SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 2006-01-0694

Sensitivity Study on Brake

Cooling Performance
Hongguang Sun
General Motors of Canada Limited

Reprinted From: Brake Technology 2006

(SP-2017)

2006 SAE World Congress

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Sensitivity Study on Brake Cooling Performance
Copyright © 2006 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Recently, an increased emphasis in reducing brake rotor
temperature in an effort to increase brake pad life and to
reduce brake fade and “hot judder” has been observed.
This study examined the effects of changes to a brake
system and its environment on the brake equilibrium
temperature rise. Initially, a baseline thermal model was
correlated to physical test data from a cyclical braking
test. This correlated model was then used to study the
effects of modifying the rotor, dust shield, wheel, and air
deflector on the brake equilibrium temperature rise under
the cyclical braking during simulated mountain test
schedules.
INTRODUCTION
During braking most kinetic energy of the vehicle is
absorbed into the brake system in the form of heat
causing the rotor temperature to increase. High rotor
temperature may cause the binders, one of the lining
compositions used to hold the lining materials together,
to melt. As a result, the life time of lining or pad
decreases and the friction coefficient of lining starts to
decline causing brake fade.
“Hot judder” is another consequence of high rotor
temperature. “Hot judder” occurs as a result of a low
frequency of forced vibration that can be felt on the
steering wheel, brake pedal, and vehicle floor. It has
been shown that during heavy braking application high
rotor temperature and large lateral rotor thermal
deformation or coning can cause the hot spots on the
rotor surfaces. The development of hot spot gives rise to
the disk thickness variation which in turn is reflected in
variation of the brake pressure between brake pad and
rotor or brake torque variation and therefore “hot judder”
[1]. Thus, it is of great importance to evaluate the brake
rotor temperature particularly in the early design stage.
In the past, the simulated mountain test was the primary
tool used to quantify the brake cooling performance. The
test procedure requires the performance of 80 braking
and acceleration cycles in a vehicle with Gross Vehicle
Weight (GVW) to simulate the repeated braking down a
1
2006-01-0694
Hongguang Sun
General Motors of Canada Limited
long steep grade. In each braking and acceleration cycle
a vehicle is decelerated from 64 km/h to 24 km/h with a
constant deceleration rate and then accelerated back to
64 km/h. The vehicle is maintained at 64 km/h for rest of
the cycle time. At end of the test schedules the brake
rotor would reach the equilibrium state, i.e. the time-
averaged rotor temperature rise at the measuring points
would reach a plateau that is called brake equilibrium
temperature rise.
Besides the cost, the major weakness of the simulated
mountain test is the near impossibility to obtain the
accurate brake equilibrium temperature rise in the early
stage of the vehicle development process. This is
because the brake environment in the tested vehicle
such as air dam, air deflector, front fascia, etc. might not
be the same design as that in production. On the other
hand, once the design of the brake environment is
decided in other compartments, it is too late to change
brake environment based on the evaluation of the effect
on the brake cooling performance using the simulated
mountain test. Another weakness of the simulated
mountain test is the difficulty in evaluating the
modifications of the brake and its environment that had
small effects on the brake equilibrium temperature rise.
This is because during the test the variations of the
deceleration and acceleration rates and the weather
conditions particularly the variations of the wind and
humidity would cause relatively large uncertainty of the
brake equilibrium temperature rise, though the brake
equilibrium temperature rise need to be corrected to that
at standard ambient temperature of 15 °C.
In this study, an ABAQUS thermal model combined with
a brake-in-vehicle CFD model and two FORTRAN
subroutines have been used to predict the brake
equilibrium temperature rise based on the simulated
mountain test schedules. After a baseline thermal model
was correlated to the physical test data under the
cyclical braking during simulated mountain test
schedules, the effects of the rotor, dust shield, wheel,
