-
ology” and “-gate”, but there are a lot of other examples too.
If speaking about slang in general we must not forget about the informal grammar, which
includes the informal morphology and informal syntax. By informal morphology V. A. Maltzev
means the informal use of nouns (forms of number, case forms), articles (with common and proper
nouns), pronouns (case forms of personal pronouns, “who” and “whom” as stylistic variants),
adjectives (degrees of comparison), adverbs (informal use of simple forms of adverbs) and verbs
(the Continuous and the Indefinite forms as stylistic variants, stylistic variants to express future
actions, variants of present perfect, forms with distinct low colloquial or vulgar and illiterate
constructions. “The informal syntax includes the elliptical constructions (the clipping of functional
verbs, leaving out the subject or the functional verb or both, conjunctionless complex sentences,
and ellipsis in dialogue unities), emphatic constructions.”[23;76-89.]
So there are not only words that should be called informal. The great role plays the informal
syntax and grammar. But slang is not a uniform body of words and expressions; it falls out into
special (or group) slang and general slang.
General slang is the more popular portion of the special slang from many groups. S. B.
Flexner lists forty-five groups contributing to American Slang, among them, airplane pilots,
baseball players and fans, cowboys and ranchers, football players and so on. [23; 65]
Special slang is the words and expressions peculiar to special segments of the population. In
this connection we should discuss the terms cant, jargon and argot. [23; 66]
Cant is the conversational, familiar idiom used and generally understood only by members
of a specific occupation, trade, profession, class and group. Cant is the language of the underworld,
beggars and criminals.

16
 Argot is both the cant and the jargon of any professional criminal group. The essential
difference between slang and argot results from the fact that the first has an expressive function,
whereas the second is concerned with secrecy.
Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost language, whose aim
is to preserve secrecy within on or another social group. Jargonisms are usually old words with new
meanings imposed on them.
Special slang is the stock of expressive and humorous words and expressions used by some
social or professional words to denote things relevant in their activities, while jargon is the
specialized language of different occupations and interests which is usually impersonal and serious.
K. Hudson says that jargon “in the last quarter of the twentieth century, contains essential
elements:
● It reflects a particular profession or occupation;
● It is pretentious, with only a small kernel of meaning within it;
● It is used mainly by intellectually inferior people, who feel a need to convince the general
public of their importance”. [12; 111]
Professionalisms is another type of non-literary layer of English vocabulary.
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected
by common interests both at work and at home. Professional words name anew already-existing
concepts, tools or instruments professionalisms is its technicality, as stated in Wentworth H.,
Flexner S.B. “Dictionary of American Slang” The semantic structure of the term is usually
transparent and is easily understood [12; 113]. The semantic structure of professionalism is often
dimmed by the image on which the meaning of the professionalism is based. Like terms,
professionalisms do not allow polysemy, they are monosemantic. Here are some professionalisms
used in different trades: tin-fish (= submarine); block-buster (= a bomb especially designed to
destroy block of big building); piper (= a specialist who decorates party with the use of a cream-
pipe); outer (= a knockout blow). [18; 65]
Wentworth H., Flexner S.B. in their “Dictionary of American Slang” underline that dialectal
words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained
beyond its literary boundaries and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. Dialectal
words are coined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal, as H. C. Wyld points
out with the everyday life of the country.
Besides dialectal words there are vulgar words or vulgarisms. They are used to single out a
definite group of words of non-standard English/ vulgar, as explained by the Shorter Oxford
Dictionary means:
 word or names employed in ordinary speech;

17
  common, familiar;
 commonly current
So vulgarisms are:
Swear words which are of an abusive character, like ‘damn’, ‘bloody’, ‘to hell’, ‘goddamn’
and used now as general exclamations.
Obscene words. There are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any
form of intercourse as being indecent.
And the last group of words is colloquial coinages that are spontaneous and elusive. Not all
of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing because most of them
disappear from the language. Nonce-words of the colloquial nature are based on certain semantic
changes in words.
Nonce-coinage appears in all spheres of life. Every calling has some favorite catch-words
which may live but a short time. [19; 25] They may become permanent and accepted terms, or they
may remain nonce-words, as hateships used by John O’Hara in “Gen North Frederic”.

18
1.5. The American Variant of the English Language.
It is quite natural that the English Language is not used with uniformity in the British Isles
and in the USA. The English Language has some peculiarities in Wales, Scotland and in America.
But the nature of these varieties is not the same. Modern linguistics distinguishes territorial variants
of a national language and local dialects.
Variants of language are regional varieties of a standard literary language characterized by
some minor peculiarities in the sound system, vocabulary and grammar and by their own literary
norms.
Dialects are varieties of a language used as a means of oral communication in small
localities, they are set off (more or less sharply) from other varieties by some distinctive features of
pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.”[7;249.]
As it is well known, the English language was brought to the American continent at the
beginning of the 17th century as a result of expansion of British colonialism. As the English
language was spreading over the globe, it was but natural that local peculiarities should arise,
depending on conditions of each country and on its population. The most important question in this
sphere is that about the English language in America”.[5;330] In the 1920s a theory came into
being which asserted that there was a separate “American Language”, different from English. The
chief exponent of this theory was well known American author and journalist Henry Louis
Mencken (1880-1948) published his book “The American Language” in 1919.
Analyzing the lexical and syntactical peculiarities of the American variant of the English
language, it was also observed that as America is influenced “by Jews, Negroes, Germans, Slavs,
more and more foreign constructions will creep into the language.”[13;194.] In his book
“Perspectives on American English” J.L. Dillard also pointed out that: «Today the influence that
has come to the most fruition is that of Negro. The Negro’s way of speaking has become the way of
most ordinary Americans…” [13;194]
Still nowadays in modern linguistics the so-called “American Language” is considered to be
a variant of British English. Though “numerous locally marked slangisms, professionalisms and
dialectisms cannot be considered distinguishing features either, since they do not belong to the
literary language”[7;252], J.L. Dillard in his book “Perspectives on American English” pints out
that : “The American Language is chiefly distinguished from he British by its emphatic expressive
character”[13;191]. He also considers the American nation to be different from the British one, to
have a different hope and different soul, “therefore its expression should be different”[13;191]. J.L.
Dillard also considers that to find the national and cultural identity the Americans have to appeal to
different means. “… our populace, who ought to be finding national expression in journalism and
music hall songs and dancing, and who are merely going off the lines by imitating a foreign

19
country.”[13;191] What seemed to us as being quite important was the fact that journalism is
regarded by Dillard as being a part of national American identity.
So it is confirmed that the American journalists seek to find their own style in writing. In
Dillard’s opinion “Britain lives in a tradition; America in a passion. We are laconic, accidental,
inarticulate; our duty is plain, and we do it without words. But the American is affirmative,
emphatic, striving; he has to find out what he’s going to do next, and he has got to use strong
words”.[13;192.] Thus the author affirms that the Americans have to use the stylistically colored
words, so-called strong words more frequently than the English men. We considered this fact to be
one of a great importance as it can help us understand the reasons of finding slang words and
expressions in abundance in American magazines and newspapers. Thus Dillard in his analysis of
the peculiarities of the American variant of the English language came to the following
conclusion:”Much mean nomenclature will have disappeared from the language, many cheap
expressions, much mockery; on the other hand, there will be a great gain in dignity, in richness, in
tenderness.” [13;194.]

