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Preface
Introduction
Syntax in Language
Syntax in Music
Static Harmony
Dynamic Harmony
Introduction
Auxiliary Chords
Passing Chords
Appoggiatura Chords
Introduction
Chapter 7. Modulation
Basics
In Dynamic Harmony
Tonic to Tonic
General Introduction
Schumann - Kinderszenen No 1.
Appendices
C: Glossary of Terms
D: Glossary of Symbols
Ver. 2.6
CHAPTER 1
THE BASIC SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE
Introduction
Whilst Chord syntax and voice leading syntax are well documented
and understood. What is missing is chord progression syntax. This
theory is the first that attempts to accurately describe chord
progression syntax. By filling this gap we can more fully describe
the syntax of musical language.
This diagram indicates that a sentence is divided into two parts: the
subject and the predicate. The predicate is itself divided up into two
parts: the verb followed by the object. This represents the simplest
complete sentence structure and although more complex structures
are possible they all derive from this simple structure. One method
of adding complexity is by further division of the branches. For
example, the subject could be a noun or could be expanded into a
pronoun + noun or further expanded to include a noun phrase or
verb phrase.
P = Phrase
Opening Section of the
O =
Phrase
C = Closing Section of the Phrase
S.H. = Static Harmony
D.H. = Dynamic Harmony
Cad = Cadence
V = Dominant Chord
I = Tonic Chord
The static harmony establishes the tonic at the start of the phrase
and creates the context of the music by indicating the style and
introducing the main melodic elements. The dynamic harmony
develops these and makes the movement to the cadence. It either
supports the key established in the static harmony or it can
modulate. The dynamic harmony usually elaborates on melodic
elements from the static harmony. The Cadence confirms the key
arrived at and indicates the end of the phrase. The most common
and structurally important cadence in tonal music is the V to I
"perfect cadence" or "complete close" which is why the cadence is
broken down in this way. Other variations are possible but this is the
"reference standard" that other variations make reference to. For
more on cadences (including modal cadences) see cadence in the
glossary of terms.
The reader will at this point no doubt be asking the question: 'Well,
if this is so simple why has no one ever noticed it before?' One
reason for this is that most theories of musical structure concentrate
totally on voice leading or assume that root progressions can be
explained without any reference to voice leading.
Summary
CHAPTER 2 (PART 1)
Introduction
In music, these static and dynamic episodes are created by the use
of different types of harmony. A prolongation of a single chord
creates a sense of being stationary. I will refer to this as static
harmony. Progressions of chords create a sense of moving forward. I
will refer to this type of harmony as dynamic harmony. As well as
varying the tension in music these episodes form the basic building
blocks or syntactic elements that are necessary to make syntactic
phrase structures similar to language sentence structures.
Static Harmony
I - [ IV ] - I
and
I-[V]-I
The square bracket will be used to indicate that a chord is used (in
this case in conjunction with the tonic) to form static harmony. This
type of chord will be referred to as an auxiliary chord by analogy
with the auxiliary note. An auxiliary note is a non-harmony note that
returns back to the harmony note. These are further discussed in
the Voice Leading Appendix and Chapter 3 (part 2). These auxiliary
chords do not create chord progressions since they return to the
chord which precedes them. The example in Chapter 1. included
chord V as an auxiliary chord.
The appearance of the tonic chord in root position whilst the chord
IV auxiliary chords are employed in second inversion emphasises
the subordinate nature of the chord IV auxiliary chords in this
example. In contrast, the two occurrences of the chord V are in root
position, indicating the arrival of the cadence. The horizontal square
bracket shows the extent of the static harmony. In this example, the
static harmony encompasses the V - I cadence, and so, this brief
phrase is made up of totally of static harmony. This topic will be
further discussed in Chapter 6.
The type of chord used for the auxiliary chord can also be an
indicator of the period of the music.
The full book will contain further examples of static harmony from
different periods of music.
Dynamic Harmony
The reversals of these progressions: α', β' and γ' are weak and are
generally (but not completely) avoided in dynamic harmony in
common practice tonal music.
Whilst the primary triads IV and V are the most common chords
used in forming static patterns, in one key, there is only one
dynamic pattern that can be formed (starting and ending in chord I)
with these chords, using only strong progressions, as follows:
The examples given above are both from pieces in major keys. In
the minor key, chords I and IV are minor, chord II is diminished and
chord VI is major. However, these chords are used in a similar way
to the way the same chords are used in the major key. I will include
more on this topic in the full book.
