CONCRETE DURABILITY:

FLY ASH FOR QUALITY UPGRADATION AND

BETTER LIFE-CYCLE COST

Dr N Bhanumathidas
Advisor: R&D
Ramco Research & Development Centre (RRDC), Chennai

N Kalidas
Director
Institute for Solid Waste Research & Ecological Balance (INSWAREB)
Visakhapatnam

Introduction

Lime mortars have proved their durability with centuries of life. When cement was developed
that proved stronger over lime mortars, it was assumed that cement structures would attain more
durability over that of lime mortars. As long as the low grade cements were in use till 1930-40, it
went on reasonably well on durability count.

However a shift took place in developed world towards high grade cements in order to meet the
construction speed after World War II. These structures yielded to premature distress within
15-20 years, questioning the wisdom for depending on strength as the yardstick of durability.

The ensuing research focused its attention on millennia old lime mortar and pozzolanic chemistry
against the drawback of OPC concrete to render durability. This research lead to recognize
blended cement concretes for their engineering virtues because, the issues of questionable
performance in OPC concrete were largely attended by blended cement concretes both on
physico-chemical aspects. Thus blended cement concretes have been put to wide application for
the last two decades in high profile structures, involving massive investments, purely on
durability criteria.

On the home front in India, blended cements are gaining attention only for the last a few years.
The inclusion of complementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, slag, silica fume and rice
husk ash, on durability criteria in the revision of IS 456-2000 is a testimony to this fact. But the
issues remain as to:

How far the knowledge on advancements in concrete technology reached the engineers,
contractors, architects and builders?

How many of them are convinced that strength alone cannot ensure durability?

How many of them are professionally committed to advocate the rationality that durability needs
to be given priority over strength in order to serve the consumers with better life-cycle cost?

This article provides a bird’s view on the role of blended cements, with particular reference to fly
ash as the complementary blend, for durability enhancement of concrete that can serve the dual
purpose of quality enhancement at lucrative cost-benefit ratio, be it housing or infrastructure.
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Issues for durability

For over one and quarter century after inventing OPC, durability of cement concrete was taken
for granted in view of higher strengths over that of lime based concretes. It was during 60s the
concern for concrete durability surfaced globally by which time the structures built with high-
grade cements started yielding to distress. Various factors surfaced questioning the efficacy of
high-grade cements for durability.

The following have been identified as the main issues to affect the durability of structures:

- Permeability
- Occurrence of micro-cracks in the concrete due to heat of hydration of
cement and related stresses.
- Carbonation.
- Passivity film of reinforcement and chances for corrosion.

The above issues lead to understand the concrete in pragmatic terms associated with the
rationalities as follows:

¾ In concrete, strength and durability are not necessarily linear to each other, more so when
high grade cement is used.

¾ Strength alone cannot ensure durability, which means durability is an independent factor
to strength.

¾ Strength is an intrinsic property of cement/concrete, whereas durability is a manifestation

of physico-chemical assimilation of various factors in the preparation and placement of
concrete.

¾ Maintaining pH is a curative mechanism derived through cement to protect the concrete

at early ages during which the latter is still permeable due to incomplete matrix
formation. What should be targeted is the ultimate preventive mechanism i.e.,
impermeability. Once the latter is achieved, the former becomes secondary in the context
of protecting the reinforcement.

¾ Concrete can be rendered with better impermeability in association with mineral

admixtures such as fly ash, slag, silica fume and rice husk ash. Aiming impermeability
devoid of mineral admixtures is akin to look for water from the clouds, ignoring the same
in the accessible resources on the ground.