20
1.6. Attitudes towards Slang.
With the rise of naturalistic writing demanding realism, slang began to creep into English
literature even though the schools waged warfare against it, the pulpit thundered against it, and
many women who aspired to gentility and refinement banished it from the home. It flourished
underground, however, in such male sanctuaries as lodges, poolrooms, barbershops, and saloons.
By 1925 a whole new generation of U.S. and European writers belonging to a literary trend
named naturalism revolted against the Victorian restraints that had caused even Mark Twain to
complain, and today any writer may use slang freely, especially in fiction, drama and newspapers. It
has become an indispensable tool in the hands of master satirists, humorists, and journalists. Slang
is now socially acceptable, not just because it is slang but because, when used with skill and
discrimination, it adds a new and exciting dimension to language. At the same time, it is being
seriously studied by linguists and other social scientists as a revealing index to the culture that
produces and uses it.
As stated in „The New Encyclopedia of Britannica” slang is used for many purposes, but
generally it expresses a certain emotional attitude; the same term may express diametrically
opposed attitudes when used by different people. People also use slang because it often is more
forceful, vivid, and expressive than are standard usages. It usually avoids the sentimentally and
formality that older words often assume.
But still a lot of people consider the use of the slang words to be something that is should
not appear on the pages of literary works and in the newspapers. “Lexicographers Samuel Jonson
and Noah Webster considered it low, crude and despicable.”[23;64.] But we must not forget about
the great stylistic value of the slang words. American poet Walt Whitman said: “Language is not
an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but something but something
arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has
its bases broad and low, close to the ground.”[14;85.] So the language has to reflect the everyday
needs of the people, especially the language of the newspapers, because they are read practically by
all the social groups. Journalists try to speak to the readers the language understood by them and the
language that will reflect the needs, joys and tastes of the audience. No strict frames can be applied
to the language of communication. “We are convinced that the main purport of any functional style
is to facilitate communication in a certain sphere of discourse.”[23;31.]
Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words, to suggest an
escape from the established routine, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal. Also,
as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure joy of making sounds, or even for a
need to attract attention by making noise [ 4;6].

21
 “It is common knowledge that certain notions attract more slang than others.”[23;66.] For
example the words “money”, “woman”, “failure”, “excellent” have a lot of slang synonyms. They
all belong to different social groups and to the different level of stylistic colouring. For example the
phraseological unit “ bit of fluff “ has a meliorative connotation, but the word “cro” which also
means “a woman” in some way has a pejorative connotation. “However one mustn’t get the
impression that slang consists only of synonyms to standard words or expressions. Some of it fills
real communicative needs.”[23;67.] So in some cases we need slang because it helps us to express
ourselves more exact. “Those social groups that first confront a new object or concept devise and
use new words long before the public at large does.”[23;67.]

22
1.7. The Newspaper Functional Style.
“A functional style can be defined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and
intercoordinated language means intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and
aiming at a definite effect.”[16;60.] I. R Galperin distinguishes five classes: The Belles-Letters
Style, including poetry, emotive prose and drama, Publicistic Style, inserting oratory and speeches,
essays, articles, Newspapers Style which includes brief news items, headlines, advertisements and
announcements, editorials, Scientific Prose Style and the Style of the Official Documents.
On the pages of a newspaper one can find not only news and comment on it, but also stories
and poems, crossword puzzles, chess problems, etc. Alongside with the articles in special fields,
such as science and technology, art, literature, etc. they cannot be classed as belonging to
newspaper functional style.
Since primary function of newspaper style is to impart information, only printed matter
serving this purpose comes under newspaper style proper.[8;341.] Such matter can be classed as:
1. brief news items and communiqués
2. press reports (parliamentary, of court proceeding, etc)
3. articles purely informational in their character
4. advertisements and announcements.
“Newspaper style was the last of all the styles of written literary English to be recognized as
a specific form of writing standing apart from other forms. English newspaper writing dates from
the 17th century.”[12;306.] But the century passed before the English newspaper established a style
and a standard of its own, and only by the 19 th century it developed a system of language means,
which forms a separate functional style. “The specific conditions of newspaper publication, the
restrictions of time and space have left an indelible mark on newspaper English.”[12;307.] Some
linguists called this language “a distorted literary language” and claimed its “slipshod
constructions and vulgar vocabulary”. But still there is a constant need in such a language that is
why it had not disappeared and moreover develops day by day.
“English newspaper style may be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological,
and grammatical means which is perceived by the community speaking the language as a separate
unity that basically serves of informing and instructing the reader.”[16;65.] Peter Verdonk in his
book “Stylistics” points out that “…style is indeed a distinctive way of using language for some
purpose and to some effect”[21;5.] The purposes of the newspaper functional style are quite clear. It
serves the noble duty instructing and informing the population.
Practically all the slang words have a very strong stylistic colouring. The one word can give
the reader the whole amount of information it includes. For example the word-combination “crap
barge” shows that the speaker operates with the slang used by the naval forces and that he meant

23
“the ship with inexperienced and undisciplined crew”. “Reporters frequently have little opportunity
to include in their own stylistic preferences, and come to rely upon a well-tried range of set phrases
and grammatical constructions;”[9;7.]
Journalists have no space and time to express themselves in literary words, and that is why
they use slang words which are more expressive. Of course there are people who insert in their
speech or articles too many slang word even there is no need in doing this. The groups of linguists
who consider slang to be a valuable part of the vocabulary do not approve predominance of the
slang words over the literary ones. “…we would like to point out that slang always tends toward
degradation rather than elevation”[23;69.]
Analyzing the use of colloquial language while writing an article, Marjorie Holmes observed
that “Jargon has no place in the creative article”[17; 114.] By the reason that it cannot be clearly
understood by everyone, but “Obscurity is not the mark of profundity” after M. Holmes. What we
found quite interesting and important was the fact that M. Holmes writes that: “We use the
vernacular, we toss in commonplace phrases, an occasional slang expression, to achieve that
quality of “liveliness” Maugham mentioned”.[17;115.] Thus to be creative and commonly
understood we have to try to be closer to people and to their way of expressing the ideas.
To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to
analyze the following basic newspaper features:
1. brief news items
2. advertisements and announcements
3. the headline
4. the editorial
The function of a brief news item is to inform the reader. It is characterized by the total
absence of any individuality of expression and the complete lack of emotional coloring. The main
function of the headline is to inform the reader briefly of what the news that follows is about. The
advertisements and announcements like brief news items serve to inform the reader. They can be
of two kinds : classified and non-classified.
But the major interest for our research represents, of course the newspaper editorial. The
newspaper editorial has more in common with political essays or articles therefore “it is necessary
to note that such articles are an intermediate phenomenon characterized by a combination of styles
– the newspaper style and the publicistic style. In other words they may be considered
hybrids.”[8;341.]
The editorials are in some way the intermediate phenomenon bearing the stamp of both the
newspaper style and the publicistic style. “Their purpose is to influence the reader by giving an
interpretation of certain facts.”[12;317] Like any publicistic writing it has an aim to influence the

