CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Backup Power

Electrical power interruptions are quite common in every place especially after a heavy
downpour or a severe storm. To counter these power outages a search has been done to find a
reliable and economic alternate source of backup power.

Backup power is power which kicks in when power from the electrical grid is not
available. Backup power systems may be designed to provide a seamless transition so that people
never experience an interruption in power, or they can be designed to kick on when the power
goes off, restoring power during an outage. Such systems are critical for businesses which want
to retain functionality, and they can be very useful at home, especially if people rely on power to
run lifesaving devices such as ventilators at home.

There are a couple of ways to design a backup power system. Some systems are designed to
provide people with a window of time which allows them to safely shut down equipment when
the power goes down. In this case, the backup power is not designed to be used for working, but
rather remains on for a few minutes after the power goes out to allow people to stop what they
are doing, save, and safely shut down. These systems can be important when power interruptions
might damage or corrupt data and computer systems. A UPS is an example of this type of
system. Uninterruptible power supplies(U.P.S), as they are known, will provide a seamless
transition. When they sense that the power is going out, they kick into action so that people do
not lose power at any point.

Other backup power systems last for a longer period of time on stored energy. They can recharge
through the electrical grid when it is working, or through the use of things like windmills and
solar panels. These systems may last for hours or days, depending on how they are designed. An
example is a power inverter. Other backup power systems will generate energy when the power
is out to maintain power until the grid is restored. Gas powered generators are an example, as are
solar and wind systems.

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In other instances, a backup power system may need a few minutes to activate, or it may be
activated manually as needed. In addition to being used to provide power in an outage, such
systems can also be used to save money on energy; for example, people can use backup power
during peak periods, and recharge the backup system during off-peak periods, for lower
electrical bills. It is a good idea to research power needs well before they become critical. Some
reasons to invest in backup power include: being a business which wants to stay open during
outages; using electronic medical devices; working on computers and wanting to avoid data loss;
or simply wanting to enjoy the convenience of electrical power even when the grid is down.

A power inverter is a type of backup power system. It is a device that is used to convert
direct current to alternating current. It works by converting 12 Volt D.C. power into 220 or 240
volts A.C.. It’s typical application is to convert a battery voltage into conventional household
A.C voltage allowing users to use electronic devices when an A.C voltage is not readily
available..

There are three basic type of D.C inverters: square wave, modified sine wave, pure sine
wave. The square is the simplest and the least expensive type, but nowadays it is practically not
used commercially because of low quality of power. The modified sine wave topologies ( which
are actually modified square waves) produce square waves with some dead spots between
positive and negative half-cycles. Modified sine-wave inverters are economical, but may present
certain compromises with some loads such as microwave ovens, laser printers, clocks and
cordless tool chargers. Pure sine-wave inverters produce A.C voltage with low total harmonic
distribution. They are more expensive than square wave and modified sine-wave inverters. When
used, there is need for clean sinusoidal output for some sensitive devices such as medical
equipment, laser printers, stereos. e.t.c.

Simple inverters make use of oscillators driving a transistor or mosfet to create a

square wave, which in turn is fed through a transformer to produce the required output voltage.
While Advanced inverters have started using more advanced forms of transistors or similar
devices such as thyristors. Inverters are used in a wide range of applications, from small power
supplies for a computer to large industrial applications to transport bulk power, from small car
adapters to high power converters in solar powered systems. A few of the most widely used

2
applications of Power Inverters include running television sets, microwaves and other
household appliances and charging cell phones, laptops from a car’s cigarette lighter outlet and
running power tools from a 12 volt battery on jobsites where electricity isn’t available.

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

 To design and construct a 500VA inverter which is suitable as backup for household

power supply by inverting a 12V D.C input to 240V D.C.

 Design and construct a battery protection circuit to prevent over discharge of the

inverter’s battery in order to lengthen the lifespan of the battery.

1.2. AIM OF STUDY

An inverter needs to be designed to handle the requirements of an energy hungry

household yet remain efficient during periods of low demand. The efficiency of the inverter is
highly dependent on the switching device, topology and switching frequency of the inverter. The
aim of this project is to produce an efficient DC to Single Phase 240 Volt AC inverter.

