Electrical Theory:

Electrical engineering is that science, engineering science which deals with research and
technical development and production technology of equipment or procedures based at least in
part on electrical power
Outline:
1. History of Electricity
2. Atoms
3. Law of Charges
4. Centrifugal Force
5. Valence Electrons
6. Electron Flow
7. Insulators
8. Semiconductors
9. Molecules

History of Electricity:
The Greeks were the first to discover electricity about 2500 years ago. They noticed that when an amber
was rubbed with other materials it became charged with an unknown force that had the power to attract
objects such as dried leaves, feathers, bits of cloth, or other lightweight materials. The Greeks called
amber electron. The word electric was derived from it and meant "to be like amber," or to have the
ability to attract other objects.
This mysterious force remained little more than a curious phenomenon until about 2000 years later, when other
people began to conduct experiments. In the early 1600s, William Gilbert discovered that amber was not the
only material that could be charged to attract other objects. He called materials that could be charged electriks
and materials that could not be charged noelectriks.
About 300 years ago a few men began to study the behavior of various charged objects. In 1773, a Frenchman
named Charles DuFay found that a piece of charged glass would repel some charged objects and attract others.
These men soon learned that the force of repulsion was just as important as the force of attraction. From these
experiments, two lists were developed.

List A
Glass (rubbed on silk)
Glass (rubbed on wool or cotton)
Mica (rubbed on cloth)
Asbestos (rubbed on cloth or paper)
Stick of sealing wax (rubbed on
wool)
List B
Hard rubber (rubbed on wool)
Block or sulfur(rubbed on wool or fur)
Most kinds of rubber (rubbed on cloth)
Sealing wax (rubbed on silk, wool, or
fur)
Glass or mica (rubbed on dry wool)
Amber (rubbed on cloth)

It was determined that any material in list A would attract any material in list B, and that all materials in list A
would repel each other and all material in list B would repel each other. Various names were suggested for the
materials in lists A and B. Any opposite-sounding names could have been chosen, such as east and west, north
and south, male and female. Benjamin Franklin named the materials in list A positive and the materials in list B
negative . The first item in each list was used as a standard for determining if a charged object was positive or
negative. Any object repelled by a piece of glass rubbed on silk would have a positive charge and any item
repelled by a hard rubber rod rubbed on wool would have a negative charge.

Atoms:
The atom is the basic building block of the universe. All mater is made from a combination of atoms.
Matter is any substance has mass and occupies space. Matter can exist in any of the three states: solid,
liquid, or gas. Water, for example, can exist in the form of ice, as a liquid, or as a gas in the form of
steam. An element is a substance that cannot be chemically divided into a simpler substance. An atom is
the smallest part of an element. The three principle parts of an atom are the electron, neutron, and the
proton. It is theorized that protons and neutrons are actually made of the smaller particles quarks.
The proton has a positive charge, the electron has a negative charge, and the neutron has no charge. The
Neutron and proton combine to form the nucleus of the atom. Since the neutron has no charge, the nucleus will
have a net positive charge. The number of protons in the nucleus determines what kind of element an atom is.
Oxygen, for example, contains 8 protons in its nucleus, and gold contain 79. The atomic number of an element
is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus. The lines of force produced by the positive charge of the
proton extend outward in all directions. The nucleus may or may not contain as many neutrons as protons. For
example, an atom of helium contains two protons and two neutrons in its nucleus, while an atom of copper
contains 29 protons and 35 neutrons.
The electron orbits the outside of the nucleus. An electron is about three times as large as a proton. The
estimated size of a proton is 0.07 trillionth of an inch in diameter, and the estimated size of a electron is 0.22
trillionth of an inch in diameter. Although the electron is larger in size, the proton weighs about 1840 times
more.

Law of charges:
The law of charges states that opposite charges attract and like charges repel. For example, two objects
that contain opposite charge are attracted to each other. The two positively charged objects and two
negatively charged units repel each other. The reason for this is that lines of force can never cross each
other. The outward-going lines of force of a positively charged object combine with the inward-going
lines of force of a negatively charged object. This combining produces an attraction between the two
objects. If the two objects with like charges come close to each other, the lines of force repel. Since the
nucleus has a net positive charge and the electron has a negative charge, the electron is attracted to the
nucleus.
Because the nucleus of an atom is formed from the combination of protons and neutrons, one might ask why the
protons of the nucleus do not repel each other since they all have the same charge. Two theories attempt to
explain this. The first asserts that the force of gravity holds the protons and neutron together. Neutrons, like
protons, are extremely massive particles. Their combined mass produces, the gravitational force necessary to
overcome the repelling force of the positive charges. The second explanation involves a theoretical particle
called gluon. A gluon is a subatomic particle that acts as a bonding agent that not only holds quarks together,
but also holds the protons and neutrons together.

Centrifugal Force:
The law of centrifugal force is the second law of physics. It states that a spinning object will pull away from its
center point and that the faster it spins, the greater the centrifugal force becomes. An example of this would be
to tie an object to a string and spin it around, it will try to pull away from you. The faster the object spins, the
greater the force that tries to pull the object away. Centrifugal force prevents the electron from falling into the
nucleus of the atom. The faster an electron spins, the farther away from the nucleus it will be.
Valence Electrons:
The outer shell of an atom is known as the valence shell. Any electrons located in the outer shell of an atom are
known as valence electrons. The valence shell of an atom cannot hold more than eight electrons. It is the
valence electrons that are primary concern in the study of electricity, because it is these that explain much of
electrical theory. A conductor for instance, is generally made from a material that contains one or two valence
electrons. Atoms with one or two valence electrons are unstable and can be made to give up these electrons
with little effort. Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow through them easily. When an atom has
only one or two valence electrons, these electrons are loosely held by the atom and are easily given up for the
current flow. Silver, copper, gold, and aluminum all contain one valence electron and are excellent conductors
of electricity. Silver is the best natural conductor of electricity, followed by copper, gold, and aluminum.

