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Abstract
This section discusses the more common types of waste heat recovery. The discus-
sion includes the advantages and the disadvantages of the various systems and the
predicted efficiency improvement.
Contents Page
3210 Introduction
Initially, waste heat recovery should consider process to process exchange. Process
opportunities almost always offer the best payout. After all of the process recovery
is optimized, the priority of waste heat recovery should be focused on what equip-
ment, (boilers, fired heaters, etc.) is in the plant. The ability to install cogeneration
with heat recovery steam generators is a very important waste heat recovery alterna-
tive. The major areas of waste heat recovery that follow are:
• Heat Recovery from Process Streams
• Heat Recovery from Boiler Stack Gases
• Heat Recovery from Fired-Heater Stack Gases
• Heat Recovery from Gas Turbine Exhaust
• Heat Recovery in Offshore Platforms
• Power Recovery Turbines
• Condensation Heat Recovery
• Other Types of Waste Heat Recovery
Q = M Cp ( T in – T out )
GPM × PSI
-----------------------------
1714 × eff.
Exchanger Sizing
The exchanger is the most costly item for this waste heat recovery project. The
manufacturer's price for the heat exchange equipment can be estimated as shown in
Figure 3200-1.
From the Cost Estimating Book, two low pressure exchangers, with 1852 square
feet of surface area each, would be about 24 inches in diameter; and the purchase
price would be $30,000 each from the manufacturer.
Even for low fuel values, this type of waste heat recovery project could have a
payout in less than a year, depending on the fuel savings.
Steam temperatures corresponding to the pressure levels used in most of our boilers
are shown in Figure 3200-2.
The temperature of the flue gases leaving the boiler is related to the temperature of
the boiling water. For heat to transfer to the steam generating surfaces, the flue
gases have to be at a still higher temperature. For typical boilers, this is in the
600°F to 800°F range.
An economizer or an air preheater recover heat from these high temperature flue
gases in a steam boiler.
For industrial boilers, a dual installation using both an economizer and an air
preheater is rarely economical or installed.
An economizer takes boiler feedwater (BFW), on its way to the boiler at 225°F to
275°F, and lets it absorb much of the heat in the hot flue gases with substantial
improvement to overall efficiency.
An air preheater recovers the heat from flue gases and increases the temperature of
the combustion air to the boiler. The air preheater improves the boiler efficiency by
reducing the stack gas temperature and returning the heat to the combustion air,
thereby reducing fuel consumption.
Depending on the cost of fuel, an economizer or air preheater for water-tube boilers
are typically not attractive for the following conditions:
• Water-tube boilers operating under 150 PSIG
• Water tube boilers operating below 30,000 to 40,000 pounds/hour of steam
production
• Any size boiler that will normally run at reduced capacity
For a preliminary evaluation, the following investments, based on 1983 costs
(EDPI) can be used to estimate a payout:
• New Economizer, Convection Section:
$ = 6000 × (Q MMBH)0.9
• Combustion Air Preheater:
$ = 53,000 × (Q MMBH)0.7
Economizers payout far better than combustion air preheaters. Further details on
economizers and air preheaters are covered below and in the Fired Heaters section.
where:
h is the enthalpy of the steam/water (BTU/LB), from steam tables.
• Without Economizer, the heat released
150,000LB/HR × ( 1 )BTU
19.34MMBH = 1.05 (for b/d) × ---------------------------------------------------------------- × ( T out – 250 )°F
LB ( °F )
(Eq. 3200-12)
Tout = 372.8°F
This temperature out of the economizer is more than 100°F below the boiling
temperature of 600 PSIG steam. Therefore, there will be no undesirable
“steaming” in the economizer.
have lower draft losses; flue gases normally have to be ducted to an air
preheater at grade and then back up to the stack.
6. All boiler manufacturers have arrangements that can satisfy either an econo-
mizer or an air preheater on new boilers. They can also add them to existing
boilers.
2. On a fired heater the economizer will heat the process as a first priority if the
flue gas and process stream temperatures permit. After all economic process
heat has been recovered, economizer sections can be added to make steam.
They also can be added to heat water or intermediate heat transfer fluids.