3
 CHAPTER 2: Literature review
2.1. INVERTERS

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC); the resulting AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate
transformers, switching, and control circuits.The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic
oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in
reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC. The inverter performs the opposite
function of a rectifier.From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth
century, DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-
generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes
began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the
thyratron.[1][3]

The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. Early
AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a
generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed its connections at exactly the
right moments to produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in which the
motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a
commutator at the other and only one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With
an M-G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a
synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be "mechanically rectified AC".
Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run
backwards", converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.[7][8]

There have been a large number of articles written concerning power conversion in recent
years. This can be attributed in part to the rise in popularity of high voltage DC transmission
systems - and their integration with existing AC supply grids. There is also a consistent demand
for high efficiency inverter devices for lower power applications - like houses, boats, caravans,
UPS and remote areas of the world. This chapter will discuss and contrast recent literature
concerning high power inverters and their control.

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2.2. TYPES OF INVERTERS

Just as there are types of engines (gas, diesel, etc.), there are types of inverters. There are three
basic types of inverters:

1. square wave
2. modified sine wave(modified square wave)
3. true sine wave (pure sine wave)

2.2.1. Square Wave Inverters

Square wave inverters were the first types of inverters made. Square wave inverters result
in uneven power delivery that is not efficient for running most devices.Square wave inverters
simply reverse the polarity of the DC voltage 120 times per second. (Each cycle consists of two
polarity reversals.) Their output is basically either +120V or -120V. Square wave inverters tend
to produce a lot of "hum" in equipment connected to them and cause motors to run hotter than
normal. They are no longer in common use in solar electric systems.Square wave inverters
consist of a DC source, four switches, and the load. The switches are power semiconductors that
can carry a large current and withstand a high voltage rating. The switches are turned on and off
in correct sequence, at a certain frequency. The square wave inverter is the simplest and the least
expensive type of inverter, but it produces the lowest quality of power.

2.2.2. Modified Sine Wave Inverters

Modified sine wave inverters can also be considered "modified square wave inverters."
Their output consists of 4 voltage changes per cycle -- 0, +peak, 0, -peak, and back to 0. Most of
these vary the percentage of the cycle that voltage is either +peak or -peak depending on the load
(this is called pulse width modification or PWM). The peak voltage (+ or -) is usually set so that
the average value of the voltage is approximately 120V under normal conditions. Modified
square wave (modified sine wave) inverters deliver power that is consistent and efficient. This
type of inverter is probably the most popular. They are relatively inexpensive and will run most

5
appliances. However, they may produce some hum or static and certain AC motors will tend to
run a little hotter than they would with normal utility power or on a sine wave inverter. Also,
certain battery chargers for cordless tools, photocopy machines, and laser printers have been
reported to be incompatible with this type of inverter.

2.2.3. Pure Sine Wave Inverters

Sine wave inverters produce power very similar to that produced by the utility companies
in some situations, even better quality power.Sine wave inverters are more expensive than
"modified sine wave" inverters but will run virtually any AC equipment just as well as utility
power will (as long as the equipment's power requirements do not exceed the continuous and
surge ratings of the inverter).Some sensitive equipment require a sine wave, like certain medical
equipment and variable speed or rechargeable tools.True Sine Wave Inverters will:

 Allow inductive loads like microwave oven and motor driven products to run faster,
quieter and cooler.
 Reduce or eliminate audible and electrical noise in fans, florescent lights, audio
amplifiers etc.

 Allow accessories that are sensitive to higher harmonic distortion levels found in
modified sine wave inverters to function seamlessly with pure sine wave inverters

2.2.3.1 Interference

The electronic circuitry in inverters may, in some cases, cause problems with radio and
television reception, noise on telephones and buzz in audio equipment. Sine wave inverters cause
the least amount of interference. Interference can be minimized by locating the inverter very
close to the batteries, twisting together the cables that connect the inverter to the battery and
locating the inverter away from appliances that are susceptible to interference. All inverters
cause interference on AM radio.[4]

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2.2.4. INVERTER WAVEFORMS

Here, we would look at the inverter waveforms and how the different types of loads
behave when operating from them. In the figure on the next page is a graph representng the three
different types of waveforms.