Electron Flow:
Electrical current is the flow of electrons. It is produced when an electron from one atom knocks electrons of
another atom out of orbit. When an atom contains only one valence electron, that electron is easily given up
when struck by another electron. The striking electron gives its energy to the electron being struck. The striking
electron settles into orbit around the atom, and the electron that was struck moves off to strike another electron.
This same effect in the game of pool. If the moving cue ball strikes a stationary ball. The stationary ball then
moves off with the most of the cue ball's energy, and the cue ball stops moving. The stationary ball did not
move off with all the energy of the cue ball. It moved off with most of the energy of the cue ball. Some of the
cue ball's energy was lost to heat when it struck the stationary ball. Some energy is also lost when one electron
strikes another. That is why a wire heats when current flows through it. If too much current flows through a
wire, overheating will damage the wire and possibly become a fire hazard.
If an atom containing two valence electrons is struck by a moving electron, the energy of the striking electron
will be divided between the two valence electrons. If the valence electrons are knocked out of orbit, they will
contain only half the energy of the striking electron. This effect can also be seen in the game of pool. If a
moving cue ball strikes two stationary balls at the same time, the energy of the cue ball is divided between the
two stationary balls. Both stationary balls will move, but with only half of the cue ball.

Insulators:
Material containing seven or eight valence electrons are known as insulators. Insulators are materials that resist
the flow of electricity. When the valence shell of an atom is full, the electrons are held tightly and are not given
up easily. Some good examples of insulator materials are rubber, plastic, glass, and wood. The energy of the
moving electron is divided so many times that it has little effect on the atom. Any atom that has seven or eight
valence electrons is extremely stable and does not easily give up an electron.

Semiconductors:
Semiconductors are the materials that are neither good conductors nor good insulators. Thy contain four
valence electrons and are characterized by the fact that as they are heated, their resistance decreases. Heat has
the opposite effect on conductors, whose resistance increases with an increase of temperature. Semiconductors
have become extremely important in the electrical industry since the invention of the transistor in 1947. All
solid state devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits are made from combinations of
semiconductors materials. The two most common materials used in the production of electronic components are
silicon and germanium. Of the two, silicon is used more often because of its ability to withstand heat. Before
and pure semiconductor can be used to construct electronic device, it must be mixed or "doped" with an
impurity.

Molecules:
Although all matter is made from atoms, atoms should not be confused with molecules , which are the smallest
part of a compound. Water, for example, is a compound, not an element. The smallest particle of water a
molecule made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. If the molecule of water is broken apart, it
becomes two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, and is no longer water.

If there was anything you would like to add or if you have any comments please feel free to email E.T.E. at
http://www.elec-toolbox.com/email.htm.
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OHM’S LAW CALCULATOR

VOLTS=Voltage, AMPS=Current, OHMS=Resistance, WATTS=Power
Give me any TWO numeric values and I'll give you all FOUR. Press the Ohm's Law button after you
have made your entries:

VOLTS AMPS OHMS WATTS

Top of Form

RESET

Bottom of Form
keywords = Ohms, Ohm’s Law, Volts, Amps, Current, Watts, Power, Calculator, Electricity, Electronics, Electrical,
Equations, Formulas, Pi, Math, Henry, Bacon
FORMULAS, EQUATIONS & LAWS

Symbolic:

E =VOLTS ~or~ (V = VOLTS)

P =WATTS ~or~ (W = WATTS)

R = OHMS ~or~ (R = RESISTANCE)

I =AMPERES ~or~ (A = AMPERES)

HP = HORSEPOWER

PF = POWER FACTOR

kW = KILOWATTS

kWh = KILOWATT HOUR

VA = VOLT-AMPERES
 kVA = KILOVOLT-AMPERES

C = CAPACITANCE

EFF = EFFICIENCY (expressed as a decimal)

DIRECT CURRENT

WATTS÷VOLT I = P A=W
AMPS=
S ÷E ÷V

P=E W=Vx
WATTS= VOLTS x AMPS
xI A

WATTS ÷ E=P V=W

VOLTS=
AMPS ÷I ÷A

HORSEPOWE (V x A x
R= EFF)÷746

(746 x HP)÷(V
EFFICIENCY=
x A)

AC SINGLE PHASE ~ 1ø

WATTS÷(VOLTS x I=P÷(E x A=W÷(V x

AMPS=
PF) PF) PF)

VOLTS x AMPS x P=E x I x W=V x A x

WATTS=
PF PF PF

VOLTS= WATTS÷AMPS E=P÷I V=W÷A

VOLT-AMPS= VOLTS x AMPS VA=E x I VA=V x A

HORSEPOWE (V x A x EFF x
R= PF)÷746

POWERFACTO INPUT WATTS÷(V

R= x A)
 (746 x HP)÷(V x A
EFFICIENCY=
x PF)

AC THREE PHASE ~ 3ø

WATTS÷(1.732 x VOLTS I = P÷(1.732 x E

AMPS=
x PF) x PF)

1.732 x VOLTS x AMPS x P = 1.732 x E x I

WATTS=
PF x PF

VOLTS= WATTS÷AMPS E=P÷I

VOLT-AMPS= 1.732 x VOLTS x AMPS VA=1.732 x E x I

HORSEPOWE (1.732 x V x A x EFF x

R= PF)÷746

POWERFACTO INPUT WATTS÷(1.732 x

R= V x A)

(746 x HP)÷(1.732 x V x
EFFICIENCY=
A x PF)
Electrical engineering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Electrical engineers design complex power systems...