¾ Durability enhancement through fly ash is a holistic performance to address the issues of
multiple fronts in a single go as shown in the chart below:
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Holistic performance of
Fly ash for concrete durability
Cool the Reduce
aggregate Heat of
Hydration

No Solution Densify Fly Ash Minimise Use low grade

Transition surplus Cement – 33 Gr
Zone lime

Impermeability Densify
and protection of matrix Use Chemical
reinforcement Admixture

To realize the above facts one should get into the Nature’s locus of material science and nuggets
of cement chemistry. Nature has bountifully blessed the mankind with specified material science
towards safe and sustainable practice. But the Nature’s course is disturbed in the anxiety of
varietal needs, bringing, in its melee, numerous vows to the mankind.

Heat is required for metabolic reactions in any life system. Human body draws the heat through
the food. Plants draw the heat from the sun for photosynthesis. So much so the age-old lime-
pozzolan binders and the lime-mortar binders used to draw the energy (heat) from the sun, by
which, the rate of hardening and strength gain were commensurately slow. At this juncture
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was invented with an ability to render the heat internally, i.e.,
the exothermic heat for accelerated reactions and strength.

The age-old low grade OPC of low fineness was associated with two sound performing features:

1) Heat Bank and 2) Lime Bank

Thus both heat and lime used to be available for concrete on progressive and sustainable basis for
healthy and protective performance at early ages during which the matrix formation is
incomplete. When construction world shifted from low grade to high grade cements, problems
have cropped up in concrete quality associated primarily with premature release of heat of
hydration and lime; both at profuse and undue levels at early ages.

Heat Bank

The cell of life system has a close parallel to the cement particle. Similarly there is close parallel
of genetic code, consisting of four bases, adenine (A), cytosine (C), Guanine (G) and thymine (T),
with that of four principal mineralogical phases of cement.

The cell of life system and the particle of cement system are the power-points for growth. A cell
is intensely active for growth as much as the cement particle for growing into hydrated phases.
For reproduction, the cell derives its energy within itself (from mitochondria, which avails the
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food a person eats and burns it to produce energy and provide it to the cell whenever it is needed).
For mineralogical growth, the cement particle draws its energy from the endothermic heat bank,
formed during clinkerisation. The cell division and perpetual formations are the genetic activities
to cater the needs of life, so much so the dissociation of anhydrous phases, in the presence of
moisture, for formation of hydrated mineralogy in cement through associations and progressive
crystal formations.

Here comes a note of observation. During the original synthesis, OPC was specified with
relatively coarser particle size that used to hydrate slowly, making available the heat of hydration
(from the endothermic heat bank) for a longer period, whenever there was attack of moisture.
Thus the growth of hydrated mineralogy was destined to be a long term phenomenon in low grade
OPC. But in the process of attaining high early strengths, the fine particles of high grade OPC
trigger off higher rate of hydration and heat liberation, spending the heat bank lavishly much
before the need, inviting premature deterioration.

Lime Bank

Lime has a much specified role for the application of cement in a secured way. However, as much
as the ‘nature’ is punctured environmentally to satiate the needs of mankind, cement system is
also abused to meet the need i.e., the ‘high early strength’. In the process, the mineralogy and
fineness were manoeuvred and the ‘protective action of lime’ was ignored.

Though remedial steps are identified in blended cement route, many a time arguments raised
about exhaustion of lime and threat to passivity film through reduction of pH on account of
formation of secondary mineralogy. In this context, it is quite interesting to learn the intricate role
of lime in OPC system at the pre-hydration and post-hydration stages:

ƒ Lime exists in cement but it is not in free-state unless the cement is subjected for
hydration.

ƒ When cement hydration takes place progressively, lime is released gradually out of which
major portion gets into hydrated mineralogy and some portion remains as hydrated lime
to maintain pH, which also triggers off the formation of further hydrated mineralogy. The
surplus hydrated lime also maintains the stability of hydrated calcium silicates,
aluminates and ferrites in the system, whenever the system is subjected to chemical
attacks by ingress of external agents under the conditions of permeability.

ƒ Because of progressive release, the hydrated cement system is assured of lime required to
maintain pH in RCC till late ages. As the lime reaches to a stage of exhaustion, by the
time the concrete system is expected to attain absolute impermeability through
progressive mineralogical formations, to shed its dependability on lime. Thus lime gives
secured environment till the concrete reaches to reasonable state of impermeability.

