ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
Coulomb’s Law – law that describes the force of attraction or
repulsion between two charges is directly proportional to their
strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The basic law for interaction of charged bodies at
rest.
Coulomb’s first law of electrostatics – law that describes the
force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is
directly proportional to their strengths.
Coulomb’s second law of electrostatics – law that describes
the force of attraction or repulsion between poles is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gauss’s Law – The summation of the normal component of the
electric field displacement E over any closed surface is directly
proportional to the electric charge within the surface.
Faraday’s Law – States that the magnitude of the emf induced in
a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
that cuts across it.
Faraday’s first Law – Electromotiveforce (emf) is induced
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux.
Faraday’s second Law – The magnitude of electromotiveforce
(emf) s induced when a conductor cuts magnetic flux is directly
proportional to its rate.
Faraday’s Law – In Electromagnetism, the law that determines
the amount of induced voltage.
Lenz’ Law – In Electromagnetism, the law that determines the
polarity of an induced voltage
Lenz’ Law – In all cases of electromagnetic induction, the current
setup by an induced voltage tends to create flux whose direction
opposes any change in the existing flux.
Lenz’s Law – In electronics, an induced current will be in such a
direction that its own magnetic field will oppose the magnetic fields
that produce the same.
Curie’s Law – States that the magnetic susceptibilities of most
paramagnetic substance are inversely proportional to their
absolute temperature.
Curie-Weiss Law – relating between the magnetic and electric
susceptibilities and the absolute temperatures which is followed by
ferromagnets, antiferromagnets, non-polar ferroelectrics,
paramagnts.
Child’s Law – States that the current in a thermionic diode varies
directly with the three-halves power of anode voltage and inversely
with the square of the distance between the electrodes.
Wiedemann-Franz Law - States that the ratio of the thermal
conductivity to the electric conductivity is proportional to the
absolute temperature for metal
Ampere’s circuital Law – A law establishing the fact that the
algebraic sum of rises and drops of the mmf around a closed loop
of a magnetic circuit is 0.
Law of conservation of energy – “The net electric charge in an
isolated system remains constant”
Wiegand effect – The effect that describes the ability of a
mechanically stressed ferromagnetic wire to recognize rapid
switching of magnetization when subjected to a DC magnetic field.
Hall effect –small voltage is generated by a conductor with
current in an external magnetic field. Used in the gaussmeter to
measure flux density.
Edison effect – The emission of electrons from hot bodies
Wall effect – ionization by electrons liberated from the walls
Bridgman effect – phenomenon that when an electric current
passes through an arisotropic crystal, there is an absorption or
liberation of heat.
Weber’s Theory of Magnetism – Assumes that all magnetic
substance is composed of tiny molecular magnets.
Domain Theory – theory based on the electron spin theory; If an
atom has an equal number of electrons spinning in opposite
directions, the magnetic field surrounding the electron cancel one
another, the atom is unmagnetized.
Ewing’s Theory of ferromagnetism – assumes each atom is a
permanent magnet which can turn freely about its center under the
influence of applied fields and other magnets
Exclusion Principle – States that each electron in an atom must
have a different set of quantum numbers.
Pauli exclusion principle – states that only two electrons with
different spins are allowed to exist in a given orbit
Hans Christian Oersted – relationship between magnetism and
electricity
Michael Faraday – theory of electromagnetic induction, 1891
James Clerk Maxwell – electromagnetic theory of light, 1862
Andre Ampere – current carrying conductor can attract & repel
like magnet
Kamerlingh Onnes – Superconductivity, 1911
Self induced emf –due to the change of its own flux linked with it
Mutually induced emf – to the changing current of another
neighboring coil
Statically induced emf – conductor is stationary, magnetic field
is moving
Unit pole – pole which when placed in air from a similar and equal
pole repels it with force of 1/4piu newtons
Magnetic pole – the intensity of magnetic lines of force is
maximum.
North pole – pole where magnetic lines of force are originating
Diamagnetic – permeability slightly less than that of free space
Paramagnetic – permeability slightly greater than that of free
space
Ferromagnetic – have very high permeabilities
Conductor – valence electron less than 4
Semiconductor – valence electron equal to 4
Insulator – valence electron greater than 4
Metallic bond – bonding of atoms that is due to the force of
attraction between positive ions and a group of negative ions.