...and electronic circuits.

Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of
electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late
nineteenth century after commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical power supply. It now covers a
range of subtopics including power, electronics, control systems, signal processing and telecommunications.
Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the
United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale
electrical systems such as power transmission and motor control, whereas electronic engineering deals with the
study of small-scale electronic systems including computers and integrated circuits.[1] Alternatively, electrical
engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronic engineers are
concerned with using electricity to transmit information. More recently, the distinction has become blurred by
the growth of power electronics.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
○ 1.1 Modern developments
• 2 Education
• 3 Practicing engineers
• 4 Tools and work
• 5 Sub-disciplines
○ 5.1 Power
○ 5.2 Control
○ 5.3 Electronics
○ 5.4 Microelectronics
○ 5.5 Signal processing
○ 5.6 Telecommunications
○ 5.7 Instrumentation
○ 5.8 Computers
• 6 Related disciplines
• 7 See also
• 8 Note
• 9 References
• 10 External links

History
Main article: History of electrical engineering
The discoveries of Michael Faraday formed the foundation of electric motor technology.

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical
engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of
statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static
electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity.[2] In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific
experimentations devised the electrophorus, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta
developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.[3]
However, it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable
developments in this century include the work of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantified the relationship between
the electric current and potential difference in a conductor, Michael Faraday, the discoverer of electromagnetic
induction in 1831, and James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unified theory of electricity and
magnetism in his treatise Electricity and Magnetism.[4]

Thomas Edison built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network.

During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of physics. It was not until
the late 19th century that universities started to offer degrees in electrical engineering. The Darmstadt
University of Technology founded the first chair and the first faculty of electrical engineering worldwide in
1882. In the same year, under Professor Charles Cross, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology began
offering the first option of Electrical Engineering within a physics department.[5] In 1883 Darmstadt University
of Technology and Cornell University introduced the world's first courses of study in electrical engineering,
and in 1885 the University College London founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the United
Kingdom.[6] The University of Missouri subsequently established the first department of electrical engineering
in the United States in 1886.[7]
Nikola Tesla made long-distance electrical transmission networks possible.

During this period, the work concerning electrical engineering increased dramatically. In 1882, Edison switched
on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to fifty-nine
customers in lower Manhattan. In 1884 Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine which today generates
about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources. In 1887, Nikola Tesla filed a
number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as alternating current. In the
following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the "War of Currents", took place over the
preferred method of distribution. AC eventually replaced DC for generation and power distribution, enormously
extending the range and improving the safety and efficiency of power distribution.
The efforts of the two did much to further electrical engineering—Tesla's work on induction motors and
polyphase systems influenced the field for years to come, while Edison's work on telegraphy and his
development of the stock ticker proved lucrative for his company, which ultimately became General Electric.
However, by the end of the 19th century, other key figures in the progress of electrical engineering were
beginning to emerge.[8]
Modern developments
During the development of radio, many scientists and inventors contributed to radio technology and electronics.
In his classic UHF experiments of 1888, Heinrich Hertz transmitted (via a spark-gap transmitter) and detected
radio waves using electrical equipment. In 1895, Nikola Tesla was able to detect signals from the transmissions
of his New York lab at West Point (a distance of 80.4 km / 49.95 miles).[9] In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun
introduced the cathode ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial enabling technology for electronic
television.[10] John Fleming invented the first radio tube, the diode, in 1904. Two years later, Robert von Lieben
and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.[11] In 1895, Guglielmo
Marconi furthered the art of hertzian wireless methods. Early on, he sent wireless signals over a distance of one
and a half miles. In December 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not affected by the curvature of the Earth.
Marconi later transmitted the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John's,
Newfoundland, a distance of 2,100 miles (3,400 km).[12] In 1920 Albert Hull developed the magnetron which
would eventually lead to the development of the microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer.[13][14] In 1934 the
British military began to make strides toward radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction of Dr
Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the first radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.[15]
In 1941 Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the world's first fully functional and programmable computer.[16] In
1946 the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly
followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to
develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including the Apollo missions and the
NASA moon landing.[17]
The invention of the transistor in 1947 by William B. Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain opened the
door for more compact devices and led to the development of the integrated circuit in 1958 by Jack Kilby and
independently in 1959 by Robert Noyce.[18] Starting in 1968, Ted Hoff and a team at Intel invented the first
commercial microprocessor, which presaged the personal computer. The Intel 4004 was a 4-bit processor
released in 1971, but in 1973 the Intel 8080, an 8-bit processor, made the first personal computer, the Altair
8800, possible.[19]
Education
Main article: Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers

Electrical engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electrical engineering. The length of
study for such a degree is usually four or five years and the completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor
of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Technology or Bachelor of Applied Science depending upon
the university. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, computer science, project
management and specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-
disciplines of electrical engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards
the end of the degree.
Some electrical engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master
of Science (M.Eng./M.Sc.), a Master of Engineering Management, a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in
Engineering, an Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.), or an Engineer's degree. The Master and Engineer's degree
may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering
Doctorate degrees consist of a significant research component and are often viewed as the entry point to
academia. In the United Kingdom and various other European countries, the Master of Engineering is often
considered an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering.[20]
Practicing engineers
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification
and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program
the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being
certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States,
Canada and South Africa ), Chartered Engineer (in India, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe),
Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in much of the
European Union).
The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada
"only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for public and private clients".[21] This requirement is
enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[22] In other countries, no such
legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to
abide by or risk expulsion.[23] In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical
standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work,
engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the
tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engineer's work must also
comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to
environmental law.
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30% of the
world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000
conferences annually.[24] The IET publishes 21 journals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and
claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe.[25][26] Obsolescence of technical skills is a
serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of
periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency.[27]
In Australia, Canada and the United States electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force (see
note). Outside of Europe and North America, engineering graduates per-capita, and hence probably electrical
engineering graduates also, are most numerous in Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea.[28]
Tools and work
From the Global Positioning System to electric power generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the
development of a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of
electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of telecommunication
systems, the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and wiring of buildings, the design of household
appliances or the electrical control of industrial machinery.[29]

Satellite communications is one of many projects an electrical engineer might work on.

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a
qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves
the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electrical
systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.
Although most electrical engineers will understand basic circuit theory (that is the interactions of elements such
as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors and inductors in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers
generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics might be
relevant to an engineer working on VLSI (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to
engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory may not be relevant to a person
designing telecommunication systems that use off-the-shelf components. Perhaps the most important technical
skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize strong numerical skills,
computer literacy and the ability to understand the technical language and concepts that relate to electrical
engineering.
For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be
spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules.
[30]
Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason project
management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong
written communication skills are therefore very important.
The workplaces of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may
be found in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or on site at a
mine. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of
individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers and other engineers.
Sub-disciplines
Electrical engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are
electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of
them. Sometimes certain fields, such as electronic engineering and computer engineering, are considered
separate disciplines in their own right.
Power
Main article: Power engineering

Power pole

Power engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity as well as the design of
a range of related devices. These include transformers, electric generators, electric motors, high voltage
engineering and power electronics. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network
called a power grid that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase
electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers
may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it.
Such systems are called on-grid power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power
from the grid or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called off-
grid power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems. The future includes Satellite
controlled power systems, with feedback in real time to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts.
Control
Main article: Control engineering

Control systems play a critical role in space flight.

Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems and the design of
controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. To implement such controllers
electrical engineers may use electrical circuits, digital signal processors, microcontrollers and PLCs
(Programmable Logic Controllers). Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and
propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles. It also
plays an important role in industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For example, in an automobile with
cruise control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the
motor's power output accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine
how the system responds to such feedback.
Electronics
Main article: Electronic engineering

Circuit board

Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the properties of
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular functionality.
The tuned circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one example of
such a circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph.
Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as radio engineering and basically was
restricted to aspects of communications and radar, commercial radio and early television. Later, in post war
years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems,
computers and microprocessors. In the mid to late 1950s, the term radio engineering gradually gave way to the
name electronic engineering.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete
components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and power and
were limited in speed, although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, integrated circuits
packed a large number—often millions—of tiny electrical components, mainly transistors, into a small chip
around the size of a coin. This allowed for the powerful computers and other electronic devices we see today.
Microelectronics
Main article: Microelectronics
Microprocessor

Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and microfabrication of very small electronic circuit
components for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic
component. The most common microelectronic components are semiconductor transistors, although all main
electronic components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) can be created at a microscopic level. Nanoelectronics
is the further scaling of devices down to nanometer levels.
Microelectronic components are created by chemically fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at
higher frequencies, compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the
desired transport of electronic charge and control of current. The field of microelectronics involves a significant
amount of chemistry and material science and requires the electronic engineer working in the field to have a
very good working knowledge of the effects of quantum mechanics.
Signal processing
Main article: Signal processing

A Bayer filter on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red, green, and blue value at each
pixel.

Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which
case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies
according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may
involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio equipment or the modulation and
demodulation of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the
compression, error detection and error correction of digitally sampled signals.
Signal Processing is a very mathematically oriented and intensive area forming the core of digital signal
processing and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in every field of electrical engineering such as
communications, control, radar, TV/Audio/Video engineering, power electronics and bio-medical engineering
as many already existing analog systems are replaced with their digital counterparts.
Although in the classical era, analog signal processing only provided a mathematical description of a system to
be designed, which is actually implemented by the analog hardware engineers, Digital Signal Processing both
provides a mathematical description of the systems to be designed and also actually implements them (either by
software programming or by hardware embedding) without much dependency on hardware issues, which
exponentiates the importance and success of DSP engineering.
The deep and strong relations between signals and the information they carry makes signal processing
equivalent of information processing. Which is the reason why the field finds so many diversified applications.
DSP processor ICs are found in every type of modern electronic systems and products including, SDTV |
HDTV sets, radios and mobile communication devices, Hi-Fi audio equipments, Dolby noise reduction
algorithms, GSM mobile phones, mp3 multimedia players, camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control
systems, noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum analyzers, intelligent missile guidance, radar, GPS
based cruise control systems and all kinds of image processing, video processing, audio processing and speech
processing systems.
Telecommunications
Main article: Telecommunications engineering