From the diagram, as time progresses from left to right, the three different waveforms rise at
different rates. For example, the sine wave smoothly increases to its peak and smoothly
decreases. Modified sinewave and square waves shoot straight up, level off peak voltage and
then drop straight down. The modified sinewave also sits at zero for a short period. This is the
main difference between it and the square wave.

Most devices with variable speeds such as electric drills, or devices with chargers such as
cordless drills or screwdrivers , can behave irrationally when operating with modified sine or
square wave inverters. These types of units use one of two types of solid state “switches” in
them, SCR’s (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers) or Triac’s.

The basic theory is that a timing circuit looks at the point where the waveform crosses zero volts
and uses this point as a reference to start its clock. On a drill for example, depending on how

7
much the trigger has been moved, a certain amount of electricity will be allowed through based
on this time. Think of it as a water wheel that has been mounted under a faucet that you control.
If the water always comes out in smooth rising and falling surges, you could count when the
surge hit zero pressure and then by delaying how much of each surges gets to the wheel, you can
control its speed. If you let the entire surge from zero up to peak pressure and back to zero
pressure through the faucet, the wheel win spin fastest. If you only let the portion of the surge
from zero pressure through peak pressure through the faucet, the wheel will run about half
speed[9].

If there was no way to time this process it would be impossible to know exactly when to turn the
faucet on and off to achieve the desired speed. Since a sinewave has a sloped “zero
crossing”(the point where the voltage passes through zero volts), the timing circuit will work. It
knows when to turn the switch on or off. However if the wave passes through zero too fast or sits
at zero for a period of time, the timer gets confused. It doesn’t know where zero is. The reason is
that it looks for the rate of change or the slope of the zero crossing point. A modified sine or
square wave has no slope. Therefore the timing circuit can’t figure out when to let power through
and when not to. Since the timer never starts, no power passes through to the device at all. When
the trigger on the drill is pulled all the way to high speed, the whole SCR and timer circuit is
bypassed and the drill runs at full speed. This explains why all or none is available in some drills

Battery chargers experience the same problems. The Triacs (Switches) dont know when to let
electricity through since they can’t find the zero crossings. Therefore inadequate (if any)
charging will take place. Some chargers will react opposite and allow full power through,
possibly overheating them. Small wall based chargers (called wall warts) will often have
overheating problems with modified sine or square wave inputs. Some computers and stereo
equipment use switching power supplies that utilize SCR’s and Triacs as well. These pieces of
equipment might experience the same troubles as in the examples given previously.

Unfortunately it is hard to predict what exact models of equipment will have problems with pure
sinewave, modified sinewave and square wave forms. The only way to know for sure is to try it.
If it doesn’t work, take it back and try another.

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2.3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AN INVERTER

Most inverters do their job by performing two main functions: first they convert the incoming
DC into AC, and then they step up the resulting AC to mains voltage level using a transformer.
The goal is to have the inverter perform these functions as efficiently as possible-so that as much
as possible of the energy drawn from the battery is converted into mains voltage AC, and as little
as possible is wasted as heat

2.3.1 DC-AC Inversion

The DC-AC inversion stage will be the most critical. With quality design of the DC-DC stage it
should have a stable DC supply to work with, but it will have to cope with other issues such as
reactive power correction and maintain a good level of voltage regulation in the most efficient
manner possible. The most important part of the DC-AC Conversion process is in the generation
of the sinusoidal input signals to the gates of the MOSFETs. Modern inverters use a basic circuit
scheme like that shown in Fig. 1. below.

Fig.1: The basic circuit scheme used in many modern DC-AC inverters. MOSFETS Q1 and Q2 are used to convert
the battery.s low voltage DC into AC, which is then stepped up to 230V RMS by the transformer.

