1.

Metric Dierential Geometry

We need a formulation of physics valid in arbitrary co-ordinate systems. Physical quanti-
ties must have existence independent of particular co-ordinates being used { hence must
transform properly under co-ordinate transforms. They should be represented by tensors.
1.1. Tensors
Consider the co-ordinate change xa ! xa (xb) on space time, with inverse xa ! xa (xb ).
0 0 0

Dene a
paa = @x
0

@xaa ;
0

@x :
paa = @x a 0 0

Note that paa pba = @xa @xb b

@xa @xa = a , by using the chain rule, where
0
0
0 0


a b = 1 if a = b
0 if a 6= b
is the Kronecker delta.
Under repeated co-ordinate change xa ! xa ! xa , we have group property, using
0 00

the chain rule,

paa paa = paa :0 00
0
00

A covariant tensor of nth rank, with components Ta1 :::an . with respect to co-
ordinates xa , at a point P has transformation law
Ta1 :::an ! Ta1 a2 ::: an = paa11


paann Ta1 :::an
0 0 0 0 0

Note that the group property shows that the components Ta1 :::an are uniquely dened with 0 0

respect to any co-ordinate system if they are xed in one system xa ; this provides a way
of constructing all tensors.
A contravariant tensor T a1 :::an transforms as
T a1 :::an ! T a1 :::an = paa11


paann T a1 :::an
0 0 0 0

Similarly for mixed tensors for example

Ta b ! Ta b = paa pbb Ta b 0
0
0
0

It is important to keep the order of the indices the same.

A scalar is a tensor with no indices , invariant under co-ordinate change, for example
the mass of a particle.
A scalar eld (xa ) is a scalar function for example pressure, or particle density in
a uid.
 Metric Dierential Geometry 2
A covariant vector eld va (xb ) is a vector function of position. For example if (xb )
is a scalar eld then
@ ;
va = ;a := @x a
is a covariant vector eld, since
@ = @xa @ :
va = @x a0
@xa @xa 0 0

A further example is a pressure gradient p;a in a uid.

Contravariant
x
vectors: suppose a curve xa (), paramaterised by  has a tangent
of v = d at the point P , then va is a contravariant vector. The follows because
a d a

a a a
va = ddx = ddxxa ddx :
0 0
0

Other examples are the 4-velocity of an observer, ua = ddxa , where  is proper time.
Examples of Tensors
(i) Kronecker Delta:
paa pbb ab = paa pba = a b :
0
0
0
0
0
0

(ii) Metric tensor gab , since the invariant ds2 can be written
ds2 =gabdxa dxb = gab @x @xa dxa @xb dxb 0 0

a @xb 0 0

a
=ga b dx dx
0 0
b 0 0

where ga b = gab paa pbb .

0 0 0 0

Further examples will be provided in the sequel by the curvature and energy momen-
tum tensors.
Operations Preserving Tensor Property
(i) Addition e.g. Tab + Wab is tensor.
(ii) Multiplication by Scalar e.g. fTab .
(iii) Outer Products e.g. va Tbc transforms as
va Tb c = paa pbb pcc va Tbc :
0
0 0
0
0 0

(iv) Contraction of one covariant with one contravariant index.

For example if T abc is a tensor, dene vc = T aac , transforming as
vc = T a a c =paa pba pcc T abc = ab pcc T abc
0
0
0 0
0
0 0 0

=pcc T aac = pcc vc :

0 0

(v) Interchange of indices; for example Tab (a tensor) ! Tba which is also a tensor. Simi-
larly Symmetrisation and Anti-symmetrisation
T(ab) = 2!1 (Tab + Tba )
T[ab] = 2!1 (Tab ; Tba )
(the above can readily be generalised to more indices.)
 Metric Dierential Geometry 3
1.2. Quotient Theorem
Suppose U = T Vb is a vector, for all vectors Vb . Then paa U a = paa T ab Vb , and
a ab 0
0