Ionic bond – formed when one or more electrons in the outermost
energy orbit of an atom are transferred to another.
Covalent bond – formed when electrons in the outermost energy
orbits of the atoms are shared between two or more electrons
Van der Waals bond – formed when there exist distant
electronic interactions between charges present in the neighboring
atoms
Permalloy – iron 22%, nickel 78%
Hipernik – iron 40%, nickel 60%
Alnico – aluminum, nickel, iron, cobalt, copper, titanium at 12
grades
Manganin – 84% copper, 12% manganese and 4% nickel
Vector quantity – Magnetic field intensity, field, magnetic
intensity, electric flux density, electric field intensity
Scalar quantity – Electric potential, electric flux
Insulator – widest gap between valence band and the conduction
band
Conductor – smallest gap between valence band and the
conduction band
Band gap – difference in energy between the valence and
conduction band
Crystalline – solids in which the position of atoms are
predetermined
Amorphous/Non-crystalline – has no defined crystal structure
Mica – used as the insulating material or dielectric in an electric
ion
Glass – has the highest dielectric strength
Porcelain – used as the dielectric material in high voltage
transformers
Quantum – definite discrete amount of energy required to move
an electron from a lower shell to a higher shell.
Amber – means elektron in Greek
Valence band – series of energy levels containing the valence
electron
Plasma – gases with charged particle
Electric dipole – a combination of two charges, with equal charge
magnitude but opposite signs
Keeper – used to maintain strength of magnetic field
Toroid – an electromagnet with its core in the form of a close
magnetic ring
domain - A group of magnetically aligned atoms
thermonic emission - Evaporation of electron from a heated
surface
Back emf - refers to the voltage opposing the applied emf
Madelung constant – factor used to correct for the electrostatic
forces
Magnetic material loss its ferromagnetic properties at a point called
Curie temperature
The dielectric constant of most materials lies between 1 and 10
1.15 to 1.25 is the usual value of leakage coefficient for electrical
machines
Current carriers in conductors are valence electrons
Dielectric is another name for insulator
RF current flow along the surface.
Because of skin effect resistance is different for RF current then
DC
Steel is hard to magnetize because of its low permeability
One of the common application of an air-cored choked is at Radio
frequency
Ohm’s law can be used only to a linear circuit or component
Magnetic field around the conductor is determined by the amount
of current
In electro-mechanical conversion device, the reason why a small air
gap is left between the rotor and stator is to permit mechanical
clearance.
Permanent magnets can be found in earphones
Temporary magnets are commonly employed in motors
Hardened steel is used by permanent magnets as the magnetic
material
Soft iron is used by temporary magnets as the magnetic
material
Silicon steel materials has the least hysteresis loop area

Magnetomotive Ampere- Gilbert 1 AT =

force (mmf) Turn Gb 1.257 Gb
AT
Magnetic Field Ampere per Oersted 1 A/m =
Strength meter A/m Oe (Gb/cm) 0.01257 Oe
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb Maxwell Mx 1 Wb =
10^8 Mx
Magnetic Flux Tesla Gauss 1T = 10^4
density T (Wb/m^2) G G
(Mx/cm^2)

V Volt Emf Mmf Amp-

turn
I Amp Current Magnetic flux Weber
R Ohm Resistance Reluctance 1/H
V/m Field strength Magnetizatio Amp/m H
n
J A/m Current Flux density Tesla B
density
Ohm-m Resistivity Reluctivity m/H V
G Siemen Conductance Permeance Henry P
s
S/m Conductivity Permeability H/m
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Kirchhoff’s first law – The sum of all currents entering a junction
is equal to the sum of currents leaving away from that junction.
Kirchhoff’s second law – In a mesh, the algebraic sum of all
voltages and voltages drops is equal to zero.
CR Law – a law which states that when a constant electromotive
force is applied to a circuit consisting of a resistor and capacitor
connected in series, the time taken for the potential on the plates
of the capacitor to rise to any given fraction of its final value
depends only on the product of capacitance and resistance.