24
reader and to make him choose the certain opinion. That is why editorials appeal not to readers
mind but to his feelings. The authors of the editorials use the system of emotionally coloured
language elements, both lexical and structural to obtain the aim of influencing the reader. By
combining of the different strata of vocabulary the effect of emotionally coloured speech is
achieved. “Alongside political words and expressions, terms, clichés and abbreviations one can
find colloquial expressions, slang and professionalisms.”[12;318.]
V.A. Maltzev in his book “Essays on English Stylistics” discuss the problems of colloquial
functional style where he points out that “the terms “bookish” and “colloquial” are not quite
exact”[23;31.]. The “bookish” style can be used in a talk while the “colloquial” can be used in
private correspondence etc. So these notions are quite mixed and the usage of colloquial words and
expressions is imposed by the aim of impressing the reader. Moreover, some editorials just can’t be
written without slang and colloquial words. For example comic magazines or the gossip columns
always include informal words.
So the slang words being very strong in meaning and in stylistic colouring and being able to
influence the reader are organic if used in editorials.
Marjorie Holmes in her book “Writing the Creative Article” underlines the great importance of the
lexical structure of the article. She underlines that: “The first impression the author gets from any
piece of writing is the author’s style. The subject may be a good one, the words sufficient—like
clothes, they may cover it; but if they are sloppy, prosaic or dull, or merely inappropriate, the
editor has to drive himself to get through the manuscript”. [17;110]

25
 Chapter 2. The Peculiarities of the Use of Slang in Modern
American Press.
2.1. The Use of Slang in Different Kinds of Editorials.
After reviewing a number of American newspapers and magazines and revising 200 of
examples we divided them according to the kinds of editorials and newspaper columns they were
met in. The following diagram shows the use of slang words and expressions in different kinds of
editorials, reports and newspaper columns.

The use of slang words and expressions in different

kinds of newspaper editorials, columns and reports.

6%
14%
announcement
13%
crime report
3% 13%
gossip column
5%
politics
report
social problems
46%
sport report

As it is clearly seen the great majority of slang words (46%) is found in the so-called gossip
column. Speaking about the use of slang in the other kinds of newspaper editorials, reports and
columns, it is important to underline the fact that slang words and expressions were found
practically in all kinds of them. Thus it was quite surprising for us to reveal 13% of examples in the
editorials consecrated to the social problems. Another great part was found in different kinds of
announcements. In the crime reports a lot of slang words and expressions were revealed as well
(13%). The themes discussed in the sport reports also attract a lot of slang words and expressions,
as 6% of all the examples were found there. Our research revealed another interesting phenomenon.
The newspapermen tend to use the informal words and expressions to discuss quite sophisticated
topics, such as political ones. Thus 5% of the examples were found in the editorials, which
discussed the political topics. The small reports about the events of different types were grouped by
the name “reports”. The minor part of examples (3%) was found there.
So as it is clearly seen, the slang is used to talk not only about gossips and crimes but about
politics, social problems, sport as well. This is very important because this fact shows us the

26
universality of the slang words and underlines the concernment of the slang for the newspaper
functional style as well.
2.2. The Means of Informal Word and Phrase Creation.
The newspapermen tend to use slang practically in all the kinds of the editorials. It is
interesting to observe not only the diffusion of the slang through the newspapers but and the origin
of the examples of the slang words and phrases that are to be found in the editorials. That is why we
have also analyzed the most frequent ways of informal word and phrase creation. The slang words
and phrases met in the American newspapers are made by means of many ways of colloquial word
creation. The following diagram helps us to show the distribution of these means through all the
analyzed examples vividly.

The means of informal word and phrase creation.

1%
1%
perephrasis
1% 1%
4% personification
5%
30% assonance
6%
metonymy

informal conversion
7%
informal morphology

metaphor

7% shortening

informal syntax

complex

15% informal word-

22% composition
slang

From this diagram we can make a number of conclusions. First of all it is quite obvious that
the journalists use a lot of means of informal means of word and phrase creation. Secondly the slang
words and expressions make the major part of examples (30%). Informal word-creation is one of
the most popular means of creating informal words and expressions. 22% of examples are made up
by means of it. Another 15% are the complex examples, where more than one means of informal
word and phrase creation is to be found. Informal syntax (7%), shortening (7%), metaphor (6%),
informal morphology (5%) and informal conversion (4%) are also met quite often. Periphrasis(1%),

27
personification (1%), assonance (1%) and metonymy (1%) are found not so often, but are to be
mentioned.
Besides the fact that the means of informal word and phrase creation are quite numerous, it
was also noticed that all of them fall into five main categories:
 means of word - formation (shortening, conversion, informal word-composition)
 stylistic devices (assonance, periphrasis, personification, metonymy, metaphor.)
 informal grammar (informal morphology, informal syntax)
 complex examples
 slang.

means of informal
word-formation
stylistic devices
61; 31% 66; 32%
informal grammar

complex
32; 16% 17; 9% examples
24; 12%
slang

The diagram can show us that the means of informal word-creation are widely used by the
journalists. Thus 66 examples (which make 32% from the studied 200) are words formed by means
of informal word-formation. The productive means of word-formation, such as shortening,
conversion and word-composition are used to compose new words.
e.g. That’s why we decided to hit the Fox lot to butter up (mmm, butter)two of the
franchise’s founding fathers – revered cartoonist Matt Groening and Oscar-studded writer-
director-producer James L. Brooks, who joined forces in the mid-‘80s and featured the
Groening-doodled Simpson clan on The Tracey Ullman Show.
In this sentence, taken from the “Entertainment” magazine we can see the informal word-
creation of different types:
 the informal word creation (writer-director-producer), where three different words
are put together to show how many functions James L. Brookes fulfilled.
 the informal word creation with the use of slang words (Groening-doodled). The
adjective is formed by means of the first name of a person plus word “doodled”
28
 made up by means of informal conversion from the slang word “doodle”, meaning
simpleton. Referring to the “Simpson clan” the adjective Groening-doodled shows
the readers who is one of the main creators of the cartoon and at the same time its
main orientation.
 The informal word-creation with the use of the polysemantic words. The adjective
“Oscar-studded” is formed by means of two words: “Oscar” and a polysemantic
word “stud” meaning “to nail” as a verb and “a fellow” as a slang word, in the form
of a noun. Thus here we have an example of a pun, which resulted from the
polysemy of one of the components of the word.
Thus informal word-creation may be of different types and many times the slang words become one
of the parts of the word, or the “slang” meaning makes the word obtain the meaning of a pun.
Coming back to the use of shortening, clipping and blending in the newspapers, it is
important to mention that it is very important type of word-formation as it helps journalists to be
brief and at the same time close to the reader.
e.g.”I don’t write about angels, Jesus, happy days, kids. I grew up on drinkin’,
cheatin’, love gone bad…!”
The words “drinkin’ and cheatin’ are made by means of back-clipping and underline the
contrast between two sentences. In both of them such stylistic device as climax was used. But if in
the first sentence only positive words are mentioned, the second sentence gives us the idea about the
real childhood of a person. It is not the bright image of the days of youth. And the use of the clipped
words makes the reader pay attention to them.
The second group, which embodied the stylistic devices, by means of which the informal
words and expressions are created is less numerous than the first one. Only 9% of the examples,
analyzed during our research belong to this category.
e.g. Creeps hit heap of Jeeps.
In the given sentence the assonance was used to create an informal phrase. The combination
of the repeating sounds [i] and [i:] makes the phrase obtain a kind of rhythm. Here again the
polysemy was used to create a humorous effect and to attract the reader’s attention. Thus the word
“creep” means “a thief” and as an American slang word “a fool”. The word “heap” is also an
informal one meaning “lots of”. Thus besides the rhythmical construction of the phrase it has a
double meaning. As a result it will inevitably strike the reader’s attention.
e.g. Oh, and I knew this one was coming when I saw MSNBC meatloaf-head Joe
Scarborough air a racy, race-satirical clip from Chappelle’s show: Let’s muzzle all the
performers who engage in any kind of thought-provoking, hilarious (as opposed to Imus-
idiotic) performances!