9
The DC from the battery is converted into AC very simply, by using a pair of power MOSFETs
(Q1 and Q2) acting as very efficient electronic switches. The positive 13.8V DC from the battery
is connected to the centre-tap of the transformer primary, while each MOSFET is connected
between one end of the primary and earth (battery negative). So by switching on Q1, the battery
current can be made to flow through the .top. half of the primary and to earth via Q1. Conversely
by switching on Q2 instead, the current is made to flow the opposite way through the .lower. half
of the primary and to earth. Therefore by switching the two MOSFETs on alternately, the current
is made to flow first in one half of the primary and then in the other, producing an alternating
magnetic flux in the transformer’s core. As a result a corresponding AC voltage is induced in the
transformer’s secondary winding, and as the secondary has about 24 times the number of turns in
the primary, the induced AC voltage is much higher: around 650V peak to peak. MOSFETs are
used as the electronic switches, to convert the DC into AC, it’s because they make the most
efficient high-current switches. When they are off, they are virtually an open circuit, yet when
they are on they are very close to a short circuit. So very little power is wasted as heat. In DC-
AC inverters designed to deliver high power, there are actually quite a few MOSFETs connected
to each side of the transformer primary, to share the heavy current. However because they are
essentially connected in parallel, they behave very much like the single transistors shown in
Fig.1. They just behave like very high-power MOSFETs, able to switch many tens of amps. Note
that: because the switching MOSFETs are simply being turned on and off, this type of inverter
does not produce AC of the same .pure sine wave. type as the AC power mains. The output
waveform is essentially alternating rectangular pulses, as can be seen from Fig.2.
However the width of the pulses and the spacing between them is chosen so that the ratio
between the RMS value of the output waveform and its peak-to-peak value is actually quite
similar to that of a pure sinewave. The resulting waveform is usually called a modified sinewave,
and as the RMS voltage is close to 230V many AC tools and appliances are able to operate from
such a waveform without problems. It’s true, though, that this kind of waveform is not close
enough to a sinewave for some appliances.
That is mainly because the rectangular pulses contain not just the fundamental mains
frequency, but quite a lot of its harmonics as well. So if the inverter is operating at the mains
frequency of 50Hz, the output will also contain components at 100Hz, 150Hz, 200Hz, 250Hz

10
and so on. These harmonics can disturb the operation of some appliances. It’s because of this
shortcoming that manufacturers have come up with a more complex type of inverter, which does
deliver a pure sinewave output.[9]

Fig.2: In most DC-AC inverters the switching MOSFETs are turned on alternately for short pulses, as shown, at the
same repetition rate as the AC power mains. As a result the transformer produces a .modified sinewave. output
(blue), rather than a true sinewave (red).

2.3.2. Output regulation

We take for granted the fact that our mains power is very well regulated so we can plug
almost any appliance into a standard point outlet, and it will operate correctly. That is because

11
the electricity supplier has enormous generating plants, with automatic regulation systems to
keep the mains voltage and frequency very close to constant, despite load variations of many
megawatts. Inevitably you can’t get this kind of performance from a much smaller electronic
inverter, connected to a modest battery or solar panel as the energy source. However most
modern inverters can provide reasonably good regulation for loads of up to their rated capacity
(given in watts) assuming of course that they are running from a well-charged battery. In this
type of inverter it isn’t feasible to control the peak-to-peak output, because this is largely fixed
by the battery voltage and the transformer’s step-up ratio. So in most cases the regulation is
achieved in a different way: by varying the width of the rectangular pulses, to control the form
factor and hence the RMS value of the output voltage. This is called pulse width modulation
(PWM), and is usually done by having a feedback system which senses the inverter’s output
voltage (or load current). When this feedback senses that the load on the inverter’s output has
increased, the inverter’s control circuitry acts to increase the width of the pulses which turn on
the MOSFETs.
The MOSFETs turn on for longer each half-cycle, automatically correcting the RMS
value of the output to compensate for any droop in peak-to-peak output. The resulting regulation
is usually capable of keeping the RMS value close to constant, for loads up to the inverter’s full
rated output power. However this approach does have limitations, mainly because it can
generally only increase the pulse width to a certain point. (In the extreme, the output becomes a
square wave.) This may not be sufficient to allow the inverter to deliver enough RMS output
voltage in short-term overload or surge conditions. When many types of appliances are first
turned on, for example, they draw a startup current which is many times greater than the current
drawn when they are running. This type of surge can overload the inverter, and its protection
circuitry may shut it down to prevent damage to the transformer and MOSFETs.
Some types of inverter incorporate special ‘soft start’ circuitry, to allow the inverter to cope with
this type of short load current surge. The output voltage and power may drop, but at least the
inverter keeps operating and allows the appliance to start up. Even so, there are some appliances
and tools that are simply not compatible with inverters, because of their tendency to draw an
extremely high startup current. Examples are refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners or any other
appliance where a motor is driving a compressor or pump. As the motor in these appliances often
has a very heavy load right at switch-on (with the compressor near .top dead centre.), it can need