U a = paa U a = T a b Vb = T a b pbb Vb
0 0 0 0
0
0 0
0

Subtracting these last two yields,

(T a b pbb ; paa T ab )Vb =0
0 0
0
0
8 Vb
T a b pbb = paa T ab
0 0
0
0

Multiplying both sides by pcb yields

0

T a b pbb pcb = T a b b c = T a c = pcb paa T ab :

0 0
0
0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0

Hence T ab is a tensor.
1.3. Inverse Metric Tensor
Dene g (= g ) to be the matrix inverse of gab , i.e. such that gacgcb = a b . Now for any
ab ba
vector V a can dene a vector Ua = gab V b , and we may note that there is a one to one
correspondance between Ub and V a since gab is non-singular, hence we can construct all
vectors Ub in this way. The Quotient theorem implies that gab is a tensor.
1.4. Raising and Lowering of Indices
We can use g to raise any covariant index. For example Tab gives a tensor T ab = gacTcb ,
ab
if the rst index is raised. Similarly can use gab to lower any index, for example W ab gives
Wa b = gacW cb . The index ordering must be carefully mantained. Raising and lowering are
inverse operations. One normally regards e.g. Tab ; Ta b ; T ab ; T ab as dierent versions of the
same object.
1.5. Partial derivatives of tensors
Partial derivatives of tensors are not tensors in general. For example suppose va is a vector
eld. Then
va = @x @xa v ;
a a 0
0

whence
@va = @ 2 xa v + @xa @xb @va
0

@xb @xa @xb a @xa @xb @xb

0 0 0 0 0

@va in general
6=paa pbb @x b 0 0

The only exception is ;a as mentioned earlier.

2. Lengths; Geodesics
The squared magnitude of a vector va or va is dened to be va va = va vb gab = va vb gab;
and is invariant under co-ordinate transformations.
For example it can be evaluated in a Local Inertial Frame where gab = ab , gab = ab .
(
spacelike if va va > 0
va is null if va va = 0
timelike if va va < 0
As in the earlier section (1.3 of lecture notes), if va is spacelike can nd a lorentz
transformation in the Local Inertial Frame making va = (vi ; 0). Then va va = (v1)2 +
(v2)2 + (v3)2 = jvj2, which is the physically measured, squared magnitude of va in that
frame. If va is timelike, can make va = (0; v4); then va va = ;c2 (v4)2 .
2.1. Angles abetween vectors
Suppose that v and w are both spacelike, and that one has arranged va = (vi ; 0); wa =
a
(wi ; 0) in some Local Inertial Frame. Then the angle  between va and wa is dened by
i i
cos  = v w
jvjjwj (Cartesian Notation in LIF)
a b
= (v vc()g1ab=2v(www)d )1=2 (Invariant Denition):
c d

2.2.a Lengths of curves

If x () descrives a spacelike curve , which is parameterised by  (i.e. if va = ddxa is
spacelike along ), the length of from A to B is
Z B Z B d xa dxb 1=2
ds = gab d d d:
A A
If xa () gives a timelike curve (i.e. va = ddxa is timelike along ), then the time elapsed
along from A to B is
1 Z B jdsj = 1 Z B ;g dxa dxb 1=2 d:
 

c A c A ab d d

2.3. Geodesics
A geodesic from A to B extremises
Z B Z B 
d x a dxb 1=2 
Z B
jdsj = gab d d  d = L(xa (); x_ a()) d;



A A A
[4]
 Lengths; Geodesics 5
where x_ a () = ddxa , subject to xed endpoints: xa (1 ) are the co-ordinates of A, and xa (2)
are the co-ordinates of B .
For example consider a spacelike geodesic:
@L = gab x_ b ;
@ x_ a L
@L = gbc;ax_ b x_ c :
@xa 2L
Using the Euler-Lagrange Equations
 
d @L ; @L = 0;
d @ x_ a @xa
gives  
L;1 gab xb + (gab;c ; 21 gbc;a)x_ b x_ c = L;2 ddL gab x_ b :
Using our freedom to reparameterise the curve we can choose  = s which is the distance
along . Then L = 1, and ddL = 0 along . Therefore

0 =gab xb + (gab;c ; 12 gbc;a)x_ b x_ c;