29
 The metaphor “meatloaf-head Joe Scarborough” represents a great interest. It is used to
describe a person not in a very pleasant way. The word “loaf’ as a British slang word means
“mind”. And the metaphorical sense of this word-combination represents the negative attitude of the
author towards person, named Joe Scarborough. Besides metaphors there are slang words as
“muzzle” in this sentence. It is also polysemantic, as a slang word meaning “to beat someone
unmercifully”. Thus the given above sentence is a very emotional one, as there are interjections
(Oh), slang words and metaphors. Moreover, it represents itself an exclamation. So we can come to
a conclusion that the slang words and metaphors are used by the author to render his feelings and
negative emotions.
The informal grammar constructions, including informal syntax and morphology are used
quite frequently by journalists (12% of all the examples).
e.g. He also showed that after nine years in Hollywood, he could finally be on his way
to becoming a certified movie star. Further proof?
The question “Further proof?” is one of the brightest examples of informal syntactic constructions.
It is an elliptical construction which lacks both subject and predicate and the auxiliary verb as well.
Still everyone can understand what the author wanted to say. By means of informal syntactic
constructions journalists can save a lot of space, leaving out all the unnecessary details.
e.g. 516-572-0200 or nassaucantyny.gov.
Because of the appearance of the new means of communication between people such
sentences are often met on the pages of the newspapers and magazines. It consists of the telephone
number and the name of a website. The sentence is an elliptical one and of course it’s syntactic
construction is informal. Still it can easily be understood by the modern reader, who does not need
any further explanations.
e.g. Maybe it’s the relentless reruns. Or perhaps February’s final-season DVD release.
The word “February” is in the possessive case here, though it normally cannot “possess”
anything. The author wanted to pay the reader’s attention to the month, when the action takes place.
If he didn’t use the informal morphological construction, he should put the word “February” in the
end of the sentence. In this case the reader might have not noticed it. So in this case the informal
morphology helps reader to render his ideas more exactly.
One of the groups, representing great interest is complex examples. !6% of all the examples
were complex ones. By complex we mean the ones where the combination of more than one type of
informal word or phrase creation are used.
e.g. Wanna try out? Open casting calls start May 1 in the Motor City.
The question “Wanna try out” has an informal syntactic structure which is combined with
the slang word “wanna”. It is important to mention that the syntactic construction of the sentence

30
partially resulted from the fact that the word “wanna” is onomatopoeic. It is a combination of the
words “want” and “to”. Thus the slang word replaced the two words and consequently changed the
structure of the sentence.
The slang words as it is clearly seen from the diagram are quite often met. 31% of examples
are slang words, but as it has already been mentioned above, they can also be a part of a compound
word, a part of a stylistic device or belong to a complex example.
From this we can conclude that the newspapermen do not use only purely slang words to
express their ideas. They tend to abbreviate the words in order to save time and space. The slang
words also serve as a means of better communication between the newspaperman and the reader
because they possess a strong stylistic connotation and sometimes express notions which cannot be
explained in other words. For example the word “soon-to-be-ex” clearly expresses the idea of the
author but can hardly be substituted be other words or expressions. The idea is that the boy is on the
point of separating with his girlfriend. The word combination “fresh grief” makes the reader
understand that the one who has the “grief” does not suffer in reality but being obliged to makes a
view of a martyr. The metaphor “is weighing” in the context means “is deciding” shows that the
person has to choose from two variants and he is putting all the arguments for and against on the
weight. The part of the sentence “...he’s bedding another man” is a euphemism created by means
of informal conversion. It adds a great humorous effect to the editorial. The slang words “gotta”,
“gangsta” are used by youth subcultures and being onomatopoeic show the way people belonging
to a certain group pronounce them. That also cannot be expressed by literary or neutral words.

31
2.3. The use of slang in different kinds of editorials.
The next step in analyzing the examples of the slang words was to find out what way of
formation of the slang words is more or less used in each kind of editorial. The newspapermen tend
to use slang practically in all the kinds of the editorials. It is interesting to observe not only the
diffusion of the slang through the newspapers but and the origin of the examples of the slang words
and phrases that are to be found in the editorials. The following diagrams show the distribution of
all the types of the informal word building through all the kinds of the editorials.
2.3.1. The Gossip Column.

The informal word creation in gossip column

shortening

2% 3% 6% complex

informal conversion
21%
informal syntaxis

informal use of
37% prepositions
1% informal word-
4%
composition
1%
metaphor

slang

informal derivation
19%
6%
informal morphology

The proper study of the number of American’s newspapers and magazines has brought us to
conclusion that the slang words and expressions are to be found practically in all kinds of
newspaper editorials. From 200 examples found during the research, 93 were found in the gossip
column. It must be also mentioned that these are 46% of all the examples, found during our
practical work. As we considered that quite an interesting phenomenon, it was decided to study the
use of slang in gossip column more thoroughly.
The means of informal word-creation are presented in abundance in the gossip column. As it
has been mentioned above 46% of all the examples were found in this kind of editorials. The
newspapermen writing about gossips have to use a lot of slang words and expressions because the
themes of those presuppose the use of informal constructions. The abundance of the slang words
32
and expressions found in the gossip column has a connection to the specific character of the topics,
discussed there. For example the private lives of well-known people are often widely covered there.
e.g. Mariah gonged in Hong Kong. Thus in the first example, which can be considered a
complex one. Here the assonance is used. We can see the repeating sounds [g] and [o]. The
repeating sounds can not only be heard but and seen vividly by the reader. This is quite important as
the newspapers are mostly read silently. As to the slang word “gong”, it is a polysemantic one. As a
word belonging to a neutral vocabulary, it means ‘a large plate, beaten by a special hammer to
produce a sound’. In this case the sentence could be viewed as a metaphor. The arrival of the pop
star in Hong Kong produced a resonance as a gong. But the word “gong” has several meanings even
as a slang word. It has at least 3 meanings:
a. a medal;
b. a narcotic;
c. as a part of word-combination “gong girl”, meaning ‘a girl picked up by a driver, having
an intention to flirt with her.’
From this point of view a great variety of possible meaning appears. We can analyze the
word “gong”, taking into consideration each meaning or a combination of them. But in any case the
author’s intention to pay the reader’s attention to this sentence is obvious. He uses the slang word to
characterize Mariah and the way she arrived at once.
e.g. Mariah Carey, you're no babs”
This example is also very interesting, as again here a famous person is discussed. The
syntactic structure of the sentence produces an unusual effect. It sounds as if the pop star was teased
or nicknamed (in the way the children usually mock out each other). Besides that the author uses the
slang word “babs”. Babs as a slang word means “a sexually attractive woman”. Thus the author
wants to create the effect of mocking over the person, using such a sentence structure in addition to
litotes (negation of the noun with the positive meaning “… you’re no babs”).
The profusion of slang in the editorials about the gossips may be explained by using there
quotations. It is essential for newspapermen to include quotations in their works. That adds to the
article the illusion of objectivity and sometimes strikes the readers’ attention. Of course many
people, discussing each other’s lives tend to use slang words and expressions.
e.g. “It’s a good thing that I’m not one of those prissy girls,” the buxom blonde who
stars in “Shark” with James Woods, tells the December FHM.
Making the analysis of this sentence it is important to mention that the slang words are
presented both in the quoted sentence and in the words of the author. For instance the word “prissy”
is a slang one, meaning “finicking”. The informal word “buxom” has the meaning “plump”. Thus
the author was obliged to use the slang word “prissy” if he wanted to cite the sentence. But the