3. On a fired heater, the temperature available for waste heat recovery is not a
constant amount above some boiling temperature. On fired heaters, it is deter-
mined by the temperature of the hydrocarbon in the fired heater tubes. For
example, in an Atmospheric Crude Unit fired heater, this stack temperature
would be (without heat recovery) about 750°F to 850°F; for the Vacuum fired
heater, 900°F to 1000°F; and in a Hydrogen Plant fired heater, about 1500°F.
Without waste heat recovery, these would be the stack outlet temperatures.
exchangers. On this basis, air preheaters are not normally used in hydrogen
plants and rheniformers.
• Steam generation of less than 10,000 pounds/hour is impractical in large
process units. The additional auxiliary facilities, maintenance, laboratory
testing, and operator attention cannot normally be justified.
• Depending on the cost of fuel, air preheaters for fired heaters would typically
have a marginal payout for absorbed duties of 25 to 35 MMBH and less.
3251 Background
Another significant area of waste heat recovery is the Combustion Gas Turbine
(CGT), used either as:
• A direct mechanical drive for process equipment. In some instances, the hot
turbine exhaust is used as combustion air for a fire heater in the plant where the
mechanical drive machine is located.
• Part of a “Cogeneration” System. In these plants, the gas turbine shaft
produces electricity, and steam to operate the plant is produced from the hot
CGT exhaust.
For both situations, the CGT produces hot exhaust gases, typically in the 950°F to
1000°F range. This exhaust is used as:
• Preheated combustion gas for fired heaters, or
• Hot gases to a Steam Generator. The exhaust is almost always supplementary-
fired, up to 1600°F and 1700°F, to normally produce both dry (saturated) and
superheated steam at different pressures for the operating center, or in the case
of producing, a 60% to 80% quality steam for downhole injection.
Production of electricity and steam from one fuel source is called Cogeneration,
which cuts the amount of energy necessary to make electric power to nearly one-
half. This is based on an economic amount of steam and electrical power being
required at the plant.
Public Utilities typically furnish electric power to our operating centers at an effi-
ciency of 32% to 35%.
Steam is typically generated in most of our plants at efficiencies of 70% to 75%
without waste heat recovery, and 85% to 90% with it (all on a HHV basis).
The overall weighted efficiency for power purchased from a public utility power
plant and steam produced at a Company facility is in the 60% to 70% range. This
results from averaging the electric power at its low efficiency (from the power
plant) with the higher efficiency for steam produced (in the Company facility).
By using an on-site gas turbine to simultaneously generate both electric power and
steam, the overall “weighted” efficiency can be improved to the 75% to 85% range.
Figure 3200-6 compares the efficiency of Cogeneration with the conventional way
of making steam at the plant and purchasing electric power from the utility.
required in the plant (including super heated steam). These waste heat boilers are
commonly referred to as heat recovery steam generators, (HRSG). The exhaust
gases in all Chevron's installations are supplementary-fired in the HRSG to further
improve overall efficiency. This is being done at Pascagoula, Port Arthur, Gaviota,
El Segundo, and shortly, at Belvieu. Richmond has already ordered the CGT and
HRSG for a 100 MW Plant. Hawaii is at the Appropriations Request stage, and El
Paso is evaluating the economics.
In Chevron's producing fields where steam is used for enhanced oil-recovery, the
only difference is that the steam generator does not make superheated steam, as
required in most refineries, chemical plants, and terminals. In producing, the waste
heat boilers produce a 60% to 80% quality steam from the exhaust gases. For these
applications, the unit is normally a multipass economizer design. We have many
of these units in the California oilfields and they are being installed in Caltex in
Indonesia.
An alternative to a HRSG is to route the turbine exhaust to a process fired heater. In
these instances, the fired heater burners fire supplementary fuel which combusts
with the remaining oxygen in the turbine exhaust. This can achieve optimum effi-
ciency, when the fired heaters flue gases are down to 10% to 15% excess air.
Section 3500 contains a simplified evaluation of the economics for a Cogeneration
installation. It also gives a quick method for evaluating whether the Cogeneration
plant should export power to the Local Utility.
into the reforming fired heater. In 1980, there were five units generating electric
power and two direct mechanical drives. Three exhaust streams are routed to fired
heaters, and four to heat recovery steam generators.
Note Figure 3200-17 is a foldout appearing at the end of this section.
Figure 3200-17 tabulates data for General Electric's combustion gas turbines,
Frame 3 through Frame 9, plus the LM2500 and LM5000. Figure 3200-8 lists the
key design parameters for each machine.