In music prior to the tonal period and in 20th century modal music,
the degree of polarisation is less evident so that the weaker
progressions are used more frequently. Consequently, weak
progression create a modal effect or mood. The degree of
polarisation is thus a style indicator.
NON-FUNCTIONAL CHORDS
Introduction
Chords that do not contain a perfect 4th or 5th do not enable the
ear to easily determine a root for the chord. Consequently, these
chords are normally used as non-functional chords. These include
the diminished 7th chord, the augmented 5th chord and the various
forms of the augmented 6th chord*. These chords are non-
functional due to their very nature. Other non-functional chords are
note combinations that in other circumstances would be heard as
functional chords. Simple triads and 7th chords can be used as non-
functional chords when they arise from voice leading movement
such as passing notes, auxiliary notes or appoggiaturas. The latter
types are ones that can lead to misinterpretation as they are easy to
mistake as functional harmony.
* One form of the augmented 6th chord (the German 6th chord)
does contain a perfect fifth, but due to the way the augmented 6th
interval resolves outwards, the chord behaves like a non-functional
chord except where it is reinterpreted and resolves like a dominant
7th chord in a new key. See Glossary: augmented 6th chord and
Chapter 7: Modulation via Chromatic Chords and also chromaticism
in the Voice Leading Appendix.
There are three types of non-functional chord that could be
confused with functional chords: The Auxiliary Chord, The
Passing Chord and The Appoggiatura Chord. The reason for
giving these chords special names is not because they have a
special significance but because they are capable of being confused
with functional chords. In reality, they arise out of voice leading just
as other surface voice leading patterns (passing notes, auxiliary
notes etc) do. The first type was introduced in the last chapter as it
is important in forming static harmony patterns. The second type
occurs frequently and in many forms. The third type is significant
mainly as a device for elaborating the cadence by extending the
dominant (and sometimes the tonic) harmony.
FUNCTIONAL CHORDS:
Except for alterations to the 3rd of the chord (and in cycles of 5ths),
are not usually chromatic.
NON-FUNCTIONAL CHORDS:
CHAPTER 3 (PART 2)
NON-FUNCTIONAL CHORDS
Auxiliary Chords
The auxiliary chord is named by analogy with the auxiliary note. The
following example contains auxiliary notes marked with an "A":
The short duration of the auxiliary note does not create a feeling of
a change in the harmony. An auxiliary chord, is an extension of the
auxiliary note such that the duration of the auxiliary note and the
way the note sounds in conjunction with the other notes of the
chord, creates a sense of a change in harmony. This type of chord
has its origins in 16th century polyphony. See Voice Leading
Appendix: Auxiliary Notes and Linear Progressions for more details.
The examples marked a) are not very common (at least in the
inversions shown) as they generate the secondary triads vi and iii.
I've shown these in lower case letters to hightlight the fact that they
are minor.
The examples marked b) are very common since they generate the
primary triads IV and V by the simultaneous auxiliary movement of
two voices.
Similar auxiliary chords may be drawn up for the minor key, In this
case, the 7th degree of the scale is usually sharpened to form the
major chord V.
The next three auxiliary chords in c) (i), (ii), (iii) are the three
possible diminished 7th chords. I've shown all three for
completeness and to introduce the terminology to be used for each
of these. See below. (i) and (ii) are common auxiliary formations,
but (iii) is more usually deployed as a passing chord between I and II
as the C - B-flat movement has a tendency to continue downward to
A rather than to return to the C. (see next section - passing chords).
The example c) (ii) could be shown with a D# instead of the Eb.
Please see note below on naming of chromatic chords.
Example d) is an example of the "German" version of the
augmented 6th chord, created by three chromatic auxiliary notes all
moving a semitone and back. The Eb could also be shown as a D#
auxiliary note but is usually shown as Eb in this situation.
NON-FUNCTIONAL CHORDS
Passing Chords
The passing chord is named by analogy with the passing note. The
following example contains a passing note marked with a "P":
The passing note fills in the gap between notes of adjacent chords.
It sounds whilst at least one note of the proceeding chord is
retained. The short duration and nature of the passing note does not
create a feeling of a change of harmony. The passing note usually
forms a discord with other notes of the chord, as it does here. Note:
I've shown chord ii in lower case letters to highlight the fact that it is
a minor chord.