Milstar

Telecommunications engineering focuses on the transmission of information across a channel such as a coax
cable, optical fiber or free space. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier
wave in order to shift the information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as
modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.
The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced
carefully by the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the
transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way
communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power
consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is
insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by noise.
Instrumentation
Main article: Instrumentation engineering
Radar gun

Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure,
flow and temperature. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often
extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For example, radar guns use the Doppler effect to measure the speed of
oncoming vehicles. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure the temperature
difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example,
a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason,
instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.
Computers
Main article: Computer engineering

Personal digital assistant

Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design
of new hardware, the design of PDAs or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Computer engineers
may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of
software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. Desktop computers represent a tiny
fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a
range of devices including video game consoles and DVD players.
Related disciplines
Mechatronics is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and mechanical
systems. Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and have widespread adoption.
Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems and
various subsystems of aircraft and automobiles.
The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted the
emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy, in digital
projectors to create sharper images and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high definition printing. In the
future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve optical
communication.[31]
Biomedical engineering is another related discipline, concerned with the design of medical equipment. This
includes fixed equipment such as ventilators, MRI scanners and electrocardiograph monitors as well as mobile
equipment such as cochlear implants, artificial pacemakers and artificial hearts.

Electronic engineering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Electronic components

Electronics engineering,[1] also referred to as electronic engineering[2][3] is an engineering discipline which

uses the scientific knowledge of the behavior and effects of electrons to develop components, devices, systems,
or equipment (as in electron tubes, transistors, integrated circuits, and printed circuit boards) that uses
electricity as part of its driving force. Both terms denote a broad engineering field that encompasses many
subfields including those that deal with power, instrumentation engineering, telecommunications,
semiconductor circuit design, and many others.[4]
The term also covers a large part of electrical engineering degree courses as studied at most European
universities. In the U.S., however, electrical engineering encompasses all electrical disciplines including
electronics. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is one of the most important and influential
organizations for electronics engineers.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Terminology
 • 2 History of electronic engineering
○ 2.1 Early electronics
○ 2.2 Tubes or valves
 2.2.1 The vacuum tube detector
○ 2.3 Television
○ 2.4 Radar and radio location
○ 2.5 Computers
○ 2.6 Microprocessors
• 3 Electronics
• 4 Typical electronic engineering undergraduate
syllabus
○ 4.1 Electromagnetics
○ 4.2 Network analysis
○ 4.3 Electronic devices and circuits
○ 4.4 Signals and systems
○ 4.5 Control systems
○ 4.6 Communications
• 5 Education and training
• 6 Professional bodies
• 7 Subfields
○ 7.1 Overview of electronic engineering
○ 7.2 Project engineering
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 External links