=gab xb + 12 (gab;c + gac;b ; gbc;a)x_ bx_ c :

Raising index a yields the geodesic equation

d2 xa + n a o dxb dxc = 0;
ds2 b c ds ds
where
a o = 1 gad (g + g ; g ):
n
bc 2 bd;c cd;b bc;d

The same equation is obtained for timelike geodesics { equations of motion for a test
particle in a gravitational
a
eld.
The expression b c involves \derivatives of gravitational potential" { corresponds
to ;i in Newtonian gravity. It is possible to rederive Newtonian dynamics of introductory
section (1.4.2) in this way { see later.
The geodesic equation is a second order ordinary dierential equation, hence the
geodesic is uniquely specied once the starting point xa (0), and an initial tangent direction
x_ a (0) are chosen.
 Lengths; Geodesics 6
2.4. Covariant dierentiation; Christoel symbols
Physical laws involve partial derivatives. We need as generalisation ra of @a = @x@ a , which
preserves tensorial properties. Requirements of covariant derivative operator ra acting on
tensor leds:
(i) Keep ra  = @a  for scalar elds , since @a  is already a covariant vector eld.
(ii) Try rb va = @b va ; ;cba vc , acting on covariant vector elds, where ;cba is a (non-
tensorial) collection of 43 numbers (to be constructed out of the metric and its rst
derivatives), and ;;cba vc is designed to cancel out bad transformation properties of
@b va .
(iii) rb commutes with addition:
rb (T a1 :::anc1 :::cp + U a1 :::anc1 :::cp ) = rb T





+ rb U





:
(iv) Leibnitz Rule
rb (T a1 :::anc1:::cp U d1 :::dqe1 :::er ) = rb (T





)U





+ T





rb (U





):
(v) Metric has zero covariant derivative:
rb (gac) = 0; rb (gac) = 0; rb ac = 0:
(these generalise @b ac = 0, @bac = 0 and @b ac = 0 in Minkowski Space-Time.
(vi) rb commutes with index contraction:
rb (T


c





c


) = acrb (T


c





a


):
Note that taken together (iv),(v) and (vi) imply that rb commutes with the operations
of raising and lowering indices. For example
rb (va ) =rb (gacvc ) = cd rb (gadvc )
 
=cd (rb gad)vc + gad (rbvc ) = gac(rb vc ):
Now let us nd the ;'s with the help of property (v). First note that (ii) and (iv)
imply that for any covariant vector elds ua ; vc
rb (ua vc ) = ua (rb vc ) + (rb ua )vc = @b (ua vc ) ; ;dbc ua vd ; ;dba ud vc
But any tensor eld Tac can be built up by adding together tensors of the form ua vc .
For example x co-ordinates build up T11 using ua = (u1; 0; 0; 0), vc = (v1 ; 0; 0; 0); similarly
for each component of Tac ; then add these together. Then Tac and each ua , vc can be dened
in dierent co-ordinates by the tensor transformation law.
Hence by linearity,
rb (Tac ) = @b (Tac ) ; ;dbc Tad ; ;dba Tdc ;
for any tensor Tac .
 Lengths; Geodesics 7
Apply this to gac:
rb gac = gac;b ; ;dbc gad ; ;dba gdc = 0 by (v) (1)
Permute indices cyclically:
rc gba = gba;c ; ;dca gbd ; ;dcb gda = 0 (2)
ra gcb = gcb;a ; ;dab gcd ; ;dac gdb = 0 (3)
We can make a further simplifying assumption:
(vii) The symmetry ;abc = ;acb holds.
Hence taking (3) ; (1) ; (2) we obtain:
2;dbc gad = ; ;dab gcd ; ;dac gdb + ;dbc gad + ;dba gdc + ;dca gbd + ;dcb gda
= ; gbc;a + gac;b + gab;c
Raising index a obtain
;abc = 21 gad (gbd;c + gcd;b ; gbc;d) ;
which are the Christoel symbols for the metric gab . They dene the metric connection
(r) on space-time.
2.5. Transformation Properties of ;abc
The metric tensor gab and its derivative transform as:
ga b =paa pbb gab 0 0 0 0
 a @xb 
a b c 0 0
@x
ga b ;c =pa pb pc gab;c + gab @c @xa @xb : 0 0 0 0 0
0 0