33
author did not stop on that and described the quoted person, (by the way not giving her name, as
usual) using the slang word. By means of that he showed that she (the blonde) really isn’t prudish.
Besides that this description shows us, that the only way to explain the readers who she is, is to
describe her outlook and to mention whom she stars with.
Some notions attract slang words and expressions more than others. For example the notion
of the mood of a person has a lot of slang words to explain it.
e.g. Anna Nicole Smith can look forward to some fresh grief-courtesy of her estranged
half-sister Donna Hogan.
For instance in this sentence the word-combination “fresh grief-courtesy” is used to
describe the mood of a person who is obliged to look as one who suffers, but actually does not feel
any kind of pity.
Besides that a lot of words and expressions, used to describe the person’s mood were found
in the gossip column.
e.g. “Boorish” is used to describe a rude person;
“prissy” describes a well-mannered person a little bit sanctimonious and hypocritical
“dumpy” newspapermen call the one who is sad and cheerless. Besides that it can be
regarded as a derivative from the slang verb “dump” which means “to defecate”.
As the theme of personal relationship is often discussed in the gossip column, sexual
seductiveness is also often thrown light upon. This is why one of the notions, which attracts many
slang words and expressions is the notion of the women’s breast.
e. g. “Buxom” is an adjective used to describe a plump deep-bosomed woman,
“bobs” is a noun which names the bosom.
“sexpot”-- a slang word used to describe a very attractive woman
“babs” – a sexually attractive woman
The graphical stylistic devices are used to write about the gossips.
e.g. Hill & Bill's b'sday love fe$t
Here the graphical stylistic device has the function of a pun. The letter [s] printed as [$]
hints at the fact that a lot of money was spent on the celebration. Besides that instead of usind the
word “and” the author wrote the symbol [&] which also helped him to save time and space.
shortenings show us the attitude of the author towards the persons, he writes about.
Sometimes the newspapermen use vulgar words, which cannot be printed, thus another
graphical mean appear. For example “f--- yourself” could not be written as it was this is why the
author had resorted to such a graphical means of rendering his idea.

34
 To conclude it is important to mention that the editorials about the gossips attract slang
words more than others and that these slang words are created by great variety of means of informal
word-creation.
The use of slang in the gossip column can be explained by:
a.) The topics discussed.
b.) The use of quotations.
c.) The fact that some notions attract more slang words and expressions than others.
d.) The intention to save time and space
e.) The intention to create a humorous effect.

35
2.3.2. The Announcements.

Announcements

informal morphology
6%
10%
complex
32%
informal syntax
13%
informal word-comp.

metonymy
3%
slang
36%

The newspapermen writing announcements tend to use informal word-composition (36%) or

purely slang words (32%), writing announcements. Informal syntax (13%) and complex examples
(10%) are met not so often, but are quite numerous. To the minor types of informal word and phrase
creation, used in announcements informal morphology (6%) and metonymy (3%) could be related.
This fact can be explained by the purposes of the small articles writing about some future event.
Announcements must be very precise and short that is why metaphors cannot be used here.
On the contrary, words made by means of informal word-composition are met so often because they
are highly informative. For example “cookoff” expresses the idea of cooking outside and is very
precise. The idea expressed by this word cannot be expressed by any other single word belonging to
the literary or neutral layer of the vocabulary of the language.
e.g. For a big crane-smashes-into-a-skyscraper-office scene, Howard was attached to a
zip line and hoisted five stories aloft.
For example the word “crane-smashes-into-a-skyscraper-office”, being an attribute to the word
scene, lets the author not to write: “The scene from the movie where a big crane smashes into a
skyscraper.” The use of words made by means of informal word-creation helps journalists to save
time and space. Moreover it adds a humorous effect and a mark of a personal style of the author.
The informal syntax is also used because it makes the phrases shorter. For example the
following sentence:
e.g. They kept passing me in school even though I didn’t know how to do things I
should have known how to do. Like, I couldn’t read.
The second sentence has an informal syntactic structure. It is connected with the first one,
continuing the idea, expressed there. It sounds like the one from the oral speech. And, actually, it is

36
a part of quoted speech. So in this case the use of informal constructions was caused by citation of
the person, who used such type of sentences.
One more sentence with informal syntax
e.g. Well, do I ever regret it.
is unusual because having the structure of the interrogative sentence it is an affirmative one. That is
why it expresses the double idea. The person asks himself but already knows the answer. Besides
that there is a word “well” which expresses the hesitation of the person.
e.g. There are oodles of secondary Simpson characters, and everyone has a different
favorite. How many of them do we expect to see?
The journalist, who asked this question in an interview, was speaking to the creators of the well-
known cartoon. They often use the slang words and expressions both in their cartoon and life. That
is why the newspaperman had to use such words in his speech not to sound too stand-offishly. Thus
the word “oodles” meaning “a great number” was used not only to express the idea of the author,
but and to win the favour of the interviewed person.
e.g. In this long process, it took us a year and a half of the hardest work to begin to
look like we didn’t give a s---, which is what a movie needs.
This is a very interesting example, taken from an interview. The journalist had to include the slang
word-combination, because he was quoting the person, who used it. Still, being quite a rough word
it couldn’t appear on the pages of the magazine as it was, that is why it was replaced by the
graphical symbols. By the way “not to give a s---“ means “ not to fail”
Thus we can conclude that the slang word and expressions are used in the announcements
because they:
a.) help to save time and space
b) sometimes to express a double idea.
c) used to win the favour of the interviewed person and that of the reader
d) are a part of a quotation.

37
2.3.3. The Crime Reports.

Crime reports

4% 12% shortening
8%
complex
informal conversion
14% informal syntax
18%
informal word-comp.
metaphor
4% periphrasis
8% 8% slang
assonance
12% 12% personification

All the major means of informal word creation are met in the crime reports. The ones are
met quite often. They are:
a.) Shortening (12%)
b.) Complex examples (18%)
c.) Informal syntax (12%)
d.) Informal word-composition (12%)
e.) Slang (14%)
The others are met not so often, but are to be mentioned, as they reflect the great variety of means
of informal word-creation, used to write about crimes.
a.) Informal conversion
b.) Metaphor
c.) Periphrasis
d.) Assonance
e.) Personification.
In the crime reports a great number of the words, expressing the idea of murdering were
found:
e.g. ”gunman”- a gangster
“gun-totting teenager” – a teenager, threatening other people with a gun.
“was gunned”- was killed (instead of saying “was killed by means of gun”, which would
sound awkward and too long.)

