A Brief Introduction to FGM

Functionally Graded Materials – FGM

Definition of ‘FGM’
A Functionally Graded Material or FGM is a two-component “composite”
characterized by a compositional gradient from one component to other.
FGMs can be natural or they can be manufactured using various techniques
like particulate processing, preform processing, layer processing, melt
processing, etc. The materials can be designed for specific functions and
applications.

FGMs vs. Composites

Although FGMs are loosely termed as “composites”, their properties
vary considerably from the traditional composites. Traditional composites
are homogeneous mixtures, and they
therefore involve a compromise between
the desirable properties of the
component materials. Since significant
proportions of an FGM contain the pure
form of each component, the need for
compromise is eliminated. The
properties of both components can be
fully utilized. For example, the
toughness of a metal can be mated with
the refractoriness of a ceramic,
without any compromise in the toughness Fig 1: Transition between a hard
of the metal side or the refractoriness and a soft material
of the ceramic side. The illustration
shown alongside shows the transition between a hard material and a soft
one in eight discrete layers for a typical FGM.

History of FGM
The advent of the FGM concept was back in 1984 in Japan during the
Spaceplane Project. The idea was to develop a thermal barrier capable of
withstanding surface temperatures of about 2000 K and a temperature
gradient of 1000 K across a cross section less than 10 mm thick. Since
1984, FGM thin films have been comprehensively researched, and are almost
a commercial reality now.

Natural FGMs
The concept of FGM may be considered as a direct derivative from
nature and natural systems where such materials have developed by
evolution. The human body itself contains many parts which have evolved
and transformed them selves according to their environment (like our teeth
and bones which have a tough “bony” exterior and a soft pulpy interior).
Another such natural application of FGMs can be found in almost all type
of plants where the branches and twigs form a natural hard shell-like
covering on the outside (mainly composed of dead tissues) for protection,
prevention of moisture-loss, etc. The bamboo grass is an example of such
an application; typically, the bamboo plant shows a change of
A Brief Introduction to FGM

microstructure from the core to the outer surface to withstand external

loads while keeping the internal activities like the flow of water and
nutrition unhindered. The most common occurence FGMs in animals can be
found in their skeletal structures (like bone and teeth, nail, shells,
etc.). Although it is difficult to distinguish between biological
structural systems, from a macroscopic viewpoint it can be said that there
are three ways for a biological system to sustain external loads:

1. By changing the microstructure (i.e. by moderating the thickness

and/or the shape), e.g. – Bamboo, Mollusk shell.

2. By changing the size and/or shape of a body, e.g. – the trunk of a

tree and the stem of a plant, the shaft of a leaf or a feather.

3. By combining the first two, e.g. – human and animal bone, the
spicule of a seaurchin, a rat tooth.

Fig 2: The mechanical properties of the Fig 3: The cross-section of a

humerus bone of a rhinoceros tooth
Applications of FGMs
The FGMs produced as a result of the natural evolution processes are
time tested and are really the ultimate functional materials possible.
Science has always tried to follow nature’s path. Engineering materials
being produced these days are specially tailor-made for specific purposes
like thermal shielding, corrosion resistance,
etc. The mechanical and thermal response of
materials with spatial gradients in composition
and microstructure is of considerable interest in
numerous technological areas such as tribology,
optoelectronics, biomechanics, nanotechnology and
high temperature technology. The graded
transition in composition across an interface of
two materials (for instance, metal and ceramics
or polymer) can essentially reduce the thermal
stresses and stress concentration at intersection
with free surfaces. Similarly the stress

Fig 4: A bio-implant
(an artificial hip)
A Brief Introduction to FGM

intensity factor at the crack tip can be altered by varying the gradient
properties across the interface. The ceramic-metal FGMs exhibit higher
fracture resistance parameters resulting in higher toughness due to crack
bridging in a graded volume fraction. Varying thermal expansion in graded
layers induces residual stress and affects the crack growth mode. In
fact, the interface bonding is much improved by providing smooth
composition variation when traversing the interface. The interest in
graded materials focused primarily on the control of thermal stresses in
elements exposed to high temperatures (to 1600C), for instance in gas
turbine blades, aerospace structures, solid-oxide fuel cells, energy
conversion systems using thermoelectric or thermionic materials (thermal
barrier coatings, TBC). Subsequent applications include fusion and fast-
breeder reactors as a first-wall composite material, piezoelectric and
thermoelectric devices, high density magnetic recording media, in optical
applications as graded refractive index materials, in audio-video discs,
in bioengineering as dental and orthopedic implants, in structures as fire
retardant doors and penetration resistant materials for armour plates and
bullet-proof vests.

