IF AMPLIFIER

1
ANALOG COMMUNICATION LAB
REPORT - SESSION 8

Submitted by:
Anil Vishnu G K
Allen Job
Asish Oommen Abraham
Ajmal V K

5th November
Contents

Introduction 2

Principle 3

1
Introduction

One aspect of design that is integral and imperative in the design of any
communication system is the frequency selectivity of the system proposed to
be designed. Oftentimes than not the specifications demand the emphasis
on certain frequency components at the output as compared to others. that
is the ouptput of certain stages of the circuit has to be frequency selective.
Implementation of such a selectivity is oftentimes referred to as tuning. That
is we tune the circuit to operate at a particular frequency. Such a block
(Tuning) finds its application in almost all kinds of communication systems.
One practical example would be the radio systems that have been in existence
for some time now. The type of receiver that is employed in such systems is
referred to as the superheterodyne receiver. They usually employ an tuned
amplifier to amplify the Intermediate frequency range (455 KHz). Even if
we take any general circuit design situation we would always require to give
importance and emphasis to certain frequencies. Hence the necessity for
designing such blocks. An intuitive exploration would immediately bring one
to the conclusion that there are only two blocks required to design a simple
yet working single stage tuned amplifier. One would need an amplifier to
take the input obtained to the necessary signal levels and a tuning circuit
(like an RLC circuit ) to zero in on the required frequency. It is with this
basic idea that the design of the circuit be approached.

2
Principles

When we go about designing such a tuned amplifier circuit the first logical
step to which we reach is selection of circuit blocks that will be required.
There is the necessity for an amplifier circuit to enhance the signal frequen-
cies received and then of course the tuning block for tunig the output to the
desired frequency plus or minus some allowed side frequencies. The coupling
of the amplifier block and the tuning block is another point to be taken care
of-in what part of the amplifier circuit should the tuning block be kept. Be-
fore we go into those complexities what is required first is a detailed analysis
of the tuning block itself. The section that follows gives an analysis of the
common parallel R-L-C tuning circuit.

R-L-C Analysis
Consider a parallel R-L-C circuit combination as given below. We have to
see both the zero state response and the zero input response of the circuit
to a standard input signal say an impulse.An analysis based on impulse
response is what is particularly important as it is the only input that can
excite all the poles and zeroes of a given circuit. There is the need to see
both the transient as well as the stable state responses.We may distinguish
the transient behavior of an electrical circuit from its steady-state, in that
during the transients all the quantities, such as currents, voltages, power and
energy, are changed in time, while in steady-state they remain invariant, i.e.
constant (in d.c. operation) or periodical (in a.c. operation) having constant
amplitudes and phase angles.

The cause of transients is any kind of changing in circuit parameters

and/or in circuit configuration, which usually occur as a result of switch-
ing (commuta- tion), short, and/or open circuiting, change in the operation

3
of sources etc. The changes of currents, voltages etc. during the transients
are not instantaneous and take some time, even though they are extremely
fast with a duration of milliseconds or even microseconds. These very fast
changes, however, cannot be instantaneous (or abrupt) since the transient
processes are attained by the interchange of energy, which is usually stored
in the magnetic field of inductances or/and the electrical field of capaci-
tances. Any change in energy cannot be abrupt otherwise it will result in
infinite power (as the power is a derivative of energy, p = dw dt
), which is in
contrast to physical reality. All transient changes, which are also called tran-
sient responses (or just responses), vanish and, after their disappearance, a
new steady-state operation is established. In this respect, we may say that
the transient describes the circuit behavior between two steady-states: an
old one, which was prior to changes, and a new one, which arises after the
changes.

There are basically two methods of transient analysis the classical differen-
tial equation based and the transform based.Comparing the classical method
and the transformation method it should be noted that the latter requires
more knowledge of mathematics and is less related to the physical matter of
transient behavior of electric circuits than the former.The basic RLC analyis
here will be done using the classical method whereas in later sessions the
analysis of the entire tuning circuit including the amplifier stage will be done
using the transform method so as to introduce both.