With the gas turbine manufacturer, data similar to what is shown on Figure 3200-17,
the efficiency of a “Cogen” project can be calculated. From there, the next step is
evaluating the operating savings and payout.
Note Figure 3200-18 is a foldout at the end of this section.
Figure 3200-18 is a detailed balance for each section of a proposed Heat Recovery
Steam Generator for a Brown Boveri, Type 8, gas turbine, generating about
50,000 kW. Important features are:
• Initial cooling of the exhaust gas across the superheater prior to supplementary-
firing the exhaust gases. This minimizes the amount of desuperheating.
• Shock tubes installed after supplementary-firing that have a saturated
steam/water mixture in the tubes.
• Supplementary-firing to 1476°F.
• Production of two steam levels with superheating.
• The preheater at the cold end, cooling the stack gases from 299°F to 218°F will
not be installed due to the high cost of piping the make-up water across the
plant from the deareator location, plus the cost penalty for alloy materials for
protection against corrosion.
3254 Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG), Enhanced Oil Recovery Type
Oil field cogeneration projects are identical to refinery projects, as far as the CGT-
generator is concerned. Where they differ is in what they do with the supplemen-
tally fired gas turbine exhausts. In the refinery type, (HRSG) normally dry (satu-
rated) and superheated steam are required.
In the oil field, (HRSG), 60% to 80% quality steam is required for injecting into
wells at pressures in the 1000 PSIG range to assist in enhanced oil recovery.
Figure 3200-11 is an isometric of a proposed six-parallel-pass, steam generation for
enhanced oil recovery. The design for this project is 220,000 pound/hour of 60%
quality steam at 775 PSIG, (from 180°F boiler feedwater), by supplementary-firing
the gas turbine exhaust to 1394°F. Flow in the preheater is counter-current; flow in
the boiler is co-current. Description of finning, size of tubes, number of tubes in
height and in depth, and the heat balance equations for both boxes are shown. A
sketch on the top summarizes the heat transfer conditions for the preheater and the
once-thru boiler.
Figure 3200-12 is an isometric of the rough outline dimensions for a waste heat
recovery type behind a General Electric LM-2500 gas turbine for a producing field.
This unit is also rated as a 220,000 pound/hour, 775 SIG outlet, once-through,
60% steam generator for enhanced oil recovery. Units of this type have multipass
parallel flow. This unit has four passes. There are no steam drums or mud drums.
The passes are heated as in any economizer.
The heat energy from either a combustion gas turbine or, reciprocating engine is
usually recovered by an intermediate heating medium such as water, steam, or
heating oil.
Steam and gas turbine exhausts have been discussed in detail in the previous two
sections.
Fig. 3200-13 Specific Heat Versus Temperature, Air and Reciprocating Engine Exhaust
This fluid can be a process stream or a utility stream that needs the heat. It can also
be fluid that is transferring the heat to other users in the plant in a recirculating
closed system.
Indirect contact is also referred to as Non-contact or Condensing. Condensing is
usually done to a temperature below 100°F. The acid condition prevails and the
water in the flue gases condenses, diluting the acid.
For this type of heat recovery, we can use the following guidelines. How many addi-
tional efficiency points could be gained if we cooled the hot fluid in the waste heat
recovery unit all the way to ambient temperature? For this condition, we are
looking at the absolute maximum recovery. By reducing the temperature from
150°F, (discussed in Section 3281), to ambient, we could save the following addi-
tional fired unit efficiency points:
• On gas: 2% of sensible heat and about 10% latent heat
• On oil: 2% of sensible heat and about 5% latent heat
The above variation in efficiency for gas and oil is due to the lower hydrogen
content in oil (less water vapor in the gas).
Condensation systems are reported to reduce particulates and sulfur dioxide
emissions.
Manufacturers of glass, pyrex, borosilicate, and teflon are actively trying to develop
corrosion-resistant heat exchangers for this type of waste heat recovery.
It will be some time before industry adopts this “almost ambient” stack philosophy.
Note that when stack temperatures become cooler, the penalty for firing with excess
air is decreased.
Fig. 3200-17 Steam Generation and Fuel Chargeable to Power with Gas Turbines and Exhaust Heat Boilers Gas Fuel