Hence
ga b ;c + ga c ;b ; gb c ;a =paa pbb pcc (gab;c + gac;b ; gbc;a)+
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
@x a @xb  
@x a @xb  
@xa @xb  :
gab @c @xa @xb + @b @xa @xc + @a @xb @xc 0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0

Therefore
@x a @ 2 xb
0 0
a b
0
c
ga b ;c + ga c ;b ; gb c ;a = pa pb pc (gab;c + gac;b ; gbc;a) + 2gab @xa @xb @xc :
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Hence a @ 2 xa
;ab c = paa pbb pcc ;abc + @x
0

@xa @xb @xc : (non tensorial)

0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

Now we can verify that rb va = @b va ; ;cab vc is a tensor.

2 a c @ 2 xc @xd
rb va = @x@b x@xc va + paa pbb @bva ; paa pbb pcc ;cab pdc vd ; @x
0

@xc @xa xb @xc vd ;

0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

2 a 2 c
= @x@a x@xb va + paa pbb @b va ; paa pbb ;cab vc ; @x@a x@xb vc;
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

=paa pbb rb va : 0 0
 Lengths; Geodesics 8
2.6. Action of rb on other atypes of tensor
For example consider nding rb u . Take an arbitrary covariant vector eld va . By (i)
rb (va ua ) = @b (va ua ). Thence
rb (va ua ) =(rb va )ua + va (rb ua ) (Leibnitz; and comm: with contraction)
=(@bva )ua ; ;cba vc ua + va (rb ua )
=(@bva )ua + va (@b ua ):
This is true for all va and hence
rb ua = @b ua + ;abc uc:
In general we get a plus sign for each contravariant index and a minus sign for each
covariant index.
For example
rb Ta c = @b Ta c ; ;dba Td c + ;cbd Ta d :

Notation
As a further notational point rb (


) = (


);b .
3. Dierentiation along a curve; geodesics
Need a geometrical description of the rate of change of a physical quantity (scalar, vector,
tensor) seen by an observer moving along a path xa ().
Denition
The absolute derivative along a path of a vector eld va is
D va = dxb r va = dxb @va + ;a dxb vc :
d d b d @xb bc d
Note that only the derivative ddva appears; so we only need to know va along a path.
Similarly dene dD of other elds. For example for a scalar eld:
D  = dxb @ = d :
d d @xb d
The absolute derivative of a tensor is again a tensor.
Denition
va is parallelly transported along a curve xa () if and only if Ddva = 0 (denition is similar
for other tensor types).
Note that parallel transport preserves
(i) lengths:
d (v va ) = dxb r (g vc vd )
d a d b cd
b
= ddx (rb gcd )vcvd + gcd(rb vc )vd + gcdvc (rbvd )


=0
(ii) angles:
d (v wa ) = dxb r (g vcwd ) = 0 + 0 + 0;
d a d b cd
if the vectors vc and wd are parallelly transported. We can also apply parallel transport
a d
when v is a tangent vector d . x a

Denition
A curve xa () is autoparallel if and only i
 
D dxa = 0;
d d
that is, if and only if the tangent vector is parallelly transported along the curve. Thus for
an autoparallel curve
d2 xa + ;a dxb dxc = 0
d2 bc d d

[9]
 Dierentiation along a curve; geodesics 10
but this condition is the same as that of the geodesic equation
d2 xa + n a o dxb dxc = 0;
ds2 b c ds ds

since ;abc = bac . This gives an alternative characterisation of geodesics;  is called an
ane parameter along the geodesic.
If is a geodesic with ane parameter , then
   
d g dxa dxb = D g dxa dxb = 0 + 0 + 0;
d ab d d d ab d d
as in (i) above, which implies that gab ddxa ddxb is constant along . Hence  is proportional
to length s (or proper time  ) along .
Denition
The acceleration (vector) of a timelike curve xa ( ), with four-velocity ub = ddxb , where 
is the proper time, is given by
b  
ab = Du = D dxb = d2 xb + ;b dxc dxd :
d d d d 2 cd d d

Thus geodesics are unaccelerated curves (\free fall").