[edit] Terminology
The name electrical engineering is still used to cover electronic engineering amongst some of the older (notably
American and Australian) universities and graduates there are called electrical engineers.[5] Some people believe
the term 'electrical engineer' should be reserved for those having specialized in power and heavy current or high
voltage engineering, while others believe that power is just one subset of electrical engineering (and indeed the
term 'power engineering' is used in that industry) as well as 'electrical distribution engineering'. Again, in recent
years there has been a growth of new separate-entry degree courses such as 'information engineering' and
'communication systems engineering', often followed by academic departments of similar name.[6][7]
Most European universities now refer to electrical engineering as power engineers and make a distinction
between Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Beginning in the 1980s, the term computer engineer was often
used to refer to electronic or information engineers. However, Computer Engineering is now considered a
subset of Electronics Engineering and the term is now becoming archaic. [8]
[edit] History of electronic engineering
Electronic engineering as a profession sprang from technological improvements in the telegraph industry in the
late 19th century and the radio and the telephone industries in the early 20th century. People were attracted to
radio by the technical fascination it inspired, first in receiving and then in transmitting. Many who went into
broadcasting in the 1920s were only 'amateurs' in the period before World War I.[9]
The modern discipline of electronic engineering was to a large extent born out of telephone, radio, and
television equipment development and the large amount of electronic systems development during World War
II of radar, sonar, communication systems, and advanced munitions and weapon systems. In the interwar years,
the subject was known as radio engineering and it was only in the late 1950s that the term electronic
engineering started to emerge.[10]
The electronic laboratories (Bell Labs in the United States for instance) created and subsidized by large
corporations in the industries of radio, television, and telephone equipment began churning out a series of
electronic advances. In 1948, came the transistor and in 1960, the IC to revolutionize the electronic industry.[11]
[12]
In the UK, the subject of electronic engineering became distinct from electrical engineering as a university
degree subject around 1960. Before this time, students of electronics and related subjects like radio and
telecommunications had to enroll in the electrical engineering department of the university as no university had
departments of electronics. Electrical engineering was the nearest subject with which electronic engineering
could be aligned, although the similarities in subjects covered (except mathematics and electromagnetism)
lasted only for the first year of the three-year course.
[edit] Early electronics
In 1893, Nikola Tesla made the first public demonstration of radio communication. Addressing the Franklin
Institute in Philadelphia and the National Electric Light Association, he described and demonstrated in detail
the principles of radio communication.[13] In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi went on to develop a practical and
widely used radio system.[14][15] In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming, the first professor of electrical Engineering at
University College London, invented the first radio tube, the diode. One year later, in 1906, Robert von Lieben
and Lee De Forest independently developed the amplifier tube, called the triode.
Electronics is often considered to have begun when Lee De Forest invented the vacuum tube in 1907. Within 10
years, his device was used in radio transmitters and receivers as well as systems for long distance telephone
calls. In 1912, Edwin H. Armstrong invented the regenerative feedback amplifier and oscillator; he also
invented the superheterodyne radio receiver and could be considered the father of modern radio.[16] Vacuum
tubes remained the preferred amplifying device for 40 years, until researchers working for William Shockley at
Bell Labs invented the transistor in 1947. In the following years, transistors made small portable radios, or
transistor radios, possible as well as allowing more powerful mainframe computers to be built. Transistors were
smaller and required lower voltages than vacuum tubes to work.
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete
components that could be manipulated by hand. These non-integrated circuits consumed much space and
power, were prone to failure and were limited in speed although they are still common in simple applications.
By contrast, integrated circuits packed a large number — often millions — of tiny electrical components,
mainly transistors, into a small chip around the size of a coin.[17]
[edit] Tubes or valves
[edit] The vacuum tube detector
The invention of the triode amplifier, generator, and detector made audio communication by radio practical.
(Reginald Fessenden's 1906 transmissions used an electro-mechanical alternator.) The first known radio news
program was broadcast 31 August 1920 by station 8MK, the unlicensed predecessor of WWJ (AM) in Detroit,
Michigan. Regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research
Centre at Writtle near Chelmsford, England.
While some early radios used some type of amplification through electric current or battery, through the mid
1920s the most common type of receiver was the crystal set. In the 1920s, amplifying vacuum tubes
revolutionized both radio receivers and transmitters.
[edit] Television
In 1928 Philo Farnsworth made the first public demonstration of a purely electronic television. During the
1930s several countries began broadcasting, and after World War II it spread to millions of receivers,
eventually worldwide. Ever since then, electronics have been fully present in television devices.
Modern televisions and video displays have evolved from bulky electron tube technology to use more compact
devices, such as plasma and LCD displays. The trend is for even lower power devices such as the organic light-
emitting diode displays, and it is most likely to replace the LCD and plasma technologies.[18]
[edit] Radar and radio location
During World War II many efforts were expended in the electronic location of enemy targets and aircraft.
These included radio beam guidance of bombers, electronic counter measures, early radar systems etc. During
this time very little if any effort was expended on consumer electronics developments.[19]
[edit] Computers
A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data, and provides output in
a useful format.
Although mechanical examples of computers have existed through much of recorded human history, the first
electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). These were the size of a large
room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1] Modern computers
based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a
fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into small pocket devices, and can be
powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are
what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from
MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile,
distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility:
any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any
other computer can perform. Therefore computers ranging from a netbook to a supercomputer are all able to
perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
[edit] Microprocessors
In 1969, Ted Hoff conceived the commercial microprocessor at Intel and thus ignited the development of the
personal computer. Hoff's invention was part of an order by a Japanese company for a desktop programmable
electronic calculator, which Hoff wanted to build as cheaply as possible. The first realization of the
microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor, in 1969, but only in 1973 did the Intel 8080, an 8-bit
processor, make the building of the first personal computer, the MITS Altair 8800, possible. The first PC was
announced to the general public on the cover of the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics.
Many electronics engineers today specialize in the development of programs for microprocessor based
electronic systems, known as embedded systems. Due to the detailed knowledge of the hardware that is
required for doing this, it is normally done by electronics engineers and not software engineers. Software
engineers typically know and use microprocessors only at a conceptual level. Electronics engineers who
exclusively carry out the role of programming embedded systems or microprocessors are referred to as
"embedded systems engineers", or "firmware engineers".
[edit] Electronics
In the field of electronic engineering, engineers design and test circuits that use the electromagnetic properties
of electrical components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular
functionality. The tuner circuit, which allows the user of a radio to filter out all but a single station, is just one
example of such a circuit.
In designing an integrated circuit, electronics engineers first construct circuit schematics that specify the
electrical components and describe the interconnections between them. When completed, VLSI engineers
convert the schematics into actual layouts, which map the layers of various conductor and semiconductor
materials needed to construct the circuit. The conversion from schematics to layouts can be done by software
(see electronic design automation) but very often requires human fine-tuning to decrease space and power
consumption. Once the layout is complete, it can be sent to a fabrication plant for manufacturing.
Integrated circuits and other electrical components can then be assembled on printed circuit boards to form
more complicated circuits. Today, printed circuit boards are found in most electronic devices including
televisions, computers and audio players.[20]
[edit] Typical electronic engineering undergraduate syllabus
Apart from electromagnetics and network theory, other items in the syllabus are particular to electronics
engineering course. Electrical engineering courses have other specialisms such as machines, power generation
and distribution. Note that the following list does not include the extensive engineering mathematics curriculum
that is a prerequisite to a degree.[21][22]
[edit] Electromagnetics
Elements of vector calculus: divergence and curl; Gauss' and Stokes' theorems, Maxwell's equations:
differential and integral forms. Wave equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various
media; reflection and refraction; phase and group velocity; skin depth. Transmission lines: characteristic
impedance; impedance transformation; Smith chart; impedance matching; pulse excitation. Waveguides: modes
in rectangular waveguides; boundary conditions; cut-off frequencies; dispersion relations. Antennas: Dipole
antennas; antenna arrays; radiation pattern; reciprocity theorem, antenna gain.[23][24]
[edit] Network analysis
Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set and fundamental circuit
matrices. Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Norton's
maximum power transfer, Wye-Delta transformation.[25] Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear
constant coefficient differential equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network
