Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

To meet the load demand in a complex interconnected power system and to

satisfy the stability and reliability criteria, either the existing transmission line must be
utilized more efficiently or new lines should be added to the system. With the ever
increasing difficulties in installing new lines due increased cost, right of way, regulation
and environment factors, latter is often impractical. The first alternative provides an
economically and technically efficient solution in view of the fact that most of the AC
lines are loaded well below their thermal capacity level.

1.2 FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System)

TECHNOLOGY
Utilization of the unused power carrying capability of transmission line is
based on the implementation of the semiconductor controlled power apparatus which can
rapidly respond to the changing system conditions to assure stable and reliable operation.
Intensive investigation and development of high voltage and current rating
semiconductors based apparatus for power system applications have led to the
development of FACT technology.
FACTS technology enables the control of power flow in transmission lines and power
quality improvement and permits the existing AC transmission lines to be loaded at least
under contingency conditions, up to their thermal limit without degrading the system
security. Utilizing the development of high power semiconductor devices and
advancement in control technology and analytical tools utilizes have developed some
FACTS devices.

1
1.3 Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation

The thyristor controlled series capacitor uses a capacitor in parallel with the thyristor
controlled reactor (TCR) which circulates current in phase with the line current.

This boosts the capacitor voltage beyond the level that would be obtained with the line
current alone. Each thyristor is triggered once per cycle and has a condition period less
than the half cycle. Additional voltage created by the circulating current in phase with the
line current and the transmission system will perceive the TCSC as having a virtually
increased reactance beyond physical reactance of the capacitor.

1.5 Organization Of The Report

Chapter 2 describes the small signal analysis of the SMIB with the power swing
damping controller. Gain of the controller is selected from root loci and eigen values
corresponding to that are listed. Design of power swing damping controller is also
discussed in this chapter.

2
Chapter 2

SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS AND

DESIGN OF POWER SWING DAMPING
CONTROLLER WITH TCSC

2.1 General

Fast acting exciters with high gain AVR ' s results in negative damping of the rotor
oscillations caused by small disturbances like change in reference voltages, change in
infinite bus voltage etc. These oscillations have been observed in several systems and are
of major concern in system operation.

The problem of oscillatory instability is to provide damping for generator rotor

oscillations. TCSC with its control action provides required damping and helps in to keep
system stable.

2.2 Basic Approach

For the modeling purpose the system can be considered as considered of various
subsystems. For each subsystem state and output equations are developed which are of
the form –

[ X ] = [ A] X +[ B ]U (2.1)

3
 [Y ] = [C ] X + [ D ]U (2.2)

Where -
X-State vector of system; U-Input to the system; Y-Output to the system

2.3 System Modeling

The system under study consists of a single series compensated transmission line
connecting synchronous generator to a large system. System diagram is shown in figure
2.1.

Figure 2.1: System diagram

For small signal analysis torsional interaction is neglected is neglected. System

modeling is done in 3 subsystems which are related to each other

(i) Synchronous machine

(ii) Excitation system.
(iii) Power swing damping controller.

4
2.3.1 Synchronous Machine

Model (1.1) considered where in addition to the field winding on d-axis, a damper
winding on the q-axis is also considered.
It consists of equation for stator, rotor and mechanical system. X e

Stator equations

ν q = E q ′ + x d ′id (2.3)

ν d = E d ′ − x q ′iq (2.4)

Linearizing above equations-

′ ′
∆ν q = ∆E q + x d ∆i d (2.5)

′ ′
∆ν d = ∆E d − x q ∆i q (2.6)

Rotor equations

′
dE q 1  ′ ′
= − E q + ( x d − x d )id + E fd  (2.7)
dt ′  
Tqo

′
dE d 1 − E ′ −  x − x ′ i 
=
dt ′  d  q q  q
 
(2.8)
Tqo

Linearizing

5
 ′
d∆E q 1  ′ ′
= − ∆E q + ( x d − x d )∆i d + ∆E fd  (2.9)
dt ′  
Tqo

′
d∆E d 1 − ∆E ′ −  x − x ′ ∆i 
=  q q  (2.10)
dt ′  d
  q 
Tqo

' '
Where Tdo and Tqo are the open circuit d and q axis transient time constants
respectively.
E fd is the field voltage reference to stator side.
Model 1.0 can be obtained by letting
′
xq = x q and Tqo ′=1, thus equation (2.10) reduces to

′
d∆E d 1  ′
=  − ∆E d  (2.11)
′
dt Tqo  

Mechanical equations
As the torsional interactions is neglected mechanical equation reduced to

d 2δ dδ
M 2
+D = Tm − Te (2.12)
dt dt

Where
2H
M= (2.13)
ωb

Te is electrical torque, Tm is mechanical torque

D is damping
Electrical torque is given by

6
 Te = Ψd i q − Ψq i d (2.14)

Where Ψd and Ψq are the d-axis and q-axis flux linkages given by

′ ′ (2.15)
Ψd = x d i d +E q

′ ′
Ψq = x q iq −E d (2.16)