4. Local Inertial Frames
We can now make the denition of a Local Inertial Frame (LIF) more precise. We can
choose locally inertial co-ordinates xa near an event P (xa = 0) such that gab = ab at P ,
and such that particles moving through P under gravity have no co-ordinate acceleration.
That is, we arrange for ;abc = 0 at P ; equivalently gab;c = 0 at P .
In a Local Inertial Frame, the metric looks as much as possible like a at metric;
geodesics become straight lines; parallel transport, and acceleration etc. as dened in the
previous section acquire usual atspace interpretation; covariant derivatives become partial
derivatives.
[Note that this shews that we have made the only possible denition of a covariant
derivative, since the denition should agree with @b(T





) = rb (T





) in a Local Inertial
Frame, and hence agrees with rb (T





) in all co-ordinates, using the tensor property.]
To nd inertial co-ordinates near P , translate xa to 0, and then use linear transfor-
mation to give gab = ab at the point P . Dene 0 ;abc to be ;abc evaluated at the point P .
Then use the transformation xa ! ya with quadratic inverse:
xa = ya ; 21 0 ;abc ybyc
In the new co-ordinates,
@xc @xd gold
gabnew = @y a @y b cd
=(ac ; 0;cae ye )(bd ; 0 ;dbj yj )(cd + gcd;g
old y g +


):

The terms which are linear in yc are

(;0 ;dac bd ; 0 ;dbc ad + gab;c
old )y c = 0;

(see equation (2) above).

new = ab + quadratic in y c +


near P . That is the co-ordinates y a provide
Hence gab
a Local Inertial Frame near P .

[11]
5. Curvature
Space-time curvature measures non-commutation of covariant derivatives. For a scalar eld
;ab = rb (;a ) = ;ab ; ;cab ;c = ;bc. But for a vector eld va ,
v;ab =v;ba + ;abe ve ;
v;abc =(v;ab );c + ;acd (v;db) ; ;dcb (v;ad );
a + ;a v e + ;a v e ) + ;a (v d + ;d v e ) ; ;d (v a + ;a v e ):
=(v;bc be;c be ;c cd ;b be cb ;d de
We now evaluate v;abc ;v;acb . The second derivative terms v;bc
a ;v a cancel. The rst derivative
;cb
terms also cancel:
;abe v;ce + ;acd v;bd ; ;dcb v;da ; ;ace v;be ; ;acd v;cd + ;dbc v;da = 0:
Hence
;
;

v;abc ; v;acb = ;abe;c + ;acd ;dbe ; ;dcb ;ade ; ;ace;b + ;abd ;dce ; ;dbc;ade ve;
=Raecbve ;
where Raecb = ;abe;c ; ;ace;b +;acd ;dbe ; ;abd ;dce. By the quotient theorem Raecb is a tensor, the
Riemann curvature tensor, constructed from the metric and its rst and second derivatives.
Similar commutation properties hold for (rb rc ; rcrb ) acting on other types of
tensor elds.
If space-time is at then gab = ab , then Rabcd = 0 in Minkowskian co-ordinates. The
tensor property then implies that Rabcd = 0 in all co-ordinates. A converse to this can also
be proved { namely if Rabcd = 0, then space-time is at, i.e. we can choose co-ordinates
making gab = ab everywhere. Thus Rabcd = 0 measures deviation from atness.
If Rabcd 6= 0 at P , then the procedure of the previous section cannot be extended to
make gab = ab , @c gab = 0, @d @cgab = 0 at P , since these would imply that Rabcd = 0 there.
In a Local Inertial Frame at P ,
gab =ab ; ;abc = 0 , gab;c = 0
gab =ab ; gab;c = 0:
Then Rabcd = ;abd;c ; ;acd;b at P . Therefore

Rabcd = 21 (gab;dc + gad;bc ; gbd;ac ) ; 12 (gab;cd + gac;bd ; gbc;ad )