The parameters L and C are characterized by their ability to store en-

2
ergy:magnetic energy wl = ψ.i 2
= L.i2 (since ψ = L.i), in the magnetic field
2
and electric energy wc = q.v2
= C.v2
(since q = C.v ), in the electric field of
the circuit. The voltage and current sources are the elements through which
the energy is supplied to the circuit. Thus, it may be said that an electrical
circuit, as a physical system, is characterized by certain energy conditions in
its steady-state behavior. Under steady-state conditions the energy stored
in the various inductances and capacitances, and supplied by the sources in
a d.c. circuit, are constant; whereas in an a.c. circuit the energy is being
changed (transferred between the magnetic and electric fields and supplied
by sources) periodically.When any sudden change occurs in a circuit, there
is usually a redistribution of energy between L − s and C − s, and a change
in the energy status of the sources, which is required by the new conditions.

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These energy redistributions cannot take place instantaneously, but during
some period of time, which brings about the transient-state.

The main reason for this statement is that an instantaneous change of en-
ergy would require infinite power, which is associated with inductors/capacitors.
As previously mentioned, power is a derivative of energy and any abrupt
change in energy will result in an infinite power. Since infinite power is not
realizable in physical systems, the energy cannot change abruptly, but only
within some period of time in which transients occur. Thus, from a physical
point of view it may be said that the transient-state exists in physical sys-
tems while the energy conditions of one steady-state are being changed to
those of another. Our next conclusion is about the current and voltage. To
change magnetic energy requires a change of current through inductances.
Therefore, currents in inductive circuits, or inductive branches of the circuit,
cannot change abruptly. From another point of view, the change of current in
di
an inductor brings about the induced voltage of magnitude L. dt . An instan-
taneous change of current would therefore require an infinite voltage, which
is also unrealizable in practice. Since the induced voltage is also given as dψdt
,
where ψ is a magnetic flux, the magnetic flux of a circuit cannot suddenly
change.

Similarly, we may conclude that to change the electric energy requires

a change in voltage across a capacitor, which is given by v = Cq , where
q is the charge. Therefore, neither the voltage across a capacitor nor its
charge can be abruptly changed. In addition, the rate of voltage change is
dv
dt
= C1 . dq
dt
= Ci , and the instantaneous change of voltage brings about infinite
current, which is also unrealizable in practice. Therefore, we may summarize
that any change in an electrical circuit, which brings about a change in energy
distribution, will result in a transient-state.

In other words, by any switching, interrupting, short-circuiting as well as

any rapid changes in the structure of an electric circuit, the transient phe-
nomena will occur. Generally speaking, every change of state leads to a tem-
porary deviation from one regular, steady-state performance of the circuit to
another one. The redistribution of energy, following the above changes, i.e.,
the transient-state, theoretically takes infinite time. However, in reality the
transient behavior of an electrical circuit continues a relatively very short

5
period of time, after which the voltages and currents almost achieve their
new steady-state values. The change in the energy distribution during the
transient behavior of electrical circuits is governed by the principle of energy
conservation, i.e., the amount of supplied energy is equal to the amount of
stored energy plus the energy dissipation. The rate of energy dissipation
affects the time interval of the transients. The higher the energy dissipa-
tion, the shorter is the transient-state. Energy dissipation occurs in circuit
resistances and its storage takes place in inductances and capacitances. In
circuits, which consist of only resistances, and neither inductances nor ca-
pacitances, the transient-state will not occur at all and the change from one
steady-state to another will take place instantaneously. However, since even
resistive circuits contain some inductances and capacitances the transients
will practically appear also in such circuits; but these transients are very
short and not significant, so that they are usually neglected.

Now, with this basic knowledge of transient responses in mind we go about

doing the analyis of the above given R-L-C circuit. The circuit given above
has no driving input given to it. So the analysis that results can be called
a zero input response.Let the currents through the inductor, capacitor and
resistor be il , ic and ir and the respective voltages across them be vl , vc and
vr . On observing we see that
vl = vc = vr and, from KCL
ic + ir + il = 0

