CELLS
Diffusion is the net
The Generalized Animal Cell:
1. A cell is the basic, living,
structural and functional unit of the
body.
2. A generalized cell is a
composite that represents various
cells of the body.
3. Cytology is the science
concerned with the study of cells.
4. The principal parts of a cell
are the plasma (cell) membrane,
cytoplasm, organelles, and
inclusions. Extracellular materials
are manufactured by the cell and
deposited outside the plasma
membrane.
Plasma (Cell) Membrane:
1. The plasma (cell)
membrane, surrounds the cell and
separates it from other cells and
the external environment.
2. It is composed primarily of
proteins and phospholipids.
According to the fluid mosaic
model, the membrane consists of a
phospholipid bilayer with integral
and peripheral proteins.
Functions:
1. Functionally, the
plasma membrane
facilitates contact with other
cells, provides receptors,
and mediates the passage
of materials.
2. The membrane's
selectively permeable
nature restricts the passage
of certain substances.
Substances can pass
through the membrane
depending on their
molecular size, lipid
solubility, electrical charges,
and the presence of
carriers.
Movement of Materials Across Plasma
Membranes:
1. Passive processes involve
the kinetic energy of individual
molecules.
2.
movement of molecules or ions
from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration until an equilibrium
is reached.
3. In facilitated diffusion,
certain molecules, such as glucose,
combine with a carrier to become
soluble in the phospholipid portion
of the membrane.
4. Osmosis is the movement of
water through a selectively
permeable membrane from an area
of higher water concentration to an
area of lower water concentration.
5. In an isotonic solution, red
blood cells maintain their normal
shape; in a hypotonic solution, they
undergo hemolysis; in a hypertonic
solution, they undergo crenation.
6. Filtration is the movement
of water and dissolved substances
across a selectively permeable
membrane by pressure.
7. Dialysis is the diffusion of
solute particles across a selectively
permeable membrane and involves
the separation of small molecules
from large molecules.
Active processes involve the use of ATP by the
cell.
1. Active transport is the movement of ions
across a cell membrane from lower to
higher concentration. Movement of
substances across a membrane, usually
against a gradient, requires energy
expenditure and a carrier molecule.
2. Endocytosis in the movement of
substances through plasma membranes in
which the membrane surrounds the
substance, encloses it, and brings it into
the cell.
a. Phagocytosis is the ingestion of
solid particles by pseudopodia. It is
an important process used by
white blood cells to destroy
bacteria that enter the body.
b. Pinocytosis is the ingestion of a
liquid by the plasma membrane. In
this process, the liquid becomes
surrounded by a vacuole.
c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis in
the selective uptake of large
molecules and particles by cells.
Cytoplasm:
 1. Cytoplasm is the substance
inside the cell that contains
organelles and inclusions.
2. It is composed mostly of
water plus proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, and inorganic substances.
The chemicals in cytoplasm are
either in solution or in a colloid
(suspended) form.
3. Functionally, cytoplasm is
the medium in which chemical
reactions occur.
Organelles:
1. Organelles are specialized
portions of the cell that carry on
specific activities.
2. They assume specific roles
in cellular growth, maintenance,
repair, and control.
Nucleus:
1. Usually the largest
organelle, the nucleus controls
cellular activities and contains the
genetic information.
2. Cells without nuclei, such as
mature red blood cells, do not grow
or reproduce.
3. The parts of the nucleus
include the nuclear membrane,
karyolymph, nucleoli, and genetic
material (DNA), comprising the
chromosomes.
4. Chromosomes consist of
DNA and histones and consist of
subunits called nucleosomes.
Ribosomes:
1. Ribosomes are granular
structures consisting of ribosomal
RNA and ribosomal proteins.
2. They occur free (singly or in
clusters) or in conjunction with
endoplasmic reticulum.
3. Functionally, ribosomes are
the sites of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
1. The ER is a network of
parallel membranes continuous
with the plasma membrane and
nuclear membrane.
2. Granular or rough ER has
ribosomes attached to it. Agranular
or smooth ER does not contain
ribosomes.
3. The ER provides mechanical
support, conducts intracellular
nerve impulses in muscle cells,
exchanges materials with
cytoplasm, transports substances
intracellularly, stores synthesized
molecules. and helps export
chemicals from the cell.
Golgi Complex (Golgi Body):
1. The Golgi complex consists
of four to eight stacked,
membranous sacs called cisternae.
2. In conjunction with the ER,
the Golgi complex secretes
proteins and lipids and synthesizes
and secretes glycoproteins.
3. It is particularly prominent
in secretory cells such as those in
the pancreas or salivary glands.
Mitochondria:
1. Mitochondria consist of a
smooth outer membrane and a
folded inner membrane
surrounding the interior matrix.
The inner folds are called cristae.
2. The mitochondria are called
"powerhouses of the cell" because
ATP is produced in them.
3. Today mitochondria are
generally considered to be
endosymbionts rather than simply
cellular organelles.
Lysosomes:
1. Lysosomes are spherical
structures that contain digestive
enzymes. They are formed from
Golgi complexes.
2. They are found in large
numbers in white blood cells, which
carry on phagocytosis.
3. If the cell is injured,
Iysosomes release enzymes and
digest the cell. Thus they are called
"suicide packets."
4. Lysosomes are also involved
in bone removal and remodeling.
Peroxisomes:
1. Peroxisomes are similar in
structure to Iysosomes, but
smaller.
 2. They contain enzymes (e.g.,
catalase) involved in the
metabolism of hydrogen peroxide.
Microfilaments and Microtubules - The
Cytoskeleton:
1. Together microfilaments
and microtubules form the
cytoskeleton.
2. Microfilaments are rodlike
structures consisting of the
protein actin or myosin. They
are involved in muscular
contraction, support, and
movement.
3. Microtubules are
cylindrical structures consisting of