Substituting equations (2.15) and (2.16) in equation (2.14)

′ ′ ′ ′
Te = E d i d + E q i q + ( x d − x q )i d i q (2.17)

Linearizing equation (2.17)

′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
∆Te = ido ∆E d + E do ∆i d + iqo ∆E q + E qo ∆i q + ( x d − x q )i do ∆iq + ( x d − x q )iqo ∆i d (2.18)

Equation (2.12) can be expressed in two first order equations as

dδ
= ωb ( S m − S mo ) (2.19)
dt

dS m
2H = − D ( S m − S mo ) + Tm − Te (2.20)
dt

Linearizing

d∆δ
= ωb ( ∆S m ) (2.21)
dt

d∆S m ∆S T T
= −D m + m − e (2.22)
dt 2H 2H 2H

7
2.3.2 Excitation System

A static exciter with a single time constant as shown in figure 2.2

Vt is the terminal voltage, for small signal analysis it is given as

ν qo ν do
∆Vt = ∆ν q + ∆ν d
Vto Vto

Where

= [ν ]
1
+ ν do
2 2 2 2
Vto qo

νref is the reference voltage.

K e is AVR gain, Te is AVR time constant

∆X t csc is the modulated out of the controller.

State equation for above system will be

dE fd
E fd + e (Vref − Vt )
1 K
=− (2.25)
dt Te Te

Linearizing above equation

d∆E fd
∆E fd + e ( ∆Vref − ∆Vt )
1 K
=− (2.26)
dt Te Te

2.3.3 Network equations

8
The AC network consists of transmission line represented by its resistance, inductance
and variable series capacitance (TCSC).
Equation for the terminal voltage is given by

Vt = (VQ + jV D ) = (ν q + jν d )e jδ = ( i q + ji d )( Re + j ( xe − X t csc ) ) e jδ + Eb (2.27)

Separating real and imaginary part

ν q = Re iq − ( x e − X t csc )i d + E b cos δ (2.28)

ν d = Re id + ( x e − X t csc )iq − E b sin δ (2.29)

Linearizing above equations

∆ν q = Re ∆i q − ( x e − X t csc o )∆i d + i do ∆X t csc − E b sin δo ∆δ (2.30)

∆ν d = Re ∆i d + ( x e − X t csc )∆i q − i qo ∆X t csc − Eb cos δo ∆δ (2.31)

2.3.4 Power Swing Damping Controller

Schematic diagram of power swing damping controller is shown in figure 2.3.it is a lead
lag network, which provides adequate damping to stabilize local modes. Current is taken
as a control signal input to the controller. For small signal analysis current is derived as

iqo ido
∆I = ∆iq + ∆id (2.32)
Io Io

where I o is defined by

[ ]
1
I o = iqo + ido
2 2 2 (2.33)

9
Output of the controller follows first order lag corresponding to thyristor firing controls.
Design of controller is discussed in section (2.4)

2.4 Design of Power Swing Damping Controller

2.4.1 Control Input Signal

Since the power transfer capability is basically influenced by low frequency oscillations,
it is expected that a control signal derived from the generator frequency will have more
beneficial on the transient stability limit. However, it is not feasible to obtain this signal
by measurement since the generator station and TCSC are located far apart each other.
An attempt is therefore made to compute this signal from parameters available at TCSC
location. The current quantity is utilized for this computation. The block diagram of the
complete system with current as a control input to the power swing damping controller is
shown in figure 5.1.

2.4.2 System Matrix

[ X ] = [ A ] X
r r r + [ Br 1]∆δ + [ Br 2]∆X t csc (2.34)

∆Te = [C1] X r + [ D1]∆δ + [ D 2]∆X t csc (2.35)

∆I = [C 2] X r + [ D3]∆δ + [ D 4]∆X t csc (2.36)

where

10
 X r = ∆S m [ ∆E q′ ∆E d′ ∆E fd ]
Substituting X r from equation (1.34) in equations (1.35) and (1.36) gets

[ ] [
∆Te = C1[ sI − Ar ] Br 1 + D1 ∆δ + C1[ sI − Ar ] Br 2 + D 2 ∆X t csc
−1 −1
]
(2.37)

[ ] [
∆I = C 2[ sI − Ar ] Br 1 + D3 ∆δ + C 2[ sI − Ar ] Br 2 + D 4 ∆X t csc
−1 −1
] (2.38)

From the figure 2.4

[
K ie ( s ) = C1[ sI − Ar ] Br 1 + D1
−1
] (2.39)

[
Ge ( s ) = C1[ sI − Ar ] Br 2 + D 2
−1
] (2.40)

[
F ( s ) = C 2[ sI − Ar ] Br 1 + D3
−1
] (2.41)

[
H ( s ) = C 2[ sI − Ar ] Br 2 + D 4
−1
] (2.42)

For the eigen value analysis of the complete system, the system state equations will be in
the form given by
X = [ A] X (2.43)
Where

X t = ∆δ [ ∆S m ∆E q′ ∆E d′ ∆E fd ∆X ref ∆X t csc ]
The expansion of all the matrices is given in appendix [B].