= 21 (gad;bc + gbc;ad ; gac;bd ; gbd;ac);
at the point P in a Local Inertial Frame. This gives the symmetry properties:
(i) Rabcd = R[ab]cd := 21 (Rabcd ; Rbacd ) is antisymmetric on a, b.
(ii) Rabcd = Rab[cd]
[12]
 Curvature 13
(iii) Rabcd = Rcdab
(iv)
Ra[bcd] := 3!1 (Rabcd + Racdb + Radbc ; Racbd ; Rabdc ; Radcb ) = 0
Equivalently Rabcd + Racdb + Radbc = 0, using (ii), and all generated by composition of
these operations. Co-ordinate transformations preserve symmetries; hence (i) through
(iv) are true in any co-ordinates, at any point P . These symmetries imply that Rabcd
has only 20 free components, not 44 = 256.
The Ricci tensor is dened by Rbd = Rabad . It has the property that
= gacR = Ra = R :
Rbd = gacRabcd (iii) cdab dab db

Symmetry therefore means that Rbd has only ten free components. The Ricci scalar is
R = gbd Rbd .
6. Geodesic Deviation
Space-time curvature produces relative acceleration of nearby test particles, moving on
geodesics. For convenience in the derivation which follows we shall replace \two nearby
test particles" by a one parameter family of geodesics. Each geodesic is labelled by a
paramter s. Points on a given geodesic are labelled by proper time  measured from some
origin.
Write ua = @x @(;s) for the four velocity on the geodesic s. The Geodesic equation is
a

D ua := @xb r ua = ub r ua = 0: [1]
@ @ b b
Now dene  a = @x @s(;s) . Then for small
s,
s  a is the separation vector from geodesic
a

s to geodesic s +
s (see gure). Note that

@ua = @ 2xa = @ a :
@s @s@ @
Hence b a
 b rb ua = @x@s r b u a = @u + ;a  b uc
@s bc
a b [2]
@ a b c @x a
= @ + ;bc u  = @ rb  = u rb  b a

Now use the curvature identity, valid for any vector elds X a, Y b , Z c :
Y b rb (Z c rc(X a )) ; Z c rc(Y b rb (X a)) using leibnitz
=[Y b rb (Z c)]rc(X a ) + Y b Z c rb (rc(X a )) ; [Z crc (Y b )]rb(X a) ; Z c Y b rc(rb (X a))
=(Y c rcZ b ; Z c rcY b )rb X a + Y b Z c Radbc X d ;
[3]
since X a;cb ; X a;bc = Radbc X d .
Now take X a = ua , Y b = ub , Z c =  c. Now using [2],
Z c rcX a =  crc ua = uc rc a :
By [1],
Y b rb X a = ub rb ua = 0:
By [2],
(Y c rc Z b ; Z crc Y b ) = uc rc  b ;  c rc yb = 0:
Then [3] gives
ub rb (ucrc ( a )) ; 0 = 0 + Radbc ud uc c
That is  
D2  a = D D ( a ) = Ra ud ub  c
@ 2 @ @ dbc
which is the equation of geodesic deviation.
Relative acceleration is proportional to separation for nearby test bodies. A true grav-
itational eld , existence of relative accelerations , Rabcd 6= 0 , space-time is curved.
[14]
7. Matter in General Relativity
We aim to formulate non gravitational laws of physics in curved space-time, and to nd
eld equations of General Relativity in the presence of matter sources.
7.1. Formulation of physical laws in gravitational elds
The equivalence principle implies that all laws have the usual special-relativistic forms in
a Local Inertial Frame.
Moreover, the formulation of laws should be the same in any co-ordinate system, i.e.
tensorial. Therefore take the special-relativistic laws in tensorial form, and use at the centre
of a Local Inertial Frame, to nd the curved-space covariant law.
In a Local Inertial Frame at P , gab = ab , gab;c = 0, ;abc = 0 which implies that
covariant derivatives resude to partial derivatives.
Hence to make the Special Relativistic law invariant under arbitrary co-ordinate trans-
formations, replace partial by covariant derivatives. That is `commas' become `semicolons'.
This gives minimal coupling and makes no change to the at-space laws.
Examples
(i) Free particle motion dd2x2a = 0 at P in Local Inertial Frame. This implies that
 