The passing chord is an extension of the passing note such that the
duration of the passing note(s) and the way the note(s) sound, in
conjunction with other notes of the chord, creates a sense of a
change in harmony. Using the analytical symbols introduced earlier,
the following harmonic outlines indicate some of the possibilities
within the diatonic major scale:
.
All the passing chords in the figure above are made up of two types
of notes:
1. notes which are retained from the preceding chord (shown here
as repeated white note heads) and
All the examples above start with chord I. However, the patterns
may be transposed so that they start on other scale steps. For
example, I ( iii ) IV could be transposed to ii ( IV ) V etc. It is not
the actual scale steps involved that matter but the succession of
scale steps. Similar patterns may also be derived for the minor key.
The white note heads indicate notes from functional chords and the
black note heads indicate the passing notes involved in voice
leading. The note combination highlighted by an * appears at first
sight to be a chord iii in root position. However, the chord iii arises
as a result of a passing note in the melody between chord I and
chord IV. The F# is a stepwise filling in note between the G in chord
I and the E in chord IV. The bass note B arises as an arpeggiation of
the G major chord in the bass. As the chord iii is the result of a
passing note and an arpeggiation, it will be referred to as a passing
chord. The chord iii is thus the result of a voice leading movement
rather than an harmonic movement. As this is a passing chord I've
shown the iii in round brackets in this outline. I've shown the bass
arpeggiation with a slur to show the two notes belong to the same
structural chord. I've shown the descending passing note connected
to the notes it fills in between with stems and a beam to highlight
this passing motion because of its particular interest here. In this
example, I've also followed the convention that I will follow in the
full analysis chapter, that is that I have not shown the notes
repeated form the preceding chord as new white notes in the
passing chord. The assumption is that where these notes do not
move they are still in force whilst the bass arpeggiates and the
melody moves to the passing note. The ascending passing note
between E and G, I've just shown as "P". This descending passing
note pattern also occurs frequently with the passing note in the
bass.
NON-FUNCTIONAL CHORDS
Appoggiatura Chords
V 7 - IV 7 - I 7
Puccini's aria Nessun Dorma ends with the same cadential pattern,
showing the influence of the blues on this early 20th century piece.
LINEAR PROGRESSIONS
Those readers who are familiar with Schenker's theory should note
that the use of the term 'linear progression' in this book is similar to,
but not exactly the same as that by Schenker. In this book, the term
is used more in line with 16th century polyphony and the traditional
rules of voice leading, rather than in the extended way used by
Schenker. By limiting its use in this way, the relationship between
root progressions and voice leading can be more clearly described
than in pure Schenkerian theory.
The following example contains just about the simplest kind of linear
progression possible. It is totally diatonic, it is created by a linear
movement between two successive tonic chords and is not
extended by any further elaboration other than surface arpeggios
and passing notes.
CHAPTER 5 (PART 1)
All harmonic structures in tonal music derive from the basic phrase
structure as explained in Chapter 1. The basic syntactic structure
can be extended in various ways, just as sentence structures in
language can be. In this chapter we will consider extensions within
the basic phrase structure and in the next chapter extensions
outside of the basic structure.
There are three types of extension possible within the basic musical
phrase structure:
The following eight bar dominant prolongation from the Bach: First
Prelude (see below) is based on a simple oscillation between
dominant and tonic. The dominant and tonic chords here exchange
roles in comparison with their roles in an opening section static
harmony. That is to say, in this dominant prolongation the tonic
chord acts as an auxiliary chord to the repeated occurrences of the
dominant chord which is being prolonged. The tonic auxiliary chords
are shown in square brackets in the harmonic outline.
The tonic chord of the cadence can also be prolonged by the use of
static harmony. This has the effect of extending the end of the
musical phrase. This I will refer to this as a static coda.
In the following example from the Mozart: Sonata K545, the final
chord I is prolonged by a simple I [ V ] I chord oscillation. This is a
common type of static coda, especially in the classical period.
CHAPTER 5 (PART 4)
MODULATION
MODULATION
MODULATION
Since the second voice enters with the answer to the fugal subject
one fifth higher, static harmony on G starts immediately. At bar 5,
the first fugal 'episode' starts. This is a rising sequence based on
dynamic harmony using α and β progressions.