2.4.3 Controller Design

11
Assuming that generator is oscillating sinusoidally, restoring torques are step up to
oppose the motion.The component of torque in phase with the rotor angle is called as the
synchronizing torque while the component of torque in phase with the rotor velocity
deviation is called damping torque. The objective of designing controller is to provide
additional damping torque without affecting the synchronizing torque at these low
frequencies. To design the controller let the system shown in figure 2.4 is divided into
two subsystems one is mechanical and the other is rest system as shown in figure 2.5.
Mathematically, the damping torque coefficient is given as

Therefore from the figure 2.5 rest system must be constant to provide damping torque i.e.

D corresponds to the damping, can be in the range of 20 to 30.

From the figure 2.4

Gc ( s ) can be obtained by solving above equation and is given by

Controller transfer function Gc ( s ) obtained from above equation will be in higher order
(more than 2nd order) form, which will be cost effective. This higher order transfer
function can be approximated to lower order so that it would give satisfactory response.
From the frequency plot (bode plot) of Gc ( s ) , controller transfer function has been
approximated

2.5 Case Study

The numerical example has taken from [2] for performance evaluation. Transfer function
for Gc (s ) has obtained. Frequency plot is shown in figure 2.6. From the frequency plot
consider transfer function is approximated and is given by

12
 K c (s)
Gc ( s ) = (2.48)
1 + sTc

Where

Tc =1 / f c , f c is the cut frequency corresponding to the phase lag of 45 degrees. From

frequency plot of f c is 32Hz.

Eigen values are computed from system matrix A given in appendix [B] using MATLAB
package.

To select the approximate value of value of controller gain ( K c ) root locus plot is

obtained as K c is varied. Figure 1.5 shows the loci of two roots one corresponding to the
local mode (rotor) and other corresponding to exciter mode. The roots corresponding to
exciter mode moves to the right and crosses imaginary axis at gain K c =0.0015. The root
Corresponding to the local mode moves to the left as K c increases from zero. The
frequency of oscillations first increases and then decreases until the complex roots splits
in to real roots. The optimum gain of controller is chosen such that the critical mode
(local mode) has maximum damping ratio. From figure 1.5 optimum gain is 0.013.

Eigen values corresponding to zero gain (without controller) and the selected gain (with
controller has Eigen values Eigen values with

given in table 1. Without controller controller gain K c

i.e. gain K c =0 =0.0013

−10 .7489 ± j12 .1012 −3.2264 ± j12 .1436

−1.4651 ± j8.0182

0.5174 ± j 7.1729

− 20 .0000 ± j 29 .6648 −17 .0049 ± j 34 .3187

13

-1.0 −1.0
From the table 1 it is clear that without controller mode zero is unstable and gets
stabilized with controller.

Discussion

As the objective of controller is to provide additional damping torque without affecting

the synchronizing torque at the critical oscillation frequencies. It is clear from eigen plot
that, with the variation of controller gain controller gain critical mode remains almost
constant without affecting synchronizing torque and then decreases.

The design of power swing damping controller is done from frequency plot. It is cleared
from eigen plot that this approximate design of the controller is giving satisfactory result.

The TCSC offers series capacitor line compensation. The series line
capacitance is impedance that produces the required compensating voltage in propotional
to the line current flow through it. Small signal stability analysis result shows that system
is stable when the controller is added to the ckt.

The Eigen value analysis substantiates the fact that the system either goes to a new
operating point or returns to the same operating point.

14
 The objective of the contaroller is to provide additional damping torque without
affecting the synchronizing torque at the critical oscillation frequencies. It is clear from
the eigen plot that, with the variation of controller gain critical mode remains almost
constant without affecting synchronizing torque.

Appendix

Generator data:

15
x d = 1.6

x q =1.55

x d′ = 0.32

x ′q = 1.44

Tdo′ = 6.0 sec

Tqo′ = 0.44
H =5
D =0
f b = 60 Hz

Generator bus voltage: 1∠0°

Infinite Bus voltage : 1.0 p.u.

Network data :

Re = 0
xe = 0.4
X t csc = 0

AVR data :

K e = 200
Te = 0.05

16