d2 xa + ;a dxb dxc = D dxa = 0;
d 2 bc d d d d
which is the geodesic law.
(ii) A scalar eld obeying the wave equation  = ab ;ab = 0 in at space-time. In
Local Inertial Frame, we have
gab ;ab = gab ( ;ab ; ;cab ;c) = 0:
Hence gab ;ab = 0 in curved space-time (massless scalar eld).
7.2. Energy Momentum Tensors
The matter content of space-time is described by an energy-momentum tensor T ab . For
example: a continuous medium of density , without pressure (\dust").
(a) First take Newtonian Limit, without gravity or body forces. Let the velocity be u.
@ + @ (uk ) =0 Continuity
@t k
@ u + u:gradu =0 Navier ; Stokes
@t
Rewriting in index notation (using continuity):
@ + @ (uk ) =0
@t k
@ui + @ (ui uk ) =0
@t k

[15]
 Matter in General Relativity 16
In co-ordinates xa = (xi; ct), we can write
 
T ab = ui uj cui
cuj c2
Then T ab = T ba , and the equations @b T ab = 0 are equivalent to mass and momentum
conservation.
(b) In Special Relativity, we have a particle four velocity
a
U a = ddx = ( ui; c);
where ui = ddxi and = (1 ; uc22 ); 12 ,whence ua ua = ;c2 .
The uid density measured in the rest frame is , the proper density. Dene
 
T ab = T ba = ua ub =  2ui uj  2cui :
 2cuj  2c2
Hence T ab is a tensor under Lorentz transformations, since  is a scalar, and ua is a vector.
T ab is the energy-momentum tensor.
In local uid rest frame, @b T ab = 0, by Newtonian calculation, but @b T ab is a vector
under Lorentz transformations, hence @bT ab = 0 in all inertial frames.
The tensor can be interpreted as
T ij =Stress Tensor
T i4 = T 4i =c  momentum density = energyc ux
T 44 =energydensity
Note the two powers of , for example for T 44, energy =  mass, density = 
properdensity (length contraction).
So the equations of motion @b T ab = 0 can be regarded as describing energy, and
momentum conservation (and they can alsoaimply mass conservation).
(c) In General Relativity, dene ua = ddx ,  is proper density measured in local inertial
rest frame.
Dene T ab = ua ub = T ba . In a Local Inertial frame we have T ab;b = 0. In any
co-ordinated the equations of motion are T ab;b = 0, i.e.
T ab;b + ;| acb T cb {z
+ ;bcbT ac} = 0:
gravitational force terms
In the Newtonian Limit, with gravity,
jT ij j  jT i4 j  jT 44j;
 Matter in General Relativity 17
hence from the equation for the ith component
T ib;b + ;i44 T 44 '= 0:
Thus
@ui + @ (ui uk ) ' ; :
@t k ;i
All forms of matter have a symmetric energy-momentum tensor, T ab = T ba obeying T ab;b =
0. Ultimately this is because all quantum elds have a Lagrangian L from which one can
construct a T ab which is automatically conserved.
Form of Energy-Momentum Tensor
For T ab in a perfect uid with pressure p, density  and velocity U a ,
 p 
T =  + c2 U a U b ; pgab ;
ab

for a massless scalar eld ,

Tab = ;a ;b ; 12 gab ;c ;d gcd ;
and for an electromagnetic eld,
 
Tab = 0 1 g F F cd ; F F c ;
4 ab cd ac b

as in Special Relativity.
8. Einstein Field Equations
The vacuum eld equations Rab = 0 can be generalised to include matter sources, and
reproduce
;ii = 4G
in the Newtonian limit. We could try Rab = T ab , but we must have T ab;b = 0; this would
imply Rab;b = 0. In fact this turns` out not to be a good choice, but it can be modied to
give the Einstein Field equations. We now introduce the Ricci identities which are satised
by the Ricci tensor.
Ricci identities
In a Local Inertial Frame we have
gab = ab + quadratic terms +