12
to draw a huge current simply in order to start rotating. This type of appliance and tool should
really be powered using a suitably rated engine-driven alternator, not a DC-AC inverter.[9]

2.3.3. Voltage spikes

Another complication of the fairly high harmonic content in the output of modified
sinewave. inverters is that appliances and tools with a fairly inductive load impedance can
develop fairly high voltage spikes due to inductive back EMF.. These spikes can be transformed
back into the primary of the inverter’s transformer, where they have the potential to damage the
MOSFETs and their driving circuitry. The risk of damage is fairly small during the actual power
pulses of each cycle, because at these times one end of the primary is effectively earthed.
Transformer action thus prevents the .other. end from rising higher than about twice the battery
voltage. However as you can see from Fig.2, there are times during every cycle of operation
when neither of the switching MOSFETs is conducting: the ‘flats’ between the rectangular
pulses. It. is at these times that the spikes can produce excessive voltage across the MOSFETs,
and potentially cause damage. It’s for this reason that many inverters have a pair of high-power
Zener diodes connected across the MOSFETs, as shown in Fig.1.
The Zeners conduct heavily as soon as the voltage rises excessively, protecting the
MOSFETs from damage. Another approach is to have high-power standard diodes connected
from each end of the primary to a large electrolytic capacitor, which becomes charged up to
twice the battery voltage. When the ends of the primary attempt to rise higher than this voltage,
the diodes conduct and allow the capacitor to absorb the spike energy. Thanks to this type of
protection, most inverters are fairly tolerant of moderately inductive loads. However they may
not be able to cope with heavy loads that are also strongly inductive . like heavy duty tools and
machinery, or more than one or two fluorescent lights. Quite apart from the generation of voltage
spikes, heavily inductive loads tend to demand current which is strongly shifted in phase relative
to the inverter’s output voltage pulses. This makes it hard for the inverter to cope, because the
only energy available to the load between the pulses is that stored in the transformer.[9]

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2.3.4.Power Switching
Designing power inverters can be summarised into attempting to meet two primary
objectives:

Supply harmonic free electrical power at a constant voltage for a variety of loads, and have the
ability to cope with a non-ideal supply.

Supply this power as efficiently as possible with negligible electro-magnetic interference.

[11]
Mohan, Underland and Robbins describe the two main sources of loss as switching power
loss and conduction loss. These losses can be simply explained from the following standard
switching waveform taken from [11]:

Figure 3: Switching and Conduction Power Loss

From this figure, the following equations relating to power loss can be obtained:

14
Several important conclusions can be drawn from these two equations:

Switching Loss varies linearly with switching frequency and rise/fall times. Hence switching
frequency can be increased provided devices with small rise and fall times are used.

Conduction loss is directly proportional to the on-state voltage. Clearly, a device needs to be
chosen that minimizes the on-state voltage (directly due to the MOSFET ‘On-Resistance’) to
reduce conduction loss. Clearly then, the switching device chosen should meet the above criteria
as closely as possible so as to maximise total efficiency of the device.

2.3.5. Ideal Characteristics of a Gate Drive

The ideal gate drive is one that:

Provides sufficient drive power to keep the power switch in the on-state over the complete
range of operating voltages and currents.
Ensure that the switch remains in its off-state and is not triggered by noise from other
switching devices.
Drive circuitry should be directly coupled between the switching device
Ensure that the switch turn on and turn off times are kept to a minimum. In a standard
MOSFET, the switching speed is directly related to the rate of supply of charge to the gate-input
[12]
capacitance . The resulting drive circuitry, while remaining as simple as possible, should
attempt to use this fact to maximise the switching speed of the MOSFET's.