Thevenin’s theorem – Used to simplify complex circuits wherein,
the simplified circuit contains an equivalent open circuit resistance
and open circuit voltage.
Norton’s theorem – reverse of Thevenin’s theorem
In Norton’s theorem, the short circuit current is obtained by
shortening the load terminals
Superposition theorem – Used in solving electrical circuits with
several voltage sources.
Superposition theorem – Used in simplifying circuit analysis by
considering the effect of supply voltages one at a time.
The superposition theorem is used when the circuit contains a
number of voltage sources.
Compensation theorem – “Any resistance R in a branch of a
network in which a current I is flowing can be replaced by a voltage
equal to IR”.
Reciprocity theorem – If an emf in circuit A produces a current in
circuit B, then the same emf in circuit B produces the same current
in circuit A.
Edge effect – refers to the outward-curving distortion of the lines
of force near the edges of two parallel metal plates that form a
capacitor.
Mesh – A chosen closed path of current flow in a network.
Loop – A set of circuit elements that forms a closed path in a
network over which signal can circulate
Node – a reference point chosen such that more branches in a
circuit met
Junction – A common connection between circuit elements or
conductors from different branches.
Ground – return point in a circuit, where all voltage measured are
referred.
KVL – Mesh analysis
KCL – Nodal analysis
True power – the power dissipated across the resistance in an AC
circuit.
A series circuit at resonance would mean, the circuit is resistive
A parallel circuit at resonance would mean, the circuit is resistive
In ac-circuit, if the voltage and current are in phase, the circuit is
resistive.
If the current and voltage has a phase difference, the circuit is
reactive.
If the current in ac-circuit leads the voltage by 90°, the circuit is
capacitive.
If the current in ac-circuit lags the voltage by 90°, the circuit is
inductive.
In a series ac-circuit, if the line frequency is more than the
resonant frequency, the circuit behaves as inductive.
If the line frequency of a parallel ac-circuit is less than the resonant
frequency, the circuit behaves as reactive.
If an ac-series circuit is supplied with a source whose frequency is
less than that of fr, the circuit becomes capacitive.
Smaller resistors usually have high resistance value.
When the temperature of a copper wire is increased, its
resistance is increased.
The resistance of an insulator decreases when its
temperature is increased.
Skin effect increases the resistance of wire at high frequencies
The result of rust in electrical wire connection is resistance
Wattage rating of a resistor determines its ability to absorb
heat.
Resistors with high value usually have lower wattage rating
because of lower current
High resistance values are a consequence of the thinness of
the film.
A disadvantage of a wire-wound resistor is that it has
reactance in radio-frequency circuits.
Bifilar resistor – a resistor wound with a wire doubled back on
itself to reduce the inductance.
A rheostat is a form of variable resistor.
Air dielectric is generally employed by a variable capacitor.
Barium-strontium titanite dielectric material is also called
ceramic
Paper has the lowest dielectric strength
Barium-strontium titanite dielectric makes the highest-
capacitance capacitor.
Electrolytic capacitors are used only in dc circuits.
Electrolytic capacitor has the highest cost per microfarad.
Electrolytic capacitor is suitable for dc filter circuits.
A capacitor consists of conductors separated by a dielectric
The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to relative
permittivity.
In a multiplate capacitor, the plate area is increased.
For mutli-plate capacitor, capacitance is proportional to number of
plates less one (n-1).
A capacitor is used to block dc current
The charging of a capacitor through a resistance obeys
exponential law.
It is impossible to change the voltage across a capacitor instantly,
as this would produce infinite current.
Leakage resistance in a capacitor results into internal heating
A capacitor opposes change in voltage.
Capacitance increases with larger plate area and less
distance between plates
Increasing capacitance is considered the effect of a dielectric
material.
A gang capacitor is a variable capacitor in which capacitance is
varied by changing the plate area
A trimmer is a variable capacitor in which capacitance is varied by
changing the distance between plates
Stray capacitance exist not through design but simply because
two conducting surface are relatively close to each other.
The ratio between the active power and the apparent power of
the load in an ac circuit is called power factor.
An inductive load always has a lagging power factor.
The power factor of a series LC circuit is 0.