;
so
;abc = linear +


;
taking a Taylor expansion about P (xa = 0). Then we obtain
Rabcd =;abd;c ; ;abc;d + ;acf ;fbd ; ;adf ;fbc
=;abd;c ; ;abc;d + quadratic terms
and also
Rabcd;e =Rabcd;e + ;


R




=Rabcd;e + linear +



=;abd;ce ; ;abc;de + linear +



Hence
Rab[cd;e] = ;ab[d;ce] ; ;ab[c;de] = 0
at the origin P of the local inertial frame. Hence Rab[cd;e] = 0 everywhere (tensorial
equation) the Bianchi Identities. Equivalently Rabcd;e + Rabde;e + Rabec;d = 0; since
Rabcd = ;Rabdc which implies that Rabcd;e = ;Rabdc;e: Now contract over a; d and multi-
ply by gbe:
Rabca;b + Rabab;c + Rabbc;a =0
;Rbc;b + R;c ; Rac;a =0
 
ab 1
rb R ; 2 g R =0 ab

which are the contracted Bianchi identities.

[18]
 Einstein Field Equations 19
8.1. Corrected Field Equations
Hence if R ;b = 0 then R;a = 0, and so R is a constant. For a uid with T ab = U aU b ,
ab
the equations Rab = T ab would yield R = Raa = T aa = uaua = ;c2 , which would
imply that  is constant throughout space-time, which is far too restrictive!
Instead take
Rab ; 21 Rgab = T ab
;

which are the Einstein Field Equations. Then the identity rb Rab ; 12 gabR = 0 im-
plies the equations of motion T ab;b = 0 automatically. Hence the eld equations imply the
equations of motion. [In fact it can be shewen that the left hand side of Einstein's equations
is the only possible tensorial expression which is linear in the second derivatives gab;cd , does
not involve higher derivatives, and which vanishes for at space-time, and which has zero
divergence rb (
) identically. ]
Now check the Newtonian limit, with a uid source T ab = ua ub . We use co-ordinates
xa = (x; ct). Then T44 ' c2 , jTij j  jTi4j  jT44j, and note that T := Taa = gab Tab '
;T44 ' ;c2 : Now Rab ; 21 Rgab = T ab , which implies
Raa ; 21 Raa = R ; 2R = ;R = T
Rab = (T ab ; 12 Tgab)
R44 = (T44 ; 21 g44T ) ' 12 c2 :
But R44 = Ra4a4 = Ri4i4 + R4444 ' c12 ;ii (as previously R44 is the only signicant
Newtonian Ricci tensor component). 4
So from Einstein equations ;ii '  c2 , and from Newtonian equations ;ii = 4G.
Hence the Einstein equations reproduce Newtonian gravity, with
 = 8cG
4 Einstein0 s Gravitational Constant
Gravitation is non-linear: the eld of objects A; B is not equal to the sum of the elds of
A and B separately, since it includes contributions from the interaction between A and B .
The gravitational eld must carry energy, although this can never be localised, since the
geometry near any point P looks Minkowskian in a Local Inertial Frame at P .
8.2. Equations of Motion
Using the Einstein Field equations for an ideal uid with no pressure, and so T ab = uaub ,
we obtain Rab ; 21 Rgab = T ab = ua ub , and so automatically, the matter must obey
T ab;b = 0. Whence
(ua ub );b =0
(1)
ub ua;b + ua (ub );b =0
Contracting with ua yields
ub ua;bua + ua ua (ub);b = 0; (2)
 Einstein Field Equations 20
but ua ua = ;c2 which implies that ua ua;b = 21 (ua ua );b = 0, hence obtain from (2) that
0 ; c2(ub );b = 0, so (ub );b = 0, which is the equation of mass conservation. This reduces
to (ub);b = 0 in a local inertial frame, giving
@ + r
(u) = 0;
@t
in a rest frame (or a near-rest frame). Hence from (1),
ubua;b = 0 ) ub ua;b = 0

The End