Chapter 5.

Fluid Motion – Kinematics

5.1 Introduction

We begin consideration of fluid motion by noting a few convenient definitions:

Steady flow – is one in which the variables (e.g. velocity, density) at any point within the fluid
domain do not change with time. Since all motion is relative, this definition
implies an observer ‘tied’ to a certain coordinate system. Imagine, for example, an
observer lying on the bottom of a river and watching a boat sail by above him at
constant speed: the velocity at a fixed point in the water would appear unsteady as
the boat passed, but if the observer were in the boat, looking through its glass hull
then the velocity at that same point would appear constant. So an unsteady flow
might appear steady, and vice versa, with an appropriate change in coordinate
system.
Uniform flow – is one in which at any instant the variables do not change from point to point
over the domain. Near solid boundaries the flow can never be uniform because of
the action of viscosity (no matter how small) in ensuring that at the boundary there
is no relative motion between the boundary itself and the fluid.
Streamline – is an imaginary curve in the fluid which, at any instant, has no fluid flowing
across it; it is thus tangential to the velocity vector at all points along it. Solid
boundaries in the flow must always be streamlines, since no flow can cross them.
Every streamline must be continuous, extending to infinity upstream and
downstream or forming a closed curve. Note that the velocity is not necessarily
constant along a streamline.
Stream-tube – is a bundle of streamlines forming a passage through which the fluid flows.
Fluid only enters or leaves the streamtube through its ends (since no fluid can
cross streamlines).
Path-line – is the path traced by an individual fluid particle
Streak-line – is an instantaneous line showing the positions of all particles which have passed
through a particular point.
NB. Only in steady flow are streamlines, path-lines and streak-lines identical.
Flux – is the rate at which some quantity (mass, momentum, . . .) passes through a
control surface and normal to it.

V2
V3
3
V1
2

Fig.5.1a A streamline, showing the velocity Fig.5.1b A stream-tube.

vector at three points (1, 2 & 3).
5.2 Mass continuity

The continuity equation, which we will not here derive in its most general (partial differential)
form, is simply a mathematical statement expressing the principle of mass conservation. It can
be stated in words by:

The rate at which mass accumulates in a region

= the rate at which mass enters that region
– the rate at which mass leaves the region. (5.1a)

We can define a control volume (CV) as a fixed

CV region in space through which fluid flows, see Figure
5.2. It can be of any shape and is bounded by a
control surface (CS). For a steady flow – i.e. one not
changing with time –

CS Mass flow rate (flux) into CV

= Mass flow rate (flux) out of CV (5.1b)
Figure 5.2

Example 1 Consider the wind tunnel contraction, as

shown at left. If fluid enters with velocity
V1 normal to the inlet area A1 and having
density ρ1 and leaves with velocity V2
normal to the outlet area A2 and having
A1
density ρ2 then, since no fluid crosses the
!1, V1 !2, V2
A2 other (solid) boundaries and if the flow is
steady so that there is no accumulation of
fluid inside the region, it follows that

Figure 5.3 ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2 V2 (5.2)

Each side of (5.2) is a mass flux. If these fluxes were different, then the flow through the
contraction would be unsteady since the fluid mass within the region would be increasing or
decreasing with time. Note the assumptions here:
(1) Velocity is the same everywhere at the two cross sections – one-dimensional flow;
(2) V1 and V2 are normal to the y-z planes (i.e. A1 and A2).
(3) There are no leaks through the walls!

If (1) were not true we would have to write:

## " U dydz = ## " U dydz

A1
1 1
A2
2 2 (5.3)

where U1 is the local velocity for the element dydz within area A1 (and ditto for U2). (5.2) is
correct if the flow is incompressible (so that ρ1=ρ2) and V1 and V2 are viewed as average
velocities over the two areas.!
Example 2 Assumption (2) above is not generally true.
Consider a turbine blade passage, as shown.
Assume inlet and outlet areas are both A and
assume 1D flow. Then the mass flow rate in
is:
A .
A
!1, V1 "1 CV m1 = "1 AV1 cos#1 .
"2

!2, V2 .
Likewise, m2 = "2 AV2 cos#2 . So applying the
!
mass conservation principle for steady flow
(5.1b) we deduce that
Figure 5.4 The dashed line marks boundaries
of the control volume. !
"1 AV1 cos#1 = "2 AV2 cos#2

As explained in §2.5, we consider only incompressible

! flows in this course, so that ρ1 = ρ2 and
(5.2,3) become statements about conservation of volume (i.e., for (5.2) A1 V1 = A2 V2). Note that in
these circumstances, if the cross-sectional area of the fluid region increases, then the velocity
must decrease. (This may not be the case if the flow is compressible – i.e. if the density changes
with position).