wheel cover, and air deflector on the brake equilibrium
temperature rise were then examined by using this
correlated model.
BRAKE THERMAL ANALYSIS MODEL
A brake thermal model has been developed to simulate
the transient heating and cooling process to predict the
rotor temperature rise and thermal deformation under
cyclic braking and acceleration. The flow chart of the
simulation process is shown in Figure 1. In this model
the heat flux generated during the braking was
calculated using a FORTRAN subroutine. The
convection and equivalent radiation heat transfer
coefficients of the surfaces of the brake system at
different vehicle speeds were predicted using a brake-in-
vehicle CFD model and the other FORTRAN subroutine.
Finally, an ABAQUS thermal model was used to
simulate the transient heat transfer and then predict the
rotor temperature rise and lateral thermal deformation
using the predicted heat flux and convection and
radiation heat transfer coefficients as inputs. The
modeling of heat flux generation, heat transfer on brake
surfaces, and heat conduction in the brake system are
outlined in the following subsections.
ESTIMATION OF HEAT FLUX GENERATION
The heat flux on the friction surface at each vehicle
speed was calculated using a FORTRAN subroutine.
The total heat flux generated by friction between the
rotor and pad (on each side of the disk rotor) was given
by
q '' = µ PRω
, ……………….. (1)
where µ, P, R, and ω were pad friction coefficient,
contact pressure between the rotor and pad, distance
between node and rotor center, and rotor angular
velocity, respectively. The contact pressure was
calculated based on the normal brake force that was
estimated using BrakeSyn, a PC-based software
developed at GM.
The distribution of the heat flux between the rotor and
pad could be estimated by the ratio of the total thermal
resistance on pad side and the total thermal resistance
on rotor side. However, the transient convection heat
transfer, anisotropic thermal property of the pad,
complicated thermal property of insulator, and the
thermal conduction among the rotor, wheel, hub and half
shaft made the total thermal resistances on both sides
difficult to be estimated. In this study, the distribution of
the heat flux between the rotor and pad was estimated
using the equation proposed by Rudolf [2],
"
q rotor ρ rotor C rotor k rotor
=
q "pad ρ pad C pad k pad
, ………. (2)
which was given based on the assumptions that the
thicknesses of solid disk rotor and pad were semi-infinite
and the temperatures of friction surfaces of pad and
2
FLUENT: BRAKESYN :
Radiation view factors Normal brake force.
and convection heat
transfer coefficients of
brake surfaces.
FORTRAN:
FORTRAN: Heat flux generated at
Radiation and convection different vehicle
heat transfer coefficients speeds.
at different vehicle
speeds.
ABAQUS:
Transient state -
coupled temperature
and displacement
analysis.
Post-Processing:
Thermal deformation
and temperature
distribution.
Figure 1: Flow chart of simulation process.
rotor were same. Here q”, ρ, C, and k denote heat flux,
density, specific heat and thermal conductivity,
respectively. The weighting factor of the heat distribution
to the rotor could be finally adjusted by correlating the
simulated brake equilibrium temperature rise to the
physical test data.
ESTIMATION OF SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER
Initially the convection heat transfer coefficients and
equivalent radiation view factors of surfaces of rotor,
hub, and wheel at vehicle speeds of 24 km/h and 64
km/h were estimated using a brake-in-vehicle CFD
model as shown in Figure 2. In the CFD model the air
inside the rotor, rotor outside surfaces, hub, half shaft,
wheel, and tire were set to rotation based on the vehicle
speed. In order to make the solution easy to converge,
the full turbulent region was resolved by using the
standard K-ε turbulence model, i.e. the baseline two
transport equation model solving for turbulence kinetic
energy k and dissipation rate of turbulence energy ε. In
order to capture the geometric details of the rotor
particularly the geometry of vane or pillar post that
played important roles on the brake cooling, the element
sizes of the rotor surfaces were 2 ~ 5 mm. The small
size of the surface element would cause yp to be small.
Here yp is the distance between the wall and the center
of the first layer of tetra element generated in the TGrid
based on the surface element. As a result, the values of
+ +
y ( y = uτyp/ν ) on the rotor surfaces would be smaller
 Rotor hat Steel wheel