equations using Laplace transform: frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters:
driving point and transfer functions. State equations for networks.[26]
[edit] Electronic devices and circuits
Electronic devices: Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Carrier transport in silicon:
diffusion current, drift current, mobility, resistivity. Generation and recombination of carriers. p-n junction
diode, Zener diode, tunnel diode, BJT, JFET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-i-n and avalanche photo
diode, LASERs. Device technology: integrated circuit fabrication process, oxidation, diffusion, ion
implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS process.[27][28]
Analog circuits: Equivalent circuits (large and small-signal) of diodes, BJTs, JFETs, and MOSFETs. Simple
diode circuits, clipping, clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability of transistor and FET amplifiers.
Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential, operational, feedback and power. Analysis of amplifiers;
frequency response of amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters. Sinusoidal oscillators; criterion for
oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations. Function generators and wave-shaping circuits, Power
supplies.[29]
Digital circuits: of Boolean functions; logic gates digital IC families (DTL, TTL, ECL, MOS, CMOS).
Combinational circuits: arithmetic circuits, code converters, multiplexers and decoders. Sequential circuits:
latches and flip-flops, counters and shift-registers. Sample and hold circuits, ADCs, DACs. Semiconductor
memories. Microprocessor 8086: architecture, programming, memory and I/O interfacing.[30] [31]
[edit] Signals and systems
Definitions and properties of Laplace transform, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier series, continuous-
time and discrete-time Fourier Transform, z-transform. Sampling theorems. Linear Time-Invariant (LTI)
Systems: definitions and properties; causality, stability, impulse response, convolution, poles and zeros
frequency response, group delay, phase delay. Signal transmission through LTI systems. Random signals and
noise: probability, random variables, probability density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density,
function analogy between vectors & functions.[32][33]
[edit] Control systems
Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of block diagrams — Mason's
rule. Open loop and closed loop (negative unity feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems.
Signal flow graphs and their use in determining transfer functions of systems; transient and steady state analysis
of LTI control systems and frequency response. Analysis of steady-state disturbance rejection and noise
sensitivity.
Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis and design: root loci, Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion,
Bode and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators: elements of lead and lag compensation, elements of
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID). Discretization of continuous time systems using Zero-order
hold (ZOH) and ADCs for digital controller implementation. Limitations of digital controllers: aliasing. State
variable representation and solution of state equation of LTI control systems. Linearization of Nonlinear
dynamical systems with state-space realizations in both frequency and time domains. Fundamental concepts of
controllability and observability for MIMO LTI systems. State space realizations: observable and controllable
canonical form. Ackermann's formula for state-feedback pole placement. Design of full order and reduced order
estimators. [34][35]
[edit] Communications
Analog communication systems: amplitude and angle modulation and demodulation systems, spectral analysis
of these operations, superheterodyne noise conditions.
Digital communication systems: pulse code modulation (PCM), Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM),
Delta modulation (DM), digital modulation schemes-amplitude, phase and frequency shift keying schemes
(ASK, PSK, FSK), matched filter receivers, bandwidth consideration and probability of error calculations for
these schemes, GSM, TDMA.[36][37]
[edit] Education and training
Electronics engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in electronic engineering. The length
of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the completed degree may be designated as a
Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Applied Science, or Bachelor of Technology
depending upon the university. Many UK universities also offer Master of Engineering (MEng) degrees at
undergraduate level.
The degree generally includes units covering physics, chemistry, mathematics, project management and
specific topics in electrical engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subfields of electronic
engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more subfields towards the end of the degree.
Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Science (MSc),
Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering (PhD), or an Engineering Doctorate (EngD). The Master degree is being
introduced in some European and American Universities as a first degree and the differentiation of an engineer
with graduate and postgraduate studies is often difficult. In these cases, experience is taken into account. The
Master's degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy
consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards certification and the
degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the
engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified.
Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and
South Africa), Chartered Engineer or Incorporated Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India and
Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia) or European Engineer (in much of the European
Union).
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a
qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today most engineering work involves
the use of computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided design programs when designing electronic
systems. Although most electronic engineers will understand basic circuit theory, the theories employed by
engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum mechanics and solid state physics
might be relevant to an engineer working on VLSI but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with
macroscopic electrical systems.
[edit] Professional bodies
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) and the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) (now renamed the Institution of Engineering and
Technology or IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature in electrical/electronic
engineering, has over 370,000 members, and holds more than 450 IEEE sponsored or cosponsored conferences
worldwide each year.
[edit] Subfields
Electronic engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most popular subfields in
electronic engineering; although there are engineers who focus exclusively on one subfield, there are also many
who focus on a combination of subfields.
[edit] Overview of electronic engineering
Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of electronic circuits that use the electronic properties
of components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to achieve a particular
functionality.
Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation of signals. Signals can be either analog, in which
case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or digital, in which case the signal varies
according to a series of discrete values representing the information.
For analog signals, signal processing may involve the amplification and filtering of audio signals for audio
equipment or the modulation and demodulation of signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal
processing may involve the compression, error checking and error detection of digital signals.
Telecommunications engineering deals with the transmission of information across a channel such as a co-
axial cable, optical fiber or free space.
Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a carrier wave in order to shift the
information to a carrier frequency suitable for transmission, this is known as modulation. Popular analog
modulation techniques include amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. The choice of modulation
affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the
transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way
communication device known as a transceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their power
consumption as this is closely related to their signal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is
insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by noise.
Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial
airplanes to the cruise control present in many modern cars. It also plays an important role in industrial
automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For example, in a car with cruise
control the vehicle's speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the engine's
power output accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the
system responds to such feedback.
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure,
flow and temperature. These devices are known as instrumentation.
The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of physics that often extends beyond
electromagnetic theory. For example, radar guns use the Doppler effect to measure the speed of oncoming
vehicles. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference
between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example,
a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason,
instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.
Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design
of new hardware, the design of PDAs or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Computer engineers
may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of
software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline.
Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-
like architectures are now found in a range of devices including video game consoles and DVD players.
[edit] Project engineering
For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of system design and development, technical work accounts
for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with
clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of
technicians or other engineers and for this reason project management skills are important. Most engineering
projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very
important.
The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electronics engineers
may be found in the pristine laboratory environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or in
a research laboratory. During their working life, electronics engineers may find themselves supervising a wide
range of individuals including scientists, electricians, computer programmers and other engineers.
Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electronics engineers. Membership and participation in
technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore
essential to maintaining proficiency. And these are mostly used in the field of consumer electronics products.[38]
[edit] See also
Electronics
portal