2.3.6. Soft Switching Techniques

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 With recent advances in inverter design, engineers have begun pushing developers to
produce switching devices that will meet their needs. This however, is not the only alternative.
By ensuring that all switching occurs with zero-voltage or zero-current in the switch many of the
limitations inherent in the switching device can be overcome - or perhaps even utilised - to
improve converter performance. This type of circuit design is called `soft-switching', and is easy
to contrast to `hard-switching'.

2.3.7 Zero-Voltage and Zero-Current Switching

Looking back on figure 3 in Section 2.1.1 it becomes clear what is implied by

zerovoltage or zero-current switching. It is a means by which additional circuitry is added
external to the switch to either speed up or delay voltage or current rise/fall times to ensure that
they cross at, ideally, zero voltage and current. An idealised zero-voltage zero-current switching
pattern is shown in the following figure:

2.3.8. Transformer Selection

Transformer selection is influenced by the following factors – switching speed, power

loss and size. As switching frequencies are increased, generally a reduction of core size
or minimum number of turns can be realized [10]. A point exists however, where increasing
frequency increases core losses to the point that there can be no further reduction in either core
size or minimum number of turns[10]. This point is dependent on the type of material chosen for
the transformer core.
The other factor in a transformers efficiency – particularly at high frequency – is eddy
current losses in the transformer windings. This can be reduced by using bundles of numerous
conductors or copper foil in higher current windings. From this optimization the ideal
transformer for the situation can be constructed and utilised to increase overall system efficiency.

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2.4. INVERTER POWER HANDLING CAPACITY AND EFFIENCY

It’s helpful to know how much load an inverter can handle. Its power output is rated in
watts (watts = amps x volts). There are three levels of power rating—a continuous rating, a
limited-time rating, and a surge rating. Continuous means the amount of power the inverter can
handle for an indefinite period of hours. When an inverter is rated at a certain number of watts,
that number generally to its continuos rating.

The limited-time rating is a higher number of watts that it can handle for a defined period
of time, typically 10 or 20 minutes. The inverter specifications should define these ratings in
relation to ambient temperature (the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere) [2]. When the
inverter gets too hot, it will shut off. This will happen more quickly in a hot atmosphere. The
third level of power rating, surge capacity, is critical to its ability to start motors.

Some inverters are designed to be interconnected or expanded in a modular fashion, in

order to increase their capacity. The most common scheme is to “stack” two inverters. [2] A cable
connects the two inverters to synchronize them so they perform as one unit.

2.4.1. Inverter Efficiency

It is not possible to convert power without losing some of it. Power is lost in the form of
heat. Efficiency is the ratio of power out to power in, expressed as a percentage. If the efficiency
is 90 percent, 10 percent of the power is lost in the inverter. The efficiency of an inverter varies
with the load. Typically, it will be highest at about two-thirds of the inverter’s capacity. This is
called its “peak efficiency.” The inverter requires some power just to run itself, so the efficiency
of a large inverter will be low when running very small loads.

In a typical home, there are many hours of the day when the electrical load is very low.
Under these conditions, an inverter’s efficiency may be around 50 percent or less. The full story
is told by a graph of efficiency vs. load, as published by the inverter manufacturer. This is called
the “efficiency curve.”[2]

17
 Because the efficiency varies with load doesn’t mean that an inverter with 93 percent
peak efficiency is better than one with 85 percent peak efficiency. If the 85 percent efficient unit
is more efficient at low power levels, it may waste less energy through the course of a typical
day.

2.5. INTERNAL INVERTER COMPONENT PROTECTION

An inverter’s sensitive components must be well protected against surges from nearby
lightning and static, and from surges that bounce back from motors under overload conditions. It
must also be protected from overloads. Overloads can be caused by a faulty appliance, a wiring
fault, or simply too much load running at time.