38
 “He killed my little man”- this sentence represents an interest, as it contains a
periphrasis. Instead of saying “my son”, the father of the killed boy says “my little man”. The
journalist, who quoted this man, wanted to underline how sorrowful he was.
The second group of words was used to speak about policemen.
e.g. “cop”- a policeman
“to grill”-to cross-examine
The words of this type are often used by criminals to speak about the policemen. This is why the
authors of the crime reports often use them in their works.
The use of slang words and expressions in the crime reports can be explained by a number
of factors:
a.) The need for synonyms to express the idea of murdering.
b.) The need for euphemisms, while discussing awkward or delicate topics.
c.) The necessity to use sometimes the criminal slang.
The authors of the articles about the crimes use much more means of creating of the slang
words because they write about different crimes and people, seldom about death and often need
euphemisms which can be created by means of metaphors, periphrasis, etc.

2.3.4.The Editorials on Political Topics.

complex
20%

30% informal
conversion
informal
10%
morphology
informal word-
comp.
10%
metaphor
20%
10% slang

First of all, the fact that that 5% of all the examples were found in the editorials on political
topics was quite surprising. This fact shows us that slang is used not only to write about the gossips
and crimes but and about political events as well. Though the number of means of informal word
and phrase creation are not so numerous, it is important to underline that 30% of all the examples
39
were slang words. Another interesting fact is that in comparison with other articles, metaphors are
used here quite often (20%). The complex examples are also numerous (20%). The informal
conversion, morphology and word-creation are met equally often (10% each).
e.g. She is running for president and don’t much care if she interrupts…
In the given sentence the author instead of using the correct form of auxiliary verb, used the
colloquial variant which is widely used in USA. By means of this he wanted to create the unusual
(for the editorials on political topics) informal style of communication with the reader. This is a
good way to show that the politicians are simple people as the readers.
The slang used in the editorials about politics is often used to create a humorous effect. Thus the
headline
e.g. Bush launches an of-fence-ive.
is an example, where pun is used. The word “fence” being polysemantic means
a.) a barrier
b.) the person, that buys the stolen things (slang)
The word “offensive” in its turn means “an attack” or “a beginning”. The verb “to launch” means
“to start, to begin”. Thus the word “of-fence-ive” has a double meaning with the help of polysemy
and homonymy of the certain parts of the word. By means of this the author hints at the grubbiness
of the politics.
Thus the slang words and phrases are used in the editorials on political topics for several reasons:
a.) to show that politicians are simple people,
b.) to draw a veil over the critics directed at the politicians.
2.3.5. The Reports.

shortening

17%
informal
32% conversion
informal
17% morphology
informal word-
comp.

17% 17% slang

We considered all the articles containing the information about interesting events to be
reports. Equally with the other types of articles the slang words and expressions prevail in the
40
reports. The other means of informal word-building are met equally often. Slang -- 32% of all the
examples, words made by means of informal conversion-- 17%, the informal morphology-- 17%,
informal word-composition--17% and shortenings--17%.
e.g. Pooch getups a howl.
Analyzing the given sentence it is important to mention that the word “pooch” is an
American slang word which means “the dog of unknown breed”. The word combination “getups a
howl” means “starts howling” is also a slang one because the author used “getups” instead of “gets
up”. In the same editorial about dog fashion the word combination “all dolled up” was used.
Instead of saying “all dressed up” the newspaperman applied the informal conversion to show the
attitude of the masters of the dogs towards their pets (they played with them like with a doll).
As only 3% of the slang words and expressions found during our research were found in the
reports it is not a very easy task to single out any special reasons for that. But it was observed that
slang is used here
a.)to save time and space
b.)to create a humorous effect.

2.3.6. The Editorials on Social Problems.

The editorials on social problems

abbreviation

complex
20% 16%

informal
conversion
informal syntax
4% 12%

4% informal word-
comp.
8% metaphor

24% 12%
metonymy

slang

Speaking about the editorials on the social problems it is important to mention that 13% of
all the studied examples were found here.
e.g. It’s the grease-stained geniuses in the lower titles who make the railroad run.
In comparison with reports slang is used here not as means of adding humorous effect but in order
to make the editorial sound sarcastically. For example the word combination “grease-stained

41
geniuses describes the men whose reputation is not an ideal one but who still take up a post. The
word “grease” (being one of the components of the word “grease-stained”) has two meanings:
a.)fat
b.) a bribe (slang)
Thus the reader understands that the people, working on the railroad are corrupted. The author
ironically calls the “geniuses” to show his attitude to them. In the same article metonymy was used:
e.g. And how does the railroad respond?
All the people working at the railroad are collected by the name “railroad”. It means that they all
play the same game. Such rhetorical questions make the article sound sarcastic
Irony is also used in the editorials consecrated to the social problems.
e.g. In the meantime, new signs go up reminding passengers, “Watch the gap.” Oh,
thanks.
In this sentence the author wants to show the readers that instead of closing up the holes the
officials decided just to put a sign. The sentence with informal syntax “Oh, thanks” is an irony. The
author shows the readers that he is not satisfied with the signs and is not thankful at all.
The following example is taken from the editorial on the religious problems. The author
quoted Sheik Taj Aldin al-Hilali, the most prominent Islamic cleric in his article.
e.g. If you take out uncovered meat and place it outside…and the cats come to eat it…
whose fault is it, the cat's or the uncovered meat's?
The women who don’t wear head scarves are metaphorically called here “meat” and also
using a metaphor the men are described as “cats”. Besides the metaphorical representation of the
two sexes, we can see the informal morphology here. The meat, being an inanimate object can’t
have a possessive case and can’t have a fault. This is very important, as the use of informal
morphology in this case reflects the attitude of the speaking person towards women.
To conclude it is important to mention that the use of slang words and expressions in the
editorials on social problems can
a.) create a sarcastic tone
b.) reflect the ironical attitudes of the author
c.) make the article obtain an implication.
d.)be explained by the use of quotations.

42
2.3.7. The Sport Reports.