the protein tubulin. They support,
provide movement, and form the
structure of flagella, cilia,
centrioles, and the mitotic
spindle.
Centrosome and Centrioles:
1. The dense area of
cytoplasm containing the centrioles
is called a centrosome. It is
located near the nucleus.
2. Centrioles are paired
cylinders arranged at right angles
to one another. They assume an
important role in cell reproduction.
Flagella and Cilia:
1. These cellular projections
have the same basic structure and
are used in movement.
2. If projections are few and
long, they are called flagella. If
they are numerous and hairlike,
they are called cilia.
3. The flagellum on a sperm
cell moves the entire cell. The cilia
on cells of the respiratory tract
move foreign matter trapped in
mucus along the cell surfaces
toward the throat for elimination.
Cellular Inclusions:
1. Cell inclusions are chemical
substances produced by cells. They
are usually organic and may have
recognizable shapes
2. Examples are melanin,
glycogen, lipids, and mucus.
Extracellular Materials:
1. These are all the substances
that lie outside the cell membrane.
2. They provide support and a
medium for the diffusion of
nutrients and wastes.
3. Some, like hyaluronic acid
and chondroitin sulfate, are
amorphous. Others, like
collagenous, reticular, and elastic
fibers, are fibrous.
Cell Division:
1. Cell division is the process
by which cells reproduce
themselves. It consists of nuclear
division and cytoplasmic division
(cytokinesis).
2. Cell division that results in
the production of sperm and eggs
is called reproductive cell division
and consists of a nuclear division
called meiosis and cytokinesis.
3. Cell division that results in
an increase in body cells is called
somatic cell division and involves a
nuclear division called mitosis and
cytokinesis.
Somatic Cell Division:
1. Prior to mitosis and
cytokinesis, the DNA molecules, or
chromosomes, replicate
themselves so the same
chromosomal complement can be
passed on to future generations of
cells.
2. A cell carrying on such
every life process except division is
said to be in interphase or
metabolic interphase.
3. Mitosis is the distribution of
two sets of chromosomes into
separate and equal nuclei following
their replication.
4. It consists of prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.
5. Cytokinesis begins in late
anaphase and terminates in
telophase.
6. A cleavage furrow forms at
the cell's equator and progresses
 inward, cutting through the cell to
form two separate portions of
cytoplasm.
Gene Action - Protein Synthesis:
1. Most of the cellular
machinery is concerned with
synthesizing proteins.
2. Cells make proteins by
translating the genetic information
encoded in DNA into specific
proteins. This involves transcription
and translation.
3. In transcription, genetic
information encoded in DNA is
copied by a strand of messenger
RNA (mRNA); the DNA strand that
serves as the template is called the
sense strand.
4. DNA also synthesizes
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
template or transfer RNA (tRNA).
5. The process of using the
information in the nitrogen base
sequence of mRNA to dictate the
amino acid sequence of a protein is
known as translation.
6. mRNA associates with
ribosomes, which consist of rRNA
and protein.
7. Specific amino acids are
attached to molecules of tRNA.
Another portion of the tRNA has a
triplet of bases called an anticodon;
a codon is a segment of three
bases of mRNA.
8. tRNA delivers a specific
amino acid to the codon; the
ribosome moves along an mRNA
strand as amino acids are joined to
form a growing polypeptide.
"SOS" Genes - DNA Repair:
1. The structure of DNA is
vulnerable to damage by harmful
radiations and various chemicals.
2. Damage could lead to
cellular malfunction that might lead
to cancer.
3. In response to DNA damage,
an "SOS response" occurs; certain
genes produce enzymes that repair
genetic damage. DNA Polymerase
is an example.
Cells and Aging:
1. Aging is a progressive
failure of the body's homeostatic
adaptive responses.
2. Many theories of aging have
been proposed, including
genetically programmed cessation
of cell division and excessive
immune responses, but none
successfully answers all questions.
3. All of the various body
systems exhibit definitive and
sometimes extensive changes with
aging
Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances
1. Cancerous tumors are
referred to as malignant;
noncancerous tumors are called
benign; the study of tumors is
called oncology.
2. The spread of cancer from
its primary site is called
metastasis.
3. Carcinogens include
environmental agents and viruses.
Mitosis
Body growth, replacement of cells that have a
short lifespan, and repair of injured tissues
depend on the reproduction of cells. The most
common form of cell division is mitosis.
1. Interphase- This is the stage or period when
cells are not undergoing cell division. It is in this
phase that duplication of DNA takes place.
DNA- molecule basis of heredity.
2. Prophase- The centrioles separate and begin
to move to opposite sides of the cell.
Chromosome threads become more tightly coiled
and the two halves called chromatids can be
seen.
3. Metaphase- The nuclear membrane
dissolves, and fine tubules are seen extending
toward the midline of the cell. The chromosomes
form a line in the middle of the cell attaching
themselves to the tubules.
4. Anaphase- The two chromatids of each
chromosome are completely separated from each
other and can be considered chromosomes. The
tubules pull them to their respective sides of the
cell.
5. Telephase- The cell membrane constricts at
the midpoint, the chromosomes begin to uncoil,
and the nuclear membranes of the daughter cells
are formed. Finally, mitosis is complte with two
new cells formed, each with 46 chromosomes
containing the hereditary code of the cell.

Meiosis

The sex cells, the female ovum and male sperm,

are formed not by mitosis but meiosis, or a
process called reduction division, because
during division the number of chromosomes is
reduced. Each mature sex cell formed in this
process has half the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell. Thus, when the ovum with 23
chromosomes is fertilized by sperm with 23
chromosomes, the cell produced will have the
proper number of 46.