We can generalise the mathematical relation expressing the mass continuity principle, as
follows.

Recall first that for two vectors, a and b

n
a • b= a b cos"
U where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
dA

piece of CS The mass flux across the CS element dA is "U • ndA where n is
! normal to dA, see figure (5.5).
the unit vector
•
Figure 5.5 Writing dn = ndA, this is d m = "U!•dn . So the total flow rate
across the entire control surface CS is given by
•
m=
! # "U •dn
CS

and this is true whether the flow is locally into or out of the control volume. So (5.1a) can be
expressed by
!d
dt
CV
# #
"dV + "U •dn = 0 .
CS
(5.4)

!
5.3 Bernoulli’s equation

In a general flow the velocity will vary with position, even along individual streamlines.
Newton realised that a change of velocity must always be associated with a force so it is no
surprise that if the velocity varies from point to point then so will the pressure, although the
latter may not be the only cause of forces acting on the fluid. Consider an element of a very
small stream-tube, whose length and area normal to the flow are δs and δA, respectively. At the
dp
two ends the pressures are p and p + "s , respectively, leading to forces on each end of the
ds
element, as shown in the figure. By Newton’s 2nd law (Force = Mass x Acceleration) and noting

! that the acceleration, as, can be written as

dU dU ds dU
as = = =U ,
[p+(dp/ds)"s]"A dt ds dt ds
"s
where s is measured along the streamline, we
!can equate the total force acting in the stream
"z dU
direction to "#s#A.U so that
ds
#
p"A
$ dp ' dU
p"A # & p + "s )"A # *g"A"s cos+ = *"s"A.U ,
! % ds ( ds
W=!g"A"s where the net forces are due to the pressure
difference across and the weight of the element
! δSδA.
Figure 5.6 dz
This simplifies, since cos" = , to
ds
dp dz dU
– "s"A # $g"A"s = $"s"A.U .
ds ds ds
!
dU dp dz
Dividing by δAδs we obtain "U + + "g = 0 . This is a form of Euler’s equation,
! ds ds ds
expressed for flow along a streamline. Provided the density is constant in space, it is easily
integrated to yield
!
1
"U 2 + p + "gz = constant . (5.5a)
2

This is known as Bernoulli’s equation. It could be stated alternatively, in dimensions of height,

as !

U2 p
+ +z=H, (5.5b)
2 g "g

which expresses the fact that the Total Head (H) along a streamline is constant and is equal to
2
the sum of the ‘velocity head’ (U!/2g), the ‘static pressure head’ (p/ρg) and the ‘potential head’
(z). Note that we have assumed the flow to be steady. We have also ignored all other forces
which may act on the fluid element (viscous ones in particular), so use of Bernoulli’s equation
(5.5) requires that these are negligible. The constant H in (5.5b) will in general be different for
every streamline. If the flow is not incompressible there is an alternative form of (5.5) but we do
not pursue that here. The term ‘static’ for the pressure p is perhaps used to distinguish it from
the ‘dynamic’ pressure (ρU2/2). The sum of these two pressures is termed the stagnation pressure
(i.e. total pressure).

To summarise: this form of Bernoulli’s equation is only valid for steady, incompressible and
frictionless (inviscid) flow along a streamline.

For liquid flows, especially where a free surface is involved, (5.5b) will often be the most
convenient form. For gases, (5.5a) is often more appropriate for, since the density is relatively
small (compared to that in liquid flows), the ρgz term is usually negligible compared with the
other terms so that the equation becomes

1
"U 2 + p = constant . (5.5c)
2

Note that Bernoulli’s equation can also be viewed as an ‘Energy Balance’ since an integration of
the force along a streamline !
defines mechanical work (i.e. force x distance).