Rotor vane

Hub Rotor cheek

ω Pad

Half shaft

Figure 2: Brake-in-Vehicle CFD model. Figure 3: Brake thermal model.

than 30 but larger than 5 in the vehicle speeds from 24

km/h to 64 km/h. Here uτ, and ν denote the friction
velocity or shear velocity and the fluid kinetic viscosity,
+
respectively. Since log-law function is valid only for y ≥
30 ~ 60 [3], the enhanced wall function was used for
Near-Wall Treatment in the CFD model. The radiation
heat transfer on surfaces of rotor and hub were
calculated using the Discrete Ordinates (DO) radiation
model in which the radiative transfer equation was
solved for a discrete number of finite solid angles. The
equivalent view factor, F, was calculated based on the
equation

q r" = ε F σ (T surface
4 4
− Tambient )
, …………. (3)

where qr”, ε, σ, and T denote net heat flux loss on the

surface, emissivity, Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × Figure 4: Trimming a vented rotor.
-8 2 4
10 W/m ⋅K ), and temperature, respectively.

The convection and equivalent radiation heat transfer
coefficients of the brake surfaces at other different
vehicle speeds during the braking and acceleration
cycles were calculated using the other FORTRAN
subroutine, where the equivalent radiation heat transfer
coefficient hr was given by
entire circle of the rotor so that the heat transfer in the
rotor was periodically axisymmetric. As a result, only one
trimmed sector of the rotor, pad, hub, wheel, and half
shaft needed to be modeled. The averaged contact
pressure between the trimmed sectors of pad and rotor
in the model was given by

hr = ε F σ (Tsurface
2
+ Tambient
2
) (Tsurface + Tambient ) Normal brake force
. .....(4) p= . (5)
Pad sweeping area on rotor surface
TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER MODELING
The sector angle was chosen as small as possible to
An ABAQUS 3D thermal model shown in Figure 3 was reduce computing cost and guarantee periodically
developed to calculate surface heat transfer based on axisymmetric thermal results. For example, the trimming
the inputs from above two FORTRAN subroutines and to sector angle for an axisymmetric rotor with same vanes
solve the transient heat conduction in the brake system. shown in Figure 4 was given by
Consequentially the brake rotor temperature rise and
thermal deformation could be examined. Considering 180 0
Sector angle = . ..……. (6)
the analytical accuracy and computing cost, it was number of vanes
assumed that each pad was uniformly distributed around

3
 o
R o to r T em p eratu re R ise( C ) 500

400
Simulation
Test
300

200

100

0
0 400 800 1200 1600
Time (s)
Figure 5: The brake rotor temperature rise. Figure 6a: A pillar post rotor. Figure 6b: A vane rotor.

Table 1: Brake equilibrium temperature rise.

EFFECT OF BRAKE ROTOR
Brake equilibrium temperature rise
Pillar Post Rotor vs. Vane Rotor
(ć)