An inverter must include several sensing circuits to shut itself off if it cannot properly
serve the load. It also needs to shut off if the D.C. supply voltage is too low, due to a low battery
state-of-charge or other weakness in the supply circuit. This protects the batteries from over-
discharge damage, as well as protecting the inverter and the loads. These protective measures are
all standard on inverters that are certified for use in buildings.

2.6. INDUCTIVE LOADS & SURGE CAPABILITY OF A DC-AC POWER INVERTER

Some loads absorb the A.C. wave’s energy in a regimented fashion, other loads will take
all available power until they reach sufficient start up speed. This produces a time delay within
the system and can create shocks, like towing a car with a rubber strap. These loads, if not
sufficiently fed, create lags within the system, and can have big effects of the surrounding
electrical system. If you have a central A.C. and your lights dim, that is the result of a motor or
other inductive load drawing all available power, starving the lights momentarily. Motors are the
most severely inductive loads. They are found in well pumps, washing machines, refrigerators,
power tools, etc. TVs and microwave ovens are also inductive loads. Like motors, they draw a
surge of power when they start.

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 If an inverter cannot efficiently feed an inductive load, it may simply shut down instead
of slowly starting the device. If the inverter’s surge capacity is marginal, its output voltage will
dip during the surge. This can cause a dimming of the lights in the house, and can crash a
computer, ruin LCD TV screens, Plasma TVs and other sensitive electronics. Any weakness in
the battery and cabling to the inverter will further limit its ability to start a motor as the increased

amperage draw will result in further voltage deterioration.

A battery bank that is undersized, has corroded connections, or is in poor condition, can
be a weak link in the power chain. The inverter cables and the battery interconnect cables must
be big, perhaps the size of a large thumb. The spike of D.C. through these cables is many
hundreds of amps at the instant of motor starting.[2]

2.7. IDLE INVERTER POWER

Idle power is the consumption of the inverter when it is on, but no loads are running. It is
“wasted” power, so if the inverter is expected to be on for many hours during which there is
very little load, this “idle power” is to be as low as possible. Typical idle power ranges from 15
watts to 50 watts for an inverter sized for a home system.

 Phantom Loads and Idle Loads Wasted Power

Another concern is “idling loads.” These are devices that must be on all the time in order to
function when needed. These include smoke detectors, alarm systems, motion detector lights, fax
machines, and answering machines. Central heating High-tech consumers are stuck with gadgets
that draw power whenever they are plugged in. Some of them use power to do nothing at all. An
example is a TV with a remote control. Its electric eye system is on day and night, watching for
your signal to turn the screen on. Every appliance with an external wall-plug transformer uses
power even when the appliance is turned off. These type of loads are called “phantom loads”
because their power draw is unexpected, unseen, and easily forgotten.[2]

 Coping With Wasted Power

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There are several ways to cope with phantom and idling loads:
1. You may be able to avoid them.
2. You can minimize their use and disconnect them when not needed, using external
switches.
3. You can work around them by modifying certain equipment to shut off completely.
4. You can use some DC appliances.
5. You can pay the additional cost for a large enough power system to handle the extra loads
plus the inverter’s idle current.

2.8. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENERATORS AND INVERTERS

Before discussing the difference between an inverter and generator, it is first necessary to
understand a little about electrical currents. Electricity is divided into two types of currents,
alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). AC, a more common current for home use,
works by allowing electrons to flow in two different directions. In DC currents, electrons flow
only one way.

An inverter takes existing power that comes in the form of DC current and converts it to
AC current. This is a popular option for those wanting to run home electronics in automobiles.
Such cars often produce on DC current, which is not compatible with most electronics meant to
run off standard outlets. Therefore, an inverter becomes necessary.

A generator, on the other hand, is a machine that converts mechanical energy into energy
in an electrical form. In most cases, electric generators are responsible for the energy a home
receives. Large-scale electrical generators may be powered by coal, natural gas or nuclear
energy. A portable generator commonly uses gasoline, which is burned to create electrical
energy. Generators usually produce AC electricity.