Example 1 – Velocity measurement using a Pitot Tube

pa Let there be a one-dimensional steady
flow of fluid of density ρ at velocity U
!h
through a pipe, as shown. A forward-
hs ht
facing Pitot tube is inserted into the pipe.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation for the
(straight) streamline entering the pitot
ps
tube we have
U 1
ps + "U 2 = pt (5.6)
2
where the left-hand side is the total
Figure 5.7 pressure far upstream and pt is the total
pressure
! measured at the tube (the flow
must be brought to rest just inside the tube – hence the term ‘stagnation’ pressure, as an
alternative to total pressure). If the fluid is a liquid we can imagine the liquid in the Pitot tube
rising to a height ht above the location of the tube tip, where pt=pa + ρght and pa is the
(atmospheric) pressure above the free surface. A small hole in the side of the pipe can be
connected to another tube, as shown, and this will measure the ‘static’ pressure, ps, (§2.3)
indicated by the height, hs, to which the liquid in it rises, where ps = pa + ρghs. With Δh=ht-hs and
it follows from (5.6) that

1
"U 2 = "g#h .
2
Commonly, the fluid is a gas (often air) and the corresponding difference in pressures at the
static and Pitot tappings will be measured in mm of some liquid (often water) by a manometer
of some kind. In these circumstances,
! the above equation becomes
1
"gU 2 = "l g#h , (5.7)
2
where ρg and ρl are the gas density and the density of the liquid in the manometer, respectively.
(Note that there may actually be no fluid in the manometer – for example if it is an electronic
!
micro-manometer embodying a capacitance pressure transducer. But the output of such
devices are often calibrated in terms of mm of water.)

For air velocities measured in mm of water head, the velocity given by (5.7) can be written

"l
U= 2 g#h ,
"g

which yields, taking densities appropriate for standard conditions, g=9.8 ms-2 and with U in ms-1
and Δh in mm of water, U " 4 #h . Thus 4 mm water head is equivalent to about 8 ms-1.
!

Example 2. Discharge
! from on orifice in a tank

The figure shows an open tank of water with an

orifice at depth h below the free surface, through
which water is issuing as a jet. In the external jet
there will be a location (2) where its diameter is a
minimum (the vena contracta) and here the streamlines
h 2 within the jet must be parallel so that the static
1
pressure within the jet must be uniform across it.
z (Actually, the pressure variation normal to straight,
horizontal streamlines is hydrostatic, but if the jet is
sufficiently small, we can ignore this small variation
across the vena contracta)[1]. Ignoring surface tension
Figure 5.8 forces, this pressure must be the same as the external
atmospheric pressure, pa.

Consider a streamline between points (1) and (2), where (1) is remote from the orifice and the
tank is large, so that the velocity at (1) is effectively zero. Applying Bernoulli’s equation along
the streamline from point (1) to point (2), with a datum level at the height of station (2), gives

1
p1 + "gz = pa + "U 2
2

where U is the velocity at station (2), the vena contracta. But the static pressure at station (1) is
given by p1 = pa + "g(h # z) so using this and the above relation yields
!

U = 2 gh . (5.8)
!
Notice that this relation does not hold in the plane of the orifice, where neither static pressure
nor velocity will be uniform, but only
! at the vena contracta where the streamlines are parallel so
[1]
the pressure must be the same as atmospheric (for a small enough jet, see above).

Note also that all other forces – arising from viscosity and surface tension, for example – have
been neglected by use of Bernoulli’s equation. In practice, these are not necessarily negligible so
the actual discharge from the orifice will be less than this ideal value. Equation (5.8) gives the
theoretical velocity at the vena contracta but the actual velocity will be slightly less than this. It is
 common to define a coefficient of discharge, Cd’, by the ratio of the actual to the theoretically ideal
mass flux from the orifice. i.e.

actual mass flux actual area of vena contracta x actual velocity there
Cd '= = .
ideal mass flux ideal area of vena contracta x ideal velocity there

Neither the ideal nor the actual vena contracta areas are easily determined but they will
!inevitably be a little smaller than the orifice area. We can replace the ideal area (A) by the latter
if we wish, which would yield a still smaller value of Cd’, Cd say, so definition of the latter
becomes

actual mass flux actual mass flux

Cd = = . (5.9)
ideal mass flux area of orifice x ideal velocity at vena contracta!(from 5.8)

Cd could then be measured for a given orifice diameter, by timing how long it takes for the
! water height in the tank to drop by a measured amount. You may like to develop the necessary
relationship by extension of the arguments above.