Two different types of rotors, a pillar post rotor and a

Simulation
Base model with
481
front dust shields
Base model without
416
front dust shields
CORRELATION TO PHYSICAL TEST
The temperature distribution of the rotor in a base model
vehicle with the steel wheels, wheel covers and original
front dust shields during 80 braking and acceleration
cycles was calculated using above brake thermal model.
The weighting factor of the heat distribution to the rotor
was slightly adjusted so that the rotor temperature rise
(compared to standard ambient temperature of 15 °C)
was correlated to the physical test data as shown Figure
5 and Table 1. This correlated model was also checked
using a base model vehicle without the front dust
shields. It was found that the simulated brake equilibrium
o
temperature rise was 416 C that was in agreement with
o
the physical test data, 426 C.
BRAKE THERMAL ANALYSIS RESULTS
The correlated brake thermal model has been used to
study the effects of modifying brake system and its
environment on the brake equilibrium temperature rise.
The effects of the brake rotor, dust shield, wheel, wheel
cover, and air deflector on the brake equilibrium
temperature rise are outlined in following subsections.
Test
vane rotor, shown in Figures 6a and 6b, respectively,
were proposed for the baseline vehicle based on the
481 best noise performance. The first rotor had 120 pillar
posts and the second rotor had 45 vanes. Both
diameters and thicknesses of the two rotors were the
426 same, which were 303 mm and 30 mm, respectively.
The brake thermal analyses were performed to quantify
the effect of the rotor design on the brake equilibrium
temperature rise. It was found that the mass flow rates
through the vented area of the pillar post rotor were
approximately 1/3 of those of the vane rotor at the
vehicle speeds of 24 km/h and 64 km/h due to the large
flow recirculation and small flow passage of the pillared
rotor particularly at the entrance. In consequence the
averaged convection heat transfer coefficients of the
pillar post rotor were approximately 25% lower than
those of the vane rotor at the vehicle speeds of 24 km/h
and 64 km/h. The brake equilibrium temperature rise of
the pillar post rotor was 44 °C higher than that of the
vane rotor.
Vane Numbers
Considering the best performance of noise and casting
process, three rotors with 36, 45, and 54 vanes were
chosen to estimate the effect of vane numbers on
the brake equilibrium temperature rise. In this study the
vanes of these three rotors were the same with
averaged thickness of 5.8 mm and only the spaces
between adjacent vanes were varied. The convection
heat transfer coefficient and the change of the brake
equilibrium temperature rise are listed in table 2. It was
found that the convection heat transfer coefficient of the
rotor with 45 vanes was approximately 1% and 2%
4
Table 2: Effect of vane numbers on brake cooling performance. relative velocity of the fluid between two adjacent vanes
in the 36-vane rotor was less than that of the 54-vane
Convection heat Change of brake rotor. On the other hand, it was also found that the
transfer coefficient equilibrium averaged temperature of the fluid inside the rotor was
2
(W/m ⋅K) temperature rise(ć) slightly increased with increasing the vane numbers.
(comparing to that of This may explain why the rotor with about 45 vanes had
24 km/h 64 km/h
54-vane rotor) the maximum convection heat transfer coefficients.
36-vane rotor 15.82 32.65 +9.0
Simulations also indicated that the brake equilibrium
45-vane rotor 16.02 32.96 +3.3 temperature rise of the rotor with 54 vanes was 3.3 °C
and 9.0 °C lower than those of the rotors with 45 vanes
54-vane rotor 15.60 32.36 0 and 36 vanes, respectively, though the convection heat
transfer coefficient of the rotor with 45 vanes was the
highest among these three rotors. This is because the
brake equilibrium temperature rise is the function of the
(a) convection heat transfer coefficient and the cooling
surface area. The large total cooling surface area of
vanes caused the brake equilibrium temperature rise of
the rotor with 54 vanes slightly lower than that of the
rotor with 45 vanes.

Rotor Size

The effect of the rotor size on the brake thermal

performance was investigated by comparing the
convection heat transfer coefficients and brake
equilibrium temperature rises of two rotors with
diameters of 303 mm and 323 mm, respectively. It was
found that the convection heat transfer coefficients of the
two rotors were approximately the same indicating that
the effect of the vane length on the convection heat
(b) transfer coefficient was insignificant. The large cooling
surface area of the rotor with a diameter of 323 mm
caused the brake equilibrium temperature rise 39 °C
lower than that of the rotor with a diameter of 303 mm.

EFFECT OF DUST SHIELD

Dust Shield Geometry

It has been shown that pulsation issues could be

significantly reduced by installing dust shields in the front
brake corners. However, simulated mountain test results
indicated that the brake equilibrium temperature rise of a
front rotor with the dust shield shown in Figure 8a was
57 °C higher than that without the dust shield. In order to
keep the rotor environment clean and reduce the brake
equilibrium temperature rise, the dust shield was
Figure 7: Flow separation at entrance of rotor with (a) 36
optimized using the brake thermal analysis.
vanes, and (b) 54 vanes.
Considering the requirements of the strength and the
larger than those of the rotors with 36 and 54 vanes,
first modal frequency of the dust shield, several
respectively. This is because both the velocity and the
iterations were performed to modify the dust shield. It
temperature of the fluid inside the rotor played important
was found that the brake with the dust shield shown in
roles on the convection heat transfer coefficient of the
figure 8b would have high cooling performance. In this
rotor. The misalignment between radial vane angle and
design the outer diameters of slots were smaller than the
the relative approaching velocity vectors shown in Figure
inner diameter of the rotor cheek so this modified dust
7 caused the flow separation that occurred immediately
shield would not affect the cleanliness of the rotor outer
after the passage entrance. The size of the flow
surfaces. The brake cooling performances in the vehicle
separation zone increased with increasing the distance
with the original dust shields and the modified dust
between two adjacent vanes. As a result, the averaged
5
 Flow slots mass flow rate through the two central flow slots in the
modified dust shield was more than 80% of that through
the vented area of the rotor with the original dust shield.
As a result, the rotor convection heat transfer coefficient
and the brake equilibrium temperature rise could be
increased by approximately 17% and reduced by 29 °C,
respectively, by using the modified dust shield. It should
be noted that the above predicted reduction of the brake
equilibrium temperature rise was in good agreement with
the physical test data that was 27 °C.