Simply stated, the difference between the two is that an inverter is only effective if there
is already a source of electrical energy. It cannot generate its own. It can simply convert
electrical energy that is already there. On the other hand, a traditional generator cannot make AC
current into DC current.

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 On the other hand, there are things known as inverter generators. These are like
traditional generators in that they convert some other form of energy into electrical energy.
However, they produce AC power, which is then converted to DC power before being converted
back to AC. The reason for this conversion is that the power gained during the process. It allows
the generator to be more fuel efficient, as well as operate more quietly than standard generators.
[5]

Some people also confuse an inverter with a power converter, even using the terms
interchangeably. However, a converter is used to change voltage from one level to another. For
example, in Europe, a converter may be used to convert the voltage from 220 to 120, for
electrical components meant to run on a lower voltage, such as those in the United States.

2.9. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF INVERTERS

The following are the different applications of inverters;

 DC power source utilization

.An inverter converts the D.C. electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel
cells to A.C. electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate
A.C. equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce D.C. at any desired
voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce
alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution
system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.

Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the
electric grid[1].

 Uninterruptible power supplies

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An uninterruptible power supply (U.P.S.) uses batteries and an inverter to supply A.C. power
when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply
D.C. power to recharge the batteries.

 Induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main A.C. power to a higher frequency for use in induction
heating. To do this, A.C. power is first rectified to provide D.C. power. The inverter then
changes the D.C. power to high frequency A.C. power.

 HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, A.C. power is rectified and high voltage D.C. power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant
converts the power back to A.C..

 Variable-frequency drives

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an A.C. motor by controlling the
frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled
power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that D.C. power for the
inverter can be provided from main A.C. power. Since an inverter is the key component,
variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

 Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motor in some
electric locomotives and diesel-electric locomotives as well as some battery electric vehicles and
hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter

22
technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications[6]. In vehicles with
regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator)
and stores it in the batteries.

 Inverter (air conditioning)

An air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-frequency drive to control the speed of
the motor and thus the compressor.

 The general case

A transformer allows A.C. power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same
frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for D.C., can be designed to convert from any voltage, A.C.
or D.C., to any other voltage, also A.C. or D.C, at any desired frequency. The output power can
never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power
dissipated as waste heat.[3]

2.9.1 Advantages Of Inverters

Can automatically switches from mains power to inverter power in less than 10milli-seconds and
vice versa depending on if the inverter is automatically or manually operated.

1. No Petrol nor Diesel needed

2. No Noise

3. No Fumes

4. Very Portable

5. Cheaper to operate than generators

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 6. No special skills needed to operate

7. Quick and Easy to Recharge

REFERENCES

1. http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/enphase-raises-15m-for-micro-inverters-
1373.html
2. “How to Choose an Inverter for an Independent Energy System” By Windy Dankoff
Apr/May (2001) (#82) pp. 74-78
3. .http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverter-(electrical).

4. http://www.nooutage.com/inverter1.htm#waveforms.
5. http://www.wisegeek.com/inverters.
6. "Power Electronics: Energy Manager for Hybrid Electric Vehicles". Oak Ridge National
Laboratory Review (U.S. Department of Energy) 33 (3). 2000.
7. Owen, Edward L. (January/February 1996). "Origins of the Inverter". IEEE Industry
Applications Magazine: History Department (IEEE) 2 (1): page 64–66
8. "Inverter FAQ". PowerStream. 2006.
9. “Jaycar Electronics Reference Data Sheet”: INVERTER.PDF (1) (Copyright © Jaycar
Electronics, 2000).
10. B. Andreycak, “1.5Mhz Current Mode IC Controlled 50 Watt Power Supply,” Unitrode
application Note, no. U-110.
11. N. Mohan, W. Robbins and T. Undeland, “Power Electronics – Converters, Applications
and Design (2nd Edition),” Wiley and Sons, New York, 1995.
12. S. Musumeci, A. Raciti, A. Testra, A. Galluzo, and M. Melito, “Switching Behaviour
Improvement of Insulated Gate-Controlled Devices,'' IEEE Trans. Power. Electron., vol. 12,
no. 4, pp. 645-653, 1997.

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