vr = R.ir (1)
or
ir = G.vr (2)
di
vl = L. , il (0) = I0 (3)
dt
Therefore,

Zt
1
il (t) = I0 + . vl (t).dt (4)
L
0

Zt
dvc 1
ic = C. , vc (0) = V0 + ic (t).dt (5)
dt C
0

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 From the above given equations we take one convenient variable and write
the most convenient equation in terms of that variable and solve for the other
variables using this. If we choose the inductor current il as the variable the
following two equations are obtained from which we get the third second
order differential equation.
dvc
C. + Gvr + il = 0 (6)
dt
since vl = vc = vr , we get
dvl
C. + Gvl + il = 0 (7)
dt
and hence we get following second order differential equation
d2 i l dil
LC 2
+ GL + il = 0 (8)
dt dt
The above given second order equation may be considered as the homogenous
part of a general second order equation with some finite RHS value. The RHS
value should then intuitively correspond to any excitation to the system (
that is some arbitrary source). If we adopt a generalised representation of
the above given homogenous diffrential equation as below with arbitrary
parameters α and ω0 then the equation becomes
d2 il dil
2
+ 2α + ω02 il = 0 (9)
dt dt
Then α is called the damping factor and ω0 as the resonating frequency given
by
G
α= (10)
2C
and
1
ω0 = √ (11)
LC
The solution of the given differential equation will be of the form
ih = k1 .es1 t + k2 es2 t (12)
where ih is the homogenous solution for the current, k1 , k2 are constants
and s1 and s2 are given by
√
s1 , s2 = −α ± α2 − ω 2 (13)

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Based on the values of above two variables the circuit will demonstrate over-
damped, underdamped or critically oscillating conditions. To understand
this better lets take the impulse response of the circuit.

impulse response
As described earlier with an input applied tothe previous R-L-C circuit the
differential equation gets modified only in its RHS, with the RHS’s 0 replaced
by the excitation applied. So for an impulsive current δ(t) applied to the R-
L-C circuit the differential equation gets modified as

d2 i l dil
LC 2
+ GL + il = δ(t) (14)
dt dt
and the inintial conditions would be
dil −
il (0− ) = 0, (0 ) = 0 (15)
dt
for t > 0+ The impulse input is charecterised by the conditions for t > 0+

δ(t) = 0 (16)

An impulse at t = 0 creates an initial condition at t = 0+ The impulse re-

sponse for t > 0 is simply the zero input response due to the initial conditions
created by that impulse response Integerate from t = 0− to t = 0+ to get the
initial conditions we get

Z0+
dil dil
LC +
− LC −
+ GLil (0+ ) − GLil (0− ) + il .dt = 1 (17)
dt(0 ) dt(0 )
0−

The inductor current cannot jump at time zero or that the inductor cur-
rent is a continuous function therefore the integeral above is zero and

il (0+ ) = il (0− ) (18)

If it were not continuous the derivative of the current would contain an

impulse and the second derivative would contain a doublet and the second

8
equation above wont be satisfied. Now applying all the initial conditions we
get the solution for the current as

ω02 −αt
il (t) = .e .sinω − dt (19)
ωd
here ω0 and α have same values as described earlier and

ωd2 = ω02 − α2 (20)

As is evident the mathematics of the analysis has been cut short for a qual-
itative description of the situation. Suppose we approximate the impulse
response as a pulse that extends for a very short duration ∆. As ∆ tends to
zero the pulse approaches an impulse Thus at t = 0+ all current from source
goes to capacitor. Therefore
1
ic (0+ ) = is (0+ ) = (21)
∆
ir (0+ ) = il (0− ) = 0 (22)
Current in the capacitor forces a gradual rise of voltage across it at an initial
rate given by
dvc ic 1
(0+) = (0+) = (23)
dt C C∆
With the assumption that in a small interval slope of the voltage curve re-
mains constant. That is at time ∆ voltage reaches C1 Then at that point
current in the resistor, ir is proportional to vc . Thus it is linear in t. And,
Z
il ∝ vc (24)

Thus il will be parabolic in t Now as ∆ → 0 the input becomes an impulsive

current
vc jumps from 0 to C1
ic becomes an impulse
1
ir undergoes sudden change to RC

dil − dil 1
il (0+ ) = il (0− ), (0 ) = 0, (0+ ) = (25)
dt dt LC

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This is the general behaviour of the parallel R-L-C Circuit to an impulse
response leaving aside the mathematical intricacies and considering it intu-
itively Now the next step is to couple this tuning circuit to a basic amplifier.
Let us put the tuning block at the collector of a BJT based amplifier. Once
this is done we need to locate where the poles aqnd zeroes of the entire circuit
are and how the introduction of a tuning block modifies the already existing
poles of the amplifier. To analyse this circuit we make use of the Laplace
transform method. The analysis ensues