Distance between Dust Shield and Rotor

Fig. 8a:Original dust shield. Fig. 8b:Modified dust shield.
Figure 9: Location of dust shield.
The effect of the distance between the dust shield and
the rotor on the brake equilibrium temperature rise was
studied by increasing the distance between the modified
dust shield and the rotor from original 5 mm to 7.5 mm. It
was found that the mass flow rate through the vented
area of the rotor was, however, slightly decreased by
approximately 3%. As a result, the convection coefficient
of the rotor was slightly reduced by 1% and the brake
equilibrium temperature rise was increased by 2 °C. This
is because increasing the distance between the modified
dust shield and the rotor by moving the dust shield
towards the knuckle as shown in Figure 9 would reduce
the effective flow area of the flow slots in the modified
dust shield and block the flow entrainment to the rotor.
This again confirmed that the flow slots in the central
area of the modified dust shield played an important role
to the mass flow rate and convection coefficient of the
rotor.
EFFECT OF WHEEL AND WHEEL COVER

Table 3: Effect of dust shield on brake cooling performance. The small flow passage at the exit of the steel wheel and
its cover significantly reduced the amount of air flowing
Original dust Modified dust over the rotor cheeks and vanes causing the averaged
shield shield
convection heat transfer coefficient to decrease and
24 km/h 64 km/h 24 km/h 64 km/h
brake equilibrium temperature rise of the rotor to
Mass flow rate
through rotor 0.0041 0.0103 0.0068 0.0179 increase. In order to estimate the improvement of the
vented area (kg/s) brake cooling performance by using the aluminum wheel
Mass flow rate - - with relatively large flow passage area, the brake
through two 0.0036 0.0083 thermal analyses were performed on the vehicles with
central slots (kg/s) two different wheels, i.e. a standard 16” steel wheel and
Convection heat its cover shown in Figure 10a and a standard 16”
transfer coefficient 16.02 32.96 18.61 38.27 aluminum wheel shown in Figure 10b. Simulations
2
(W/m ⋅k) indicated that the averaged convection heat transfer
Reduction of coefficients of the rotor installed in the aluminum wheel
brake equilibrium 0 -29 were approximately 36% larger than those of the rotor
temperature rise
o installed in the steel wheel at the vehicle speeds from 24
( C)
km/h to 64 km/h. Consequentially the brake equilibrium
temperature rise of the rotor could be reduced by
shields are summarized in table 3. It can be seen that approximately 70 °C by replacing the standard steel
the mass flow rate through the vented area of the rotor wheel and its cover with the aluminum wheel.
with the modified dust shield was approximately 70%
larger than that of the rotor with the original dist shield. Simulations also indicated that the wheel cover also had
This is because the rotation of the rotor caused the an effect on the brake cooling performance. The
pressure at its central area to be lower than that in the convection heat transfer coefficients and the brake
area outside the dust shield. This pressure difference led equilibrium temperature rise of the rotor could be
to the strong flow entrainment to the vented area of the
increased by approximately 4% and decreased by 11 °C,
rotor through the two central flow slots. For example, the
respectively, by deleting the wheel cover.
6