• Electronics
• History of radio
• Radio
• Analog signal processing
• Digital signal processing
• List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical)
• List of electrical engineers
[edit] References
1. ^ http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/home/index.html
2. ^ Alley, Charles L. (1973). Electronic Engineering. Wiley. ISBN 0471024503.
3. ^ "Electronic Engineering". Television Society of Great Britain. 1996.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jNkEAQAAIAAJ&q.
4. ^ Brett Wilson/Z. Ghassemloooy/I. Darwazeh Analogue Optical Fibre Communications, p.
xvi, Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1995 ISBN 978-0852968321
5. ^ Allan R. Hambley Electrical Engineering, pp. 3, 441, Prentice Hall, 2004 ISBN 978-
0131470460
6. ^ Principles of Electrical Engineering
7. ^ Anthony J. Pansini Electrical Distribution Engineering, p. xiv, The Fairmont Press Inc.,
2006 ISBN 978-0881735468
8. ^ Smarajit Ghosh Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, p. xxi, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2004 ISBN 978-8120323162
9. ^ Erik Barnouw A Tower in Babel, p. 28, Oxford University Press US, 1966 ISBN 978-
0195004748
10.^ Radio Engineering Principles
11.^ Daniel Todd The World Electronics Industry, p. 55, Taylor & Francis, 1990 ISBN 978-
0415024976
12.^ Silicon Destiny
13.^ Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers p. 274
14.^ Bryan H. Bunch/Alexander Hellemans The History of Science and Technology, p. 436,
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004 ISBN 978-0618221233
15.^ Wireless TelegraphyProceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers pp. 101-5
16.^ Paul J. Nahin The Science of Radio, pp. xxxv-vi, Springer, 2001 ISBN 978-0387951508
17.^ David A. Hodges/Horace G. Jackson/Resve A. Saleh Analysis and Design of Digital
Integrated Circuits, p. 2, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN 978-0072283655
18.^ Joseph Shinar Organic Light-Emitting Devices, p. 45, 2003 ISBN 978-0387953434
19.^ Martin L. Van Creveld Technology and War, pp. 267-8, Simon and Schuster, 1991 ISBN
978-0029331538
20.^ Charles A. Harper High Performance Printed Circuit Boards, pp. xiii-xiv, McGraw-Hill
Professional, 2000 ISBN 978-0070267138
21.^ Rakesh K. Garg/Ashish Dixit/Pavan Yadav Basic Electronics, p. 1, Firewall Media, 2008
ISBN 978-8131803028
22.^ Sachin S. Sharma Power Electronics, p. ix, Firewall Media, 2008 ISBN 978-8131803509
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0849313974
24.^ Joseph Edminister Schaum's Outlines Electromagnetics, McGraw Hill Professional, 1995
ISBN 978-0070212343
25.^ J. O. Bird Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology, pp. 372-443, Newness, 2007 ISBN
978-0750681391
26.^ Alan K. Walton Network Analysis and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1987 ISBN
978-0521319034
 27.^ David K. Ferry/Jonathan P. Bird Electronic Materials and Devices, Academic Press, 2001
ISBN 978-0122541612
28.^ Jimmie J. Cathey Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Electronic Devices and
Circuits, McGraw Hill, 2002 ISBN 978-0071362702
29.^ Wai-Kai Chen Analog Circuits and Devices, CRC Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0849317361
30.^ Ronald C. Emery Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, CRC Press, 1985 ISBN 978-
0824773977
31.^ Anant Agarwal/Jeffrey H. Lang Foundation of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits,
Morgan Kaufmann, 2005 ISBN 978-1558607354
32.^ Michael J. Roberts Signals and Systems, p. 1, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003 ISBN 978-
0072499421
33.^ Hwei Piao Hsu Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Signals and Systems, p. 1,
McGraw-Hill Professional, 1995 ISBN 978-0070306417
34.^ Gerald Luecke, Analog and Digital Circuits for Electronic Control System Applications,
Newnes, 2005. ISBN 978-0750678100.
35.^ Joseph J. DiStefano, Allen R. Stubberud, and Ivan J. Williams, Schaum's Outline of Theory
and Problems of Feedback and Control Systems, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1995. ISBN
978-0070170520.
36.^ Shanmugam, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Wiley-India, 2006. ISBN 978-
8126509140.
37.^ Hwei Pia Hsu, Schaum's Outline of Analog and Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill
Professional, 2003. ISBN 978-0071402286.
38.^ Homer L. Davidson, Troubleshooting and Repairing Consumer Electronics, p. 1, McGraw-
Hill Professional, 2004. ISBN 978-0071421812.

[edit] External links