The development of the FGMs was primarily for the purpose of thermal
insulations. For example, the Space Shuttle utilizes ceramic tiles as
thermal protection from heat generated during re-entry into the Earth’s
atmosphere. However, these tiles are laminated to the vehicle’s
superstructure and are prone to cracking and debonding at the
superstructure/tile interface due to abrupt transition between thermal
expansion coefficients. In other words, the ceramic tile expands a
different amount than the substructure it is protecting. The difference in
expansion causes stress concentrations at the interface of the tile and
superstructure which results in cracking or debonding. Figure 5
demonstrates the stress concentrations found in conventional thermal
protection panels at the tile - superstructure interface. It also shows
how an FGM can alleviate those stress concentrations by gradually changing
material properties through-the-thickness of the material but still
provide the thermal protection found in conventional thermal shielding.
A Brief Introduction to FGM

Fig 5: Thermal protection and induced thermal stresses

An FGM composed of ceramic on the outside surface and metal on the

inside surface eliminates the abrupt transition between coefficients of
thermal expansion, offers thermal/corrosion protection, and provides load
carrying capability. This is possible because the material composition of
an FGM changes gradually through-the-thickness; therefore, stress
concentrations from abrupt changes in material properties (i.e.,
coefficients of thermal expansion) are eliminated.

Manufacturing techniques for making FGMs

The concept of thin surface layers is closely related to
functionally graded materials. In fact, all surface treatments and
coatings aimed to increase wear and fracture resistance induce gradual or
stepwise transition to bulk properties. Well established techniques such
as shot-peening, laser treatment, ion implantation, have been developed
and extended to generate nanocrystalline surface coatings with grain sizes
of order of few tens of nanometers. New techniques include thermal spray,
electrodeposition, electrophoretic deposition, chemical (CVD) and physical
vapour deposition (PVD), ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD), etc. The
surface layer can be created with grain sizes varying smoothly from the
surface to the bulk. Also the gradients in porosity and density can be
controlled to increase the damage resistance and reduce stress intensity
factors at crack tips. Recent experimental and theoretical works
demonstrated that controlling gradients in thermal and mechanical
properties provides a new potential for design of surfaces and interfaces
with higher resistance to cracking and wear subjected to mechanical
surface loading and thermal gradients. The diverse applications include
load-bearing engineering structures, protective coatings, bio-implants,
and magnetic storage media.
A Brief Introduction to FGM

There are several types of FGMs that exhibit exceptional multifunctional

properties and multisectoral applications as shown below:

Type Properties Processing Applications

Ceramic/metal Thermal stress Spark plasma High efficiency

bulk FGMs relaxation; high sintering process engine components
heat resistance
and wear
resistance, high
mechanical
strength

Titanium (alloys) Combination of Additive, layer- Light weight

with graded good mechanical wise process: structures for
density or properties and direct metal aircraft and
porosity light weight laser sintering space industry,
(DMLS) of powders implants

Toolsteels with Combination of Additive, layer- Tools, medical

C, V, Cr toughness and wise process: 3D- instruments,
gradients; steels hardness or wear printing with implants,
or Ni super resistance local material aircraft and
alloys with composition space industry.
ceramic (oxide, control
carbide) particle (generating a
gradient green part of
powdered material
and sintering or
infiltration)

Functionally Wear resistance, sintering Cutting insert

graded cemented breakage
carbide: titanium resistance,
based surface thermal crack
ceramic layer, resistance
tough cemented
carbide core and
intermediate
layer with graded
composition

Ferritic- Magnetic and non- Co-injection Automotive

austenitic magnetic; ductile moulding and co- industry,
combinations like and stiff and sintering sensors; medical
316L and 17-4PH; other (building a instruments
steel-ceramic graded interface)
combinations

Precious metals High specific PVD based on Gas sensors and

like Pt, Ag surface and sputter catalytic active
(catalysis) and strong gas-metal techniques and layers, low-
metal oxides like interaction; inert gas temperature
SnO2 (sensors) graded porosity evaporation and bonding for
A Brief Introduction to FGM

with graded combines condensation, electronic

porosity from optimised contact with in-situ connections
bulk to nanometre on substrates design of the
scale (bulk side) and deposed
high structures by
functionality controlling the
(nano-structured process
side) parameters

Conclusion
The manufacturing techniques currently used to produce FGMs are in
general very expensive and have very high energy demands. For example,
kevlar, the toughest material produced synthetically and used in bullet
proof jackets, are produced by heating petroleum to very high temperatures
and consequently subjecting it to immense pressures. Whereas, a simple
spider, with no access to such heating techniques, can naturally produce a
material in its stomach which is almost six times stronger than steel.
Now, with the world on the threshhold of an insense energy crisis, one
must realise that the existing processes are not sustainable. So, the
emphasis should be on the development of more ecofriendly, sustainable
processes with lesser energy demands.