ƒ With repeated chemical attacks, the surplus lime gets exhausted, taking the system to
distress. In this context attainment of impermeability makes more a sense, than the
presence of surplus lime, in the view point of protecting the reinforcement.
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ƒ By ‘fine grinding’ the cement, in the target of early strength, rapid hydration is induced,
affecting the nature’s locus for progressive hydration and sustained availability of lime
till late ages. This is one of the many reasons for the shorter life of concretes made of so
called high (early) strength cements in contrast to the long lived concretes made of
coarser cements of yester decades.

Lime for Passivity film

The role of lime in rendering passivity film to reinforcement needs to be realised in right
perception. Otherwise, the lime-exhaustion scenario in pozzolanic cement chemistry is liable to
be misunderstood and raise debates, as have been witnessed already.

Many a time arguments are promoted that the passivity film gets affected if the total surplus lime
is engaged by mineral admixtures. However, it is to be realised that a surplus lime of about 75 kg
is available in a typical concrete containing OPC at 300 kg/m3, whereas a nominal quantity of 24
gm is sufficient enough to maintain a pH at not less than 11.5 in the same cubic meter of concrete
with 12% porosity; which means surplus lime is almost 3125 times more than what is required.

The huge quantities of surplus lime released at early ages from high grade OPC system, leach out,
making the concrete porous. It is acknowledged that a porous concrete is vulnerable for distress
despite presence of lime to protect passivity film, rather than blended cement concrete with sound
microstructure (optimum pore refinement and grain refinement) wherein the surplus lime is
engaged into secondary mineralogy. Hence the contribution of fly ash to tap the lime in order to
develop dense microstructure and, in turn, impermeability for the concrete, mitigates the chances
for ingress of moisture to the reinforcement, thus holding the steel in safe environment. In other
words, wherever impermeability comes in the forefront as the defensive mechanism, the role of
lime for passivity film may be considered as secondary and even redundant.

Net cementitious content

It is sufficiently established that the net strength potential of low grade OPC is superior over that
of high grade OPC due to higher C2S or slow but progressive hydration, and both the factors in
certain cases. Nevertheless, the mix design criteria summon for higher input of low grade cement
in the concrete in order to meet the grade strengths. Thus the concrete used to be served with low
heat of hydration, higher cement input and, in turn, healthy matrix formation for good
densification.

The first casualty upon switching over to high grade OPC was the cement content that had lead to
reduction in input and reduced densification. Again, this could be overcome by using blended
cements wherein the cement (OPC) content is low for low heat of hydration but the net
cementitious content is maintained towards healthy matrix and impermeability.

Thus binary and ternary blends of cements perform their healthy role for minimising surplus lime
and containing early heat of hydration. In this context, pozzolanic chemistry has been availed for
its best part of performance towards durability enhancement of a concrete in multiple ways:

ƒ Reduction in heat of hydration and minimisation of thermal cracks;

ƒ Absorption of surplus lime released out of OPC to form into secondary hydrated
mineralogy;
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ƒ Pore refinement and grain refinement due to the secondary hydrated mineralogy, thus,
contributing for impermeability and enrichment of transition zone;

ƒ Improved impermeability of the concrete, resulting in increased resistance against the

ingress of moisture and gases;

ƒ The failure of moisture and gases to go through the densified concrete, results in the
durability enhancement.

Models for predicting the service life:

Some institutes and researchers have developed models for life cycle cost analysis to predict
service life of concrete structures. Upon scanning these models and deliberating on their
veracities, a decision was made to develop a standard model under the jurisdiction of the ACI
Committee 365. Life-365 Service Life Prediction Model is an outcome of these deliberations.
The analyses carried out within Life-365 can be split into four separate steps as follows :

• Predicting the time to the onset of corrosion, commonly called the initiation period.
• Predicting the time for corrosion to reach an unacceptable level, commonly called the
propagation period.
• Determining the repair schedule after first repair.
• Estimating life-cycle costs based on the initial concrete (and other protection) costs and future
repair costs.