Sport reports

9% informal
conversion
27%
18% informal
morphology

informal word-
comp.

slang

46%

During our research 6% of examples of slang words and expressions were found in the sport
reports. Quite interesting was the fact that informal word-creation (46%) is a more often used means
of word-creation in the sport reports. Slang is also often used (27%). To the minor types of informal
word-creation used in the sport reports informal conversion and informal morphology can be
related.
In the sport reports many sport slang words are used
e.g. slugger- a baseball player
innings- a serving
post-season- the period after the season of sport games
The use of these words and expressions can easily be explained by the topics discussed in the sport
reports. The journalists just cannot manage without them while writing on the sport topics. Besides
that the use of the sport slang terms can help the author to win the reader’s favour, showing that
they are speaking the same language.
The word “a 3-and-2 count”, built by means of informal word-creation shows the result of
the match more vividly, than if the newspaperman wrote “a two-and-a-three count”. Besides that it
considerably saves time and space both for publishing and reading. So the conclusion which can be
made is that slang words and expressions are used not only if speaking about “antisocial” events but
and about good news as well.
The use of slang in sport reports can be explained by
a.) the need to use the special sport slang terms
b.) the intention to save time and space.
c.) the intention to win the reader’s favour

43
 2.3.8. The Reasons for the Use of Slang in Modern Press.
After realization of the analysis of the use of slang words and expressions in different kinds
of editorials we came to a conclusion that the reasons for the use of slang in modern press can
generally be subdivided in two major groups:
a.) general reasons ( the reasons for the use of slang in many types of articles)
b.) special reasons ( the reasons for the use of slang specific for one type of the articles).
The general reasons are:
1. The topics discussed in the certain article type
2. The use of quotations
3. The intention to add an implication
4. The intention to save time and space
5. The intention to add a humorous effect
6. The intention to establish the author-reader relationship.
To the special reasons the following ones can be related:
1. The fact that some notions attract more slang words and expressions than others.
(Gossip column)
2. The need for synonyms to express the idea of murdering. (Crime reports)
3. The need for euphemisms, while discussing awkward or delicate topics.
(Crime reports)
4. The intention to show that politicians are simple people. (Editorials on political
topics)
5. The intention to create a sarcastic tone. (Editorials on social problems)
6. As a reflection of the ironical attitudes of the author.(Editorials on social problems)
Thus the slang words and expressions are used by the journalists because of the reasons
general for all the types of the articles and because of the individual peculiarities of each type as
well. Such a great number of the reasons to use the slang in modern press underlines its universality
and necessity. It can be excluded neither from our speech nor from the press we read.

44
 Conclusion
After realization of our research a lot of interesting peculiarities of the use of slang in
newspapers have been singled out.
As we came to a conclusion that no exact definition of the term “slang” exists, it is important to
underline that the attitude to it changes with the time and its stylistic functions are appreciated by
certain groups of modern linguists. First of all we found out that being highly emotional,
informative and possessing strong stylistic connotation slang must not be understood as a symbol of
antisocial language.
Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull familiarity of standard words, to suggest an
escape from the established routine, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal.
Practically all the slang words have a very strong stylistic colouring. The one word can give the
reader the whole amount of information it includes.
So the slang words being very strong in meaning and in stylistic colouring and being able to
influence the reader are quite suitable if used in editorials. It was also observed that the journalists
having restrictions of time and space tend to use slang as it helps them to express the idea more
exactly and shorter than literary words.
Slang is used to talk not only about gossips and crimes but about politics, social problems,
and sport as well. This is very important because this fact shows us the universality of the slang
words and underlines the concernment of the slang for the newspaper functional style as well. So
we can say that the hypothesis of our work verified and the aim was attained but we went further
and got the following conclusions: Besides the fact that the means of informal word and phrase
creation are quite numerous, it was also noticed that all of them fall into five main categories:
 means of word - formation (shortening, conversion, informal word-composition)
 stylistic devices (assonance, periphrasis, personification, metonymy, metaphor.)
 informal grammar (informal morphology, informal syntax)
 complex examples
 slang.
It was also noticed that the reasons for the use of slang in modern press generally fall in two main
categories:
 general reasons ( the reasons for the use of slang in many types of articles)
 special reasons ( the reasons for the use of slang specific for one type of the articles).
The general reasons are:
 The topics discussed in the certain article type
 The use of quotations
 The intention to add an implication
45
  The intention to save time and space
 The intention to add a humorous effect
 The intention to establish the author-reader relationship.
To the special reasons the following ones can be related:
1. In the gossip column the use of slang can be explained by the fact that some notions attract
more slang words and expressions than others.
2. In crime reports it is used because of the need for synonyms to express the idea of
murdering and because of the need for euphemisms, while discussing awkward or delicate
topics.
3. The intention to show that politicians are simple people. (Editorials on political topics).
4. In the editorials on social problems it can be reasoned by the author’s intention to
create a sarcastic tone or as a reflection of the ironical attitudes of the author.
To conclude it is important to say that slang must not be neglected by journalists as it can fulfill
different functions and help to express the idea of the author more precisely because of its
universality.

46
 Summary.
In her graduation paper: “The Use of Slang in Modern American Press”, Alexandra
Safronova focuses on the peculiarities of the use of informal patterns in the American newspapers
and magazines. She starts with the introduction that includes: the main goal, the study material,
research objectives and methods, practical application and the structure of the study. The work
consists of two chapters. In the first Chapter the author is investigating the problem of usage,
formation, position in the language of American English slang in press and tried to touch
different problems connected with slang. It is also mentioned the fact that slang is part of
stylistic classification of the English vocabulary, in general, but of special interest is the
material concerning American English, about its origins, peculiarities, about the origin of the
term itself - some hypothesis (because it's very speculative.) The vast extent of the United
States affords more regional slang that any other country It changes more rapidly, this feature
being influenced by the preceding facts. It owes more - and owes it far more readily and quickly
to cant that does any other national slang.
In the second Chapter the author makes the analysis of the slang words and expressions, she
highlights the differences in the ways they could be formed and the effects they could produce on
the reader. Safronova Alexandra also makes a thorough analysis of the use of slang in different
article types and seeks to find the features peculiar for each of them. The most interesting cases of
slang usage in press are presented in the graduation paper, thoroughly analyzed from different
points of view. The results of the thesis can be used in the course of English Lexicology.

47
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21. Peter Verdonk “Stylistics” Oxford University Press 2002
22. Spears R. ”Slang and Euphemisms”, New York, 1982.
23. V. A. Malzev. “Essays on English Stylistics” Minsk 1984
24. Беляева Т.М., Хомяков В.А. «Нестандартная лексика английского языка», Ленинград,
1985
25. Иванова Е.В. «Сопоставительный анализ моделей словосложения в лексике английского
языка» Ленинград, 1983
26. George Yule “Pragmatics” Oxford University Press 1997
27. А.Н. Мороховский «Стилистика Английского языка" Киев 1984
28.В.И. Шаховский «Проблемы семасиологии и лингвистики.» Рязань 1975

48
Dictionaries.
29. “Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English” Special edition. M., 1992
30. Webster’s” New Word Dictionary of American language”
31. “New Oxford English Dictionary”
32. “Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Compass”
33. Wentworth H., Flexner S.B. “Dictionary of American Slang”, N.Y. 1960
34. „The New Encyclopedia of Britannica” vol.10 Chicago, 1993.