Fig.10a: Steel wheel and cover. Fig. 10b: Aluminum wheel.
Air deflectors
Figure 11: Air deflectors.
EFFECT OF AIR DEFLECTOR
It was suggested that two air deflectors shown in Figure
11, which were mainly used to deflect air from impinging
upon the rotating front tires to reduce the aerodynamic
drag, could affect the flow towards front rotors and the
rotor convection coefficient. In order to identify the
components that could significantly affect the thermal
performance of the rotor and then modify them, a brake
thermal analysis was performed to estimate how much
the effect of the air deflector on the convection heat
transfer coefficient and brake equilibrium temperature
rise of the front rotor. It was found that the averaged
convection heat transfer coefficient of the front rotor with
7
the air deflector shown in Figure 11 could be about 1.5%
smaller than that of the rotor without the air deflector at
the vehicle speed from 24 km/h to 64 km/h. As a result,
the brake equilibrium temperature rise could be reduced
by 4 °C by deleting the air deflectors. This is because in
the case without air deflectors there would be more air
impinging upon front rotating tires so that the pressures
in front of the rotating tires would be increased. The
large pressure in front of the tires would intensify the air
flowing into the front rotors causing the rotor temperature
to decrease. On the other hand, the large pressure in
front of the rotating tires caused the drag force to
increase. For example, the drag force could be
increased by 0.2% at the vehicle speed of 64 km/h in the
case without two air deflectors.
DISSCUSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
An ABAQUS thermal model combined with a brake-in-
vehicle CFD model and two FORTRAN subroutines
have been developed to estimate effects of the rotor,
dust shield, wheel, wheel cover, and air deflector on the
brake equilibrium temperature rises. Simulations
indicated that the brake cooling performance could be
significantly improved by modifying the geometries of
rotor, dust shield, and wheel. In particular, the brake
equilibrium temperature rises could be reduced by 44
°C, 39 °C, 29 °C, and 70 °C by replacing the 303 × 30
mm pillar post rotor with the same size vane rotor,
increasing the vane rotor diameter from 303 mm to 323
mm, adding two central slots in the dust shield, and
replacing the standard 16” steel wheel and its cover with
the standard 16” aluminum wheel, respectively. The
above improvements of the brake cooling performance
would be approximately additive if the brake equilibrium
temperature rise is in the range of 370 °C to 480 °C.
Simulations also indicated that the brake equilibrium
temperature rise would not be significantly affected by
changing vane numbers in the range of 36 to 54 or
modifying the air deflectors. It might not always be true
that the brake equilibrium temperature rise would be
decreased by increasing the distance between the dust
shield and the rotor. In this study it was found that the
effective central flow passage area was reduced by
moving the dust shield towards to the knuckle. As a
result, the brake equilibrium temperature rise would be
slightly increased by increasing the distance between
the dust shield and the rotor from 5 mm to 7.5 mm.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Todd Vest for his support
on this interesting project. Shyang-Lin Kuo, Kon Leung,
Erik Yen, and Ajith Jayasundera are gratefully
acknowledged for providing information to develop the
brake thermal model. Special thanks go to Chris Leach
and Andrew Neusser for their valuable help and
providing the test data.
REFERENCES
1. Masahiro Kubota, Tomihiro Suenaga, and Kazuhiro
Doi, “A Study of the Mechanism Causing High-Speed
Brake Judder,” SAE 980594.
2. Rudolf Limpert, Brake Design and Safety, 1992.
3. Fluent 6.1.22 User Mannual, Fluent Inc..
4. ABAQUS/Standard User’s Mannual, Version 6.3,
Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc..
5. Example Problems Manual, Version 6.3, Hibbitt,
Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc..
6. Cheng Qian, “Aerodynamic Shape Optimization using
CFD Parametric Model with Brake Cooling Application,”
SAE 2002-01-0599.
7. Akira Fukano and Hiromichi Matsi, “Development of
Disc-Brake Design Method Using Computer Simulation
of Heat Phenomena,” SAE 860634.
8. Thomas Valvano and Kwanggjin Lee, “An Analytical
Method to Predict Thermal Distortion of a Brake Rotor,”
SAE 2000-01-0445.
9. David A. Johnson, Bryan A. Sperandei and Ross
Gilbert, “Analysis of the Flow Through a Vented
Automotive Brake Rotor”, Journal of Fluids Engineering,
Vol. 125, 2003.
CONTACT
Hongguang Sun, Ph.D.
Canadian Regional Engineering Center,
General Motors of Canada Limited,
1908 Colonel Sam Drive, Oshawa, Ontrio, L1H 8P7
Tel. (905) 644-5282
Email: hongguang.sun@gm.com