Tuned Amplifier Analysis

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10
Experimentation

As per the design described above the circuit was planned to be assembled.
At the lab the circuit was assembled in stages. Since the amplifier was to
tune to the Intermediate Frequency (455 Khz) an IFT was planned to be
kept as the tuning block described earlier. First the IFT obtained was tested
seperately to ensure that it was tuning and not giving just some response
to an input that increased with frequency. The tuning frequency of the IFT
was found out to be 420 KHz. Next the amplifier circuit using BF195 was
assembled with the designed values of resistors and capacitors. Between
the collector of the transistor and the supply voltage the secondary of the
Intermediate Frequency Transformer was connected. After this the supply
voltage was given and the DC conditions of the transistor was checked. Now
a very small input of 100 mV peak to peak was given at the base of the
transistor. The input frequency was gradually increased from a few Hertz.
The output voltage was very small (almost negligible ) for almost all the
frequencies. A very high gain (160) was obtained at 408 KHz. this was close
to the tuning frequency of the IFT ( 420 KHz ). A Very small yet significant
peak was observed at 205 KHz. But this was found out to be due to the side
lobes of the frequency response function. With this we got an idea about the
location of the poles and zeroes.

Once the basic working of the IF amplifier was verified and observed it
was time for proper testing. What was required was to observe the damping
effect in the output or the ringing. As discussed earlier there are three poles
in the circuit. One pole located on the real axis and two on the left half of the
s plane. Now from the expressions of each poles it is clear that the real axis
pole has a dependancy on the miller capacitance which inturn depends on the
transconductance gm of the transistor and hence it’s gain. So theoritically
adjusting the gain of the circuit would move this pole along the real axis

11
which would inturn move the other two poles. The other two poles have a
weak and opposite dependancy on the gain of the transistor arising from the
other miller capacitance put across the collector and emitter. The effect of
this capacitance is usually ignored in all analysis. So the horizontal motion
of these two poles dominates the vertical motion. This is graphically shown
below.

Now when the gain of the amplifier circuit is increased, owing to the inverse
dependance of the real axis pole on gain, the pole moves towards the origin or
we can say its magnitude decreases. As a result the other two poles move in
the oppositte direction that is away from the imaginary axis. The distance of
the two conjugate poles from the imaginary axis is a measure of the damping
introduced in the circuit. As these poles determine the tuning frequency
of the circuit as well their location from the imaginary axis determine the
decay rate of damped oscillations when they occur. Continuing, as the poles
move away from the imaginary axis on increasing the gain the damping factor
increases, the decay rate increases and hence the time constant of damped
oscillations decreases. This was observed in the lab by giving a pulse input
at comparitively lower frequencies (10-20 KHz) to observe the ringing caused
due to damped oscillations. The time constant of the decay was observed.
The opposite phenomenon was also observed. That is the gain was decreased
and as a result the decay rate decreased and the time constant increased
owing to the movement of the conjugate poles towards the imaginary axis.As
a critical condition when the gain was continuously decreased the system
became unstable and sustained oscillation was observed at one point. This
was due to the crossing over of the conjugate poles to the right half plane.
Measurements with the increased time constant and reduced gain were also
taken tabulated. Thus an exhaustive experimental study of the assembled
circuit was done and the correlation with derived theoritical points were
verified.

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Observations and Inferences

The designed circuit was assembled in the lab and the dc conditions were
veerified. To this a small input signal of 100 mV peak to peak amplitude
was given from a very low frequency. The frequency was then gradually
increased and output observed.

Proper sinusoidal output of gain 160 was observed at 408 KHz. The normal
tuning frequency of the IFT was 420 KHz. Only one very small side lobe
was observed at 205 KHz

Pulse input at a lower frequency of 45 KHz was given to observe the damping
and ringing effects. The outputs observed were like those given below

The gain of the amplifier was varied to study the pole movements. The
movements were verified by measuring the decay rate and time constants
of the damped oscillations observed on the CRO. The tabulated results are
given below.

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