Chapter 4

Aerodynamic Performance of
Finite Wings

Reading: Sections 7.1–7.3 in Bertin. Much of the rest of the chapter focuses
on vortex lattice methods, which we will only touch on briefly.

After completing this unit, you will be able to explain the physical dif-
ferences between infinite span (two-dimensional) and finite span (three-
dimensional) wing performance. Specifically, you will be able to:

Explain physically why lift is lower for a finite-span wing than a com-
parable infinite span wing.

Describe the cause of induced drag for finite-span wings.

Use the results of lifting line theory to estimate 3D wing performance

from 2D airfoil data.

Apply lifting line theory to estimate 3D wing performance for arbi-

trary planform.

23
 24

4.0.1 Basic Results of Lifting Line Theory

Prandtl’s lifting line theory finds the spanwise lift distribution that makes
downwash and lift match up everywhere.
In the best case, the finite wing gives

CL
1 C l
2
AR

CL2
CDi

π AR

where AR  b2
S is the wing aspect ratio.

4.0.2 Experimental Verification

See Figs 7.9 and 7.10 in Bertin.

4.1. BASIS OF LIFTING LINE THEORY 25

4.0.3 Roadmap
1. Development of lifting line theory
2. Best case scenario: the elliptical lift distribution
3. Realistic cases: variable chord, airfoil section, and angle of attack
4. Estimating maximum lift from experimental data

4.1 Basis of Lifting Line Theory

4.1.1 Finite Wing with Non-constant Circulation Distri-

bution
U
8

Γ(y)
z
y

w(y)

4.1.2 Downwash Velocity

A single vortex filament of circulation dΓ located at y gives a net downwash
of

This is exactly half of the induced velocity for a doubly-infinite line vortex.
The total induced velocity is therefore


w y 

b dΓ y

 y
1 2 dy
1 dy
4π b
2
y1
4.1. BASIS OF LIFTING LINE THEORY 26

 


ε  y  
b dΓ y

 y
w y1 1 2 dy
1 dy (4.1)
U∞ 4πU∞ b
2
y1

4.1.3 Induced Angle of Attack

U
8
ε
w
U

4.1.4 Pick an Angle, Any Angle

Definitions:

α Geometric angle of attack (AOA): direction of freestream flow

αL0 Zero lift angle: AOA for which 2D section gives zero lift; usually neg-
ative

αe Effective AOA: α  ε; when multiplied by 2D lift-slope curve a0 gives

2D lift coefficient

ε Induced AOA: change in flow direction due to 3D downwash; opposite

sign as lift
4.2. APPLYING LIFTING LINE THEORY 27

Zero-lift flow
α0l direction
Freestream flow
α αe Chord line
direction
ε
U
8

Equivalent 2D
flow direction

2D lift curve
C
l

3D lift curve

a0α0 aαa

α L0 αe ε α
α

4.2 Applying Lifting Line Theory

Once we know circulation distribution Γ y , the lift per unit span is easy: 

l y ρU∞Γ y  (4.2)

So is the total lift:

   l y dy
b
2
L b
2

 ρU   Γ y dy
b
2
∞ b
2

Induced drag is related to induced angle of attack and local lift by:

di y   
l y ε y

  ρU∞ Γ y  wU y
∞
(4.3)

and total induced drag is found by integration:

 ρ   w y Γ y dy
b
2
D b
2
4.3. SPECIAL CASE: ELLIPTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CIRCULATION28

4.3 Special Case: Elliptical Distribution of Cir-

culation
Suppose that circulation distribution is elliptical:



Γ y Γ0 1   by 2 2
2

where Γ0 is the circulation at the wing symmetry plane.

Lift coefficient: If we write wing area as S,

 
CL
1
 
b 2
ρU∞ Γ y dy 
Γ0 πb
2 ρU∞ S
1 2 2U∞ S
b 2

Induced angle of attack: Substituting into Equation 4.1,

 
Γ0
 b
d
dy  1 
y2
2


b 2

y y
2
ε y1 dy
4πU∞ b
2 1

We can make a trig substitution y
 2 cos φ

b
and get

 

ε φ0
Γ0 π cos φ
2πbU∞ 0 cos φ0 cos φ
dφ


Γ0 CL

2bU∞ π AR 
4.3.1 Ideal Relationship Between 2D and 3D Lift

For a 2D wing with constant cross section, no twist, and elliptical lift distri-
bution, the 2D lift coefficient from thin airfoil theory is

Cl
2π α   αL0 
With elliptical lift distribution, there is an induced flow angle that reduces
the angle of attack
ε
CL