Newspapers
35. New York Post. Friday, October 27, 2006. www.nypost.com
36. Daily News. Monday, October 23, 2006. www.nydailynews.com
37. Newsday. Friday, October 27, 2006. City edition www.newsday.com
38. Entertainment April 27 May, 2007

49
Appendix

not-so-spooky walk complex announcement

clocking in at $ 250 million complex announcement
Things kicked off Jan.16 on Sony's L.A. soundstages. complex announcement
informal
EW's morphology announcement
informal
There's guys morphology announcement
informal
516-572-0200 or nassaucantyny.gov. syntax announcement
informal
Well,do I ever regret it. syntax announcement
informal
Hey, Toby, over there! syntax announcement
informal
The question is, Can you design a parachute in time? syntax announcement
informal word-
Church-in-the-bowery composition announcement
informal word-
cookoff composition announcement
informal word-
south-of-the-border composition announcement
informal word-
dead-on composition announcement
informal word-
a key-to the-city composition announcement
informal word-
runaway-elevated-train sequence composition announcement
informal word-
mid-2004 composition announcement
informal word-
back-to-bed composition announcement
informal word-
a big crane-smashes-into-a-skyscraper-office scene composition announcement
informal word-
new-to-the-team stars composition announcement
informal word-
making 400-something milion composition announcement
Remember "Lost in Translation"? metonymy announcement
people were bugged slang announcement
what exactly are we strapping drool bibs for? slang announcement
oodles slang announcement
spooky walk slang announcement
Pros aim slang announcement
Frenzy slang announcement
dorky slang announcement
bash slang announcement
move (movie) slang announcement
didn't give a s--- slang announcement
teen suspect abbreviation crime rep.
B'klyn abbreviation crime rep.
eBay abbreviation crime rep.
hot spot assonance crime rep.
Creeps hit heap of Jeeps assonance crime rep.
gun-totting teenager complex crime rep.
cop shot complex crime rep.
jeep creeps complex crime rep.
kills teen assailant after trying to stop gun battle complex crime rep.
50
Allegedly get 100 G stripping Qns. Vehicles, selling online complex crime rep.
informal
off duty officer conversion crime rep.
informal
was gunned conversion crime rep.
informal
gun-totting teenager syntax crime rep.
informal
They shooting! syntax crime rep.
informal
Hines' father, Eric Pitt, 38, a construction worker… syntax crime rep.
informal word-
off duty officer composition crime rep.
informal word-
drug-related composition crime rep.
informal word-
ex-cons composition crime rep.
was gunned metaphor crime rep.
He killed my little man. metaphor crime rep.
eatery perephrasis crime rep.
That's when the bullets started to fly… personification crime rep.
cop slang crime rep.
cop slang crime rep.
police buff slang crime rep.
crime spree slang crime rep.
celebs abbreviation gossips
gent abbreviation gossips
LA abbreviation gossips
ep-ed pages abbreviation gossips
drinkin' abbreviation gossips
cheatin' abbreviation gossips
…she's spent millions to fix her face for all it's worth complex gossips
Hill & Bill's b'sday love fe$t complex gossips
Jay-Z is teaming with ESPN to make a TV boxing drama complex gossips
his multimillion-dollar East Side brown stone complex gossips
showed up at his E. 50th St. home complex gossips
3 zapped with conning Con Ed users in Queens complex gossips
Mariah gonged in Hong Kong complex gossips
their return to ABC's"New Year's Rockin' Eve" on "Extra" last night complex gossips
moved many to tears complex gossips
Vonnegut the 84-year-old best-selling sage complex gossips
nude-bongo complex gossips
Reality show auditioning for new Menudo. To modernize the group, it will be
renamed either Younudo or, Nudo. complex gossips
slash-and-burn satirist complex gossips
pretty-boy hunky guy complex gossips
we were feeling kind of blue complex gossips
Wanna try out? complex gossips
he's still basking in the glow of Oscar night complex gossips
a 23-year-old complex gossips
I told him I was gonna kick his butt. complex gossips
informal
is bedding another man conversion gossips
informal
family's morphology gossips
informal
this year's special musical guest morphology gossips
informal
February's morphology gossips
Go ahead and say it,Paw,Paw informal gossips
51
 syntax
informal
Futher proof? syntax gossips
informal
Like, I couldn't read syntax gossips
informal
This is done and over. syntaxis gossips
informal word-
a yet-to-air interview composition gossips
informal word-
filmmakers composition gossips
informal word-
funnyman composition gossips
informal word-
half-sister composition gossips
informal word-
part-owner composition gossips
informal word-
last-minute demands composition gossips
informal word-
spiky-haired composition gossips
informal word-
much-too-memorable composition gossips
informal word-
force-fed composition gossips
informal word-
listnership composition gossips
informal word-
he drew-top-tier politicians composition gossips
informal word-
exec-produced composition gossips
informal word-
the planned-for-'09 composition gossips
informal word-
fiftysomething composition gossips
informal word-
sexpot composition gossips
informal word-
Dorothy-esque composition gossips
informal word-
matchy-matchy dresses composition gossips
informal word-
follow-up composition gossips
fresh grief metaphor gossips
is weighting metaphor gossips
apocalipting joking metaphor gossips
pickled brain metaphor gossips
meat-loaf head Joe metaphor gossips
Masi Oka is dying to work with metaphor gossips
bobs slang gossips
buxom slang gossips
crap slang gossips
daddy slang gossips
dumpy slang gossips
ex-boyfriend slang gossips
ex-wife slang gossips
gandsta slang gossips
gotta slang gossips
leggy slang gossips
nude slang gossips
prissy slang gossips

52
rep slang gossips
soon-to-be-ex slang gossips
boorish slang gossips
phony tales slang gossips
splashed more than $2000000 slang gossips
Mariah Carey, you're no babs slang gossips
pulled out slang gossips
the choleric catwalk queen slang gossips
She passed with flying colors slang gossips
he wed slang gossips
teaching gig slang gossips
nasty slang gossips
f--- yourself slang gossips
UM, oKay slang gossips
man-mane slang gossips
media pundids slang gossips
loony opinions slang gossips
rep slang gossips
biddy slang gossips
crack slang gossips
bogeyman slang gossips
perks slang gossips
A D.C. 'Tsunami' complex politics
Bush launches an of-fence-ive complex politics
informal
yanking conversion politics
informal
she is running for president and don't much care if she interrupts morphology politics
informal word-
scandal-scared composition politics
creeping back pain metaphor politics
to rack up a string of wins metaphor politics
corny slang politics
fans slang politics
pal slang politics
moms abbreviation report
informal
dolled up conversion report
informal
Paris' morphology report
informal word-
getups composition report
to stick around slang report
pooches slang report
social
could've abbreviation problems
social
dad abbreviation problems
social
execs abbreviation problems
social
the MTA has turned… abbreviation problems
If you take out uncovered meat and place it outside…and the cats come toeat social
it…whoose fault is it, the cat's or the uncovered meat's? complex problems
social
that's the word from Jason Alderman complex problems
social
tightlipped complex problems
informal social
to duck conversion problems
53
 informal social
would be backed up… conversion problems
informal social
Here? syntax problems
informal social
Oh, thanks! syntax problems
informal social
So where will he end up? syntax problems
informal word- social
LIRR spokeswoman composition problems
informal word- social
out-of-pocket composition problems
informal word- social
tax-saving composition problems
informal word- social
life-threatening composition problems
informal word- social
F-train composition problems
informal word- social
excavation/examination composition problems
social
grease-stained geniuses metaphor problems
social
And how does the railroad respond? metonymy problems
social
nanny slang problems
social
kit slang problems
social
lousy spot slang problems
social
mommy slang problems
social
bufoons slang problems
informal
his changeup conversion sport rep.
informal
the A's morphology sport rep.
informal
tonight's morphology sport rep.
informal word-
a 3-and-2 count composition sport rep.
informal word-
at-bat composition sport rep.
informal word-
post-season composition sport rep.
informal word-
second-guessers composition sport rep.
informal word-
two-run composition sport rep.
chuckle slang sport rep.
innings slang sport rep.
slugger slang sport rep.

54
55