The relationship between D28 and the water-cementitious materials ratio (W/CM) is based on a
large database of bulk diffusion tests. The value of m (Diffusion Decay Index) is based on data
from the University of Toronto and other published data.

The role of mineral admixtures, including that of fly ash, to reduce the chloride diffusivity is
taken as assured yardstick based on extensive studies, and as discussed in Table below:
_________________________________________________________________

CHLORIDE DIFFUSIVITY FOR DIFFERENT CEMENTS

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D28 D10y D25y

m (x 10-13 m2/s) (x 10-13 m2/s) (x 10-13 m2/s)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
OPC 0.20 79 30 25

OPC with 30% Slag 0.37 79 13 9.3

OPC with 40% Fly ash 0.52 79 6.3 3.9

_________________________________________________________________

On the home front in India, leave aside models for service life projections, the knowledge on
blended cements for durability is at nascent state. However, awareness is percolating slowly for
the last few years. This has prompted the codes to cite the use of blended cements on durability
criteria in the revision of IS: 456-2000, the code of practice for concrete.
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The underlying point is that, after investigations on many admixtures, fly ash was found to be the
unique cost-effective admixture not only to counteract the problems of decay but also to improve
the durability and enhance the service life.

Paradox in linking strength with durability

The discussions of Bamforth, the world famous analyst of concrete durability, are of great
significance in projecting the service life of blended cement concrete vis-à-vis OPC concrete,
which takes into account the surface chloride level, the chloride corrosion threshold
concentration, the effective diffusion coefficient and the cover to reinforcement. According to
him 24/30 grade concrete, containing 40% fly ash is comparable to 50/60 grade concrete of OPC
to offer 75-year service life. In other words, he projected that fly ash blended concrete at lesser
grade of 32/40 is sufficient with a cover thickness of 50 mm as against 50/60 grade of OPC
concrete with 100 mm cover thickness to meet the service life criteria of 75-year. This study once
again establishes the redundancy of high strengths for service life, more so when complementary
cement materials are blended with OPC in the concrete. The data of Bamforth on different grades
of fly ash blended concrete vis-à-vis cover thickness are given in Table below:
________________________________________________________________
SERVICE LIFE PROJECTION BY BAMFORTH ON DIFFERENT GRADES OF
CONCRETE
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Mix type Recommended mix class for cover of

50 mm 75 mm 100 mm

OPC N.A N.A C50/60

OPC with:
20 % fly ash C50/60 C40/50 C32/40
30 % fly ash C40/50 C32/40 C24/30
40 % fly ash C32/40 C24/30 C24/30
__________________________________________________________

Conclusions

Material science has a lot of potential to revolutionise the technological scenario in various walks
of life towards cost-effectiveness and quality improvement. This is what is being proved right
from knowledge revolution to genetic revolution. Concrete technology is not an exception. But it
needs exposure to the day to day developments, understanding the scientific facts and adopting
them in professional practices to the benefit of the consumers. Concrete technology is
revolutionized globally and India has to yet to catch up the advancements. The key is in the hands
of professionals and builders. One needs to use the key to reach and avail the treasure of
durability.

References:

1) Bhanumathidas N & Kalidas N: Prevention is better than cure-Concrete is no exception; Master

Builder Vol 4. No.4, Sept-Oct 2002.
2) Mehta PK: Durability of concrete-Fifty years of progress? Proceedings of international seminar
on durability of concrete; Montreal, Canada; August 1991.
3) Life 365TM Service Life Prediction Model; Version 1.1; December 2001.
4) Bamforth PB: Prediction of the onset of reinforcement corrosion due to chloride ingress; Vol II;
OdenseDenmark; 1994.