πAR
4.3. SPECIAL CASE: ELLIPTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CIRCULATION29

so the lift coefficient at each wing section is

l y 
   ε
2 ρU∞ c
1 2  y 2π α αL0

which is constant! And therefore equal to CL . So

  α  CL
CL 2π α L0
πAR 
CL  1  A2R 
2π  α  α  L0

C
1 C2 AR l
L

4.3.2 Induced Drag for Elliptic Lift Distribution

Induced angle of attack again: We can now relate ε to CL for an elliptic
lift distribution:

ε
Γ0
1 CL 2U∞ S
2bU∞ 2bU∞ πb

CL
πAR

where AR  b2
S

Induced drag: Because ε is constant for this case,

Di Lε
CDi CL ε

CL2
πAR

4.3.3 Example
Wing characteristics:

Elliptical planform
Elliptical lift distribution
Aspect ratio of 6
4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 30

Span 12 m
Wing loading 900 N m2 

Flying @ 150 km hr at sea level

Find:

Wing area
Total lift
Induced drag
Power to overcome induced drag

4.4 General Lifting Line Theory

Section lift coefficient Cl in terms of circulation:

Cl y  l y 


ρU∞ Γ y 2Γ y 
2 ρU∞ c 2 ρU∞ c
1 2 1 2 U∞ c

Also can write in terms of effective angle of attack and lift-curve slope:

Cl y 
 dCl
dα  α 
2D
e α0l 
4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 31

Equating these two and replacing αe
α  ε and    dCl

dα a0 ,
2D

2Γ  y 

a  α  y   ε  y   α  y 
U c  y
0 0l
∞

Five things can vary along the span here:

circulation Γ
chord c (taper)
geometric angle of attack α (twist)
downwash angle ε
zero lift angle of attack α0l (aerodynamic twist)

Restrictions:

Small sweep
Not-too-small aspect ratio

If restrictions don’t hold, then something like a vortex lattice method is the
next-simplest choice.

4.4.1 General Circulation Distributions

If y
 2 cos φ,
b
the elliptical circulation distribution is

 

Γ φ Γ0 sin φ

Suppose that we use a general sine series instead:

Γ  φ

∞
2bU∞ ∑ An sin nφ

n 1

  
Can relate downwash to circulation:

ε
 w
 1 b 2 dΓ dy

   dy
U∞ 4πU∞ b 2 y y1

∑ nAn sin nφ
sin φ
4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 32

4.4.2 General Lifting Line Results

4bU∞ ∑ An sin nφ
   ∑ nAn sin nφ

  
U∞ c y  a0 α y
sin φ
α0l y

    
c φ a0
α φ α0l φ  
  
c φ a0 ∑ nAn sin nφ
∑ An sin nφ 4b
4b sin φ
 
c φ a0
    φ
   
c φ a0
4b
sin φ α φ α0l ∑ An sin nφ n 4b sin φ 
After a fair bit of manipulation,
CL
πA1 AR  (4.4)


CL2  ∑n
∞
An 2
CDi π AR ∑ nA2n
 
π AR
1

n 2 A1  (4.5)

4.4.3 What These Mode Shapes Look Like

1
N=1
0.8 N=2
N=3
0.6 N=4
N=5
Magnitude of sin(n φ)

0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
2y/b

4.4.4 What Do You Do With This Mess?

c φ a0       
∑ An sin nφ 
  
c φ a0
4b
sin φ α φ α0l φ
4b
sin φ
 (4.6)
4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 33

What do we know?

Distribution of chord c
Distribution of geometric angle of attack (including twist) α
Distribution of zero lift angle of attack αL0
Distribution of lift curve slope for wing sections a0 (doesn’t vary
much in practice)

What do we need to know?

Coefficients An

How do we find those?

Decide how many terms to keep in the series (terms through A8

is generally enough)
Pick as many values of φ over the wing as An (or half-wing, for
cases without roll)
Evaluate Eq. 4.6 for each φ to get a set of linear eqns for the An

4.4.5 Example: Rectangular Wing

Given:

Aspect ratio = 6
No camber (αL0
0 everywhere)
No twist (α constant)
Cl
2πα

Find: (as functions of α)

Lift coefficient
Induced drag coefficient
4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 34

Compare with elliptical planform

4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 35

4.4.5.1 Results: Circulation Distribution for Rectangular Wing

0.25
N=1
N=3
0.2 N=5
N=7
Total
Magnitude of sin(n φ)

0.15

0.1

0.05

-0.05
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
2y/b

4.4.6 Group Example: A Rectangular Wing with Washout

Given:

Aspect ratio = 6
No camber (αL0
0 everywhere)
!
Washout of 3 at tip (linear distribution in y)
Angle of attack α 5o

Cl
2πα for all sections
Use only A1 , A3 , and A5 and three points (at π6 , π3 , π2 )

Find:

Lift coefficient
4.4. GENERAL LIFTING LINE THEORY 36

Induced drag coefficient

4.4.6.1 Converting Circulation to Local Lift Coefficient

Using LLT, we calculate An in expansion of Γ. To get lift:

 
ρU∞Γ  φ
Cl φ
2 ρU∞ c
1 2  φ

2
 
c φ U∞
2bU∞ ∑ An sin nφ

4b
  c φ ∑
An sin nφ

So for the washout example, at α
5 ! :

C  φ

l
4b b
c b
 A sin φ  A sin 3φ 
1 3 A5 sin 5φ 
4.5. ESTIMATING MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT 37

  


4AR A1 sin φ A3 sin 3φ A5 sin 5φ
"  "
0 3738 sinφ 0 0205 sin3φ 0 0173 sin5φ
 " 
4.4.6.2 Results: Lift Distribution for Wing with Washout

0.45
N=1
0.4 N=3
N=5
0.35 Total
0.3

#
0.25
Cl

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
2y/b

4.5 Estimating Maximum Lift Coefficient

Need to find αstall , so need Cl φ α : $ % &
C $ φ &'
4b
c $ φ& ∑
l A sin nφ n

$ &
with An α . For the washout example,
Cl φ ( )+* (
4AR A1 sin φ , A3 sin 3φ , A5 sin 5φ )
* ( 5- 755α . 0- 1285) sin φ , ( 0 - 6715α . 0 - 0791) sin 3φ
, ( 0 - 0954α , 0 - 0090) sin 5φ
/ ' 0
In this case, things are easy, because max section lift coefficient is at mid-
span φ π2 . So max Cl is

Cl max α 1 $ &' 5 2 178α 3 0 2 0404

4.6. BREAKDOWN OF LIFTING LINE THEORY 38

0 " 317rad
18 " 2!

If the wing section has a Cl at stall (from experiment) of 1.6, then
α

4.5.1 Group Example: Max Lift (Rectangular Wing)

For the rectangular wing example without washout, and Cl max 4
1 " 55, find:
Stall angle of attack
Maximum wing lift coefficient.

Wing Stall
See Figure 7.17 and 7.18 in Bertin.

4.6 Breakdown of Lifting Line Theory

Low Aspect Ratio

Swept
Delta
4.7. BASIC FLIGHT MECHANICS 39

4.7 Basic Flight Mechanics

4.7.1 Forces on an Airplane in Flight

D T

4.7.2 Steady, Level Flight

Forces are in equilibrium, so:

L
W
CL
ρ∞U∞2
S
2
T
D
CD
ρ∞U∞2
S
2
where

L is lift
W weight
T thrust
D drag
CL lift coefficient
CD drag coefficient
S wing planform area

4.7.2.1 Minimizing Drag

Drag comes in two main flavors: parasite drag and drag due to lift
4.7. BASIC FLIGHT MECHANICS 40

 CL2
  δ
CD CDP
π AR1

For a given weight and flight condition, CL is fixed, so minimize CD CL : 

CD
CDP  CL
  δ
CL CL π AR1

Need 


d CD CL
dCL 0:

  

d CD CL CDP  1
  δ

dCL CL2 
π AR
1 0

So the parasite drag coefficient must be

CL2
  δ
CDP
π AR
1

which is the same as the drag due to lift!

4.7.2.2 Flight Speed for Minimum Power

Power in level flight

5

 C  C  1  δ ρ U S 2 3
∞ ∞
π  AR  2
L
DU∞ DP

 C  C  1  δ ρ  2W  2
∞
3 2

π  AR  2 C ρS 
L
DP S

2W C   C   1  δ
L
3 1 2

ρ S  C π  AR
DP L
3 2
∞
L

Differentiate to find the optimal CL :

CL2
  

3πCDP AR
1 δ
67 8
3CL L D max
4.7. BASIC FLIGHT MECHANICS 41

4.7.3 Climb Performance

For climb at an angle γ,


L
T

W cos γ
D W sin γ

For small angle of climb, cos γ 9 1, and

sin γ
T D9 T
 D
W W L
Rate of climb is

RC
U∞ sin γ
  
U∞ T D


W

engine power drag power
W