The rms value of a triangular or sawtooth waveform is 0.577
times its peak value.
The average value of triangular or sawtooth wave is 0.500 times
its peak value.
1.73 is the peak factor of a triangular wave
Peak factor for alternating current or voltage varying sinusoidally,
1.4142
The factor 0.707 for converting peak to rms applies only to sine
waves.
For a linear, rms voltage or current is used to calculate average
power.
The current is 0.707 times the maximum current at half-power
points of a resonance curve.
Zero reading on an ohmmeter for a shorted capacitor
An open resistor when checked with an ohmmeter reads infinite.
Surge voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied across
the capacitor for very short period of time.
Breakdown voltage refers to the lowest voltage across any
insulator that can cause current flow.
The ratio of the flux density to the electric field intensity in the
dielectric is called permittivity.
The ratio of maximum value to the effective value of an alternating
quantity is called peak factor.
The graph between an alternating quantity and time is called
waveform.
Reactance chart can be used to estimate resonant frequency and
to find reactance at any frequency for any value of capacitor or
inductor.
Temperature coefficient of resistance – A factor that states
how much the resistance changes for a change in temperature.
The ohmic value of a resistor with negative temperature
coefficient increases with decreasing temperature.
Carbon has a negative temperature coefficient.
Manganin has a positive temperature coefficient
Tungsten filament of bulbs has a hot resistance higher than its
cold resistance due to its temperature coefficient which is
positive.
The temperature coefficient of resistance of electrolytes is
negative.
In a pure capacitance, current lead voltage by 90°
In an RL series circuit, current lags voltage by less than 90°
In a rectangular wave, form factor is 1.0
In a triangular wave, form factor is 1.16
For a series AC circuit, voltage is not used as a reference
phasor.
For a parallel AC circuit, voltage is used as a reference phasor.
The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit is also known as voltage
magnification factor.
The Q-factor of a parallel resonant circuit is also known as current
magnification factor.
Parallel resonant circuit is sometimes called rejector circuit.
Series resonant circuit is sometimes known as acceptor circuit.
In dividing or multiplying phasor quantities, polar form is
used.
In adding or subtracting phasor quantities, rectangular form
is used.
Conventional flow assumes charges flow from positive to
negative.
Electron flow assumes charges flow from negative to positive.
The symbol Q refers to quality factor.
The reciprocal of quality factor is dissipation factor.
Norton’s theorem – usually used in the analysis of transistor
circuit
Thevenin’s theorem – generally used in the analysis of vacuum
tubes
Norton’s theorem is a form of current equivalent circuit
Thevenin’s theorem is a form of voltage equivalent circuit
Parallel resonant circuit is also known as anti-resonant circuit
The curve between current and frequency is termed as resonance
curve.
At parallel resonance, the current flowing through L and C are
equal.
Voltage resonance means series resonance
The resonance curve is a plot of frequency versus current for a
series RLC circuit.
Series resonant circuit is inductive if it operates at a frequency
higher than the resonant frequency.
When two complex conjugates are subtracted, the result is a
quadrature component only.
If two complex conjugates are added, in-phase component
results
Alloy is a fusion of elements, without chemical action between
them.
Anticapacitance switch – a switch designed to have low
capacitance between its terminal when open.
Phasor is a rotating vector whose projection can represent either
current or voltage in an ac circuit
Cryogenic conductor – another term for superconductor
Faradic current – An intermittent and non-symmetrical
alternating current like that obtained from the secondary winding
of an induction coil.
Joules – the term used to express the amount of electrical energy
stored in electrostatic field.
Phasor quantity – refers specifically to steady state values of
quantities in ac circuits which are complex numbers.
Non-linear circuit – a circuit whose parameters change with
voltage or current
Liquids that are good conductors because of ionization are called
electrolytes.
Manganin is a common material used in wire-wound resistors.
Elastance is the reciprocal of capacitance.
Permeability is otherwise known as magnetic conductivity.
Effective value is considered as the most important value of a
sine wave.
Tank circuit is a parallel LC circuit.
When current and voltage are in phase in an ac circuit, the
reactance is equal to zero.
The voltage cannot be exactly in phase with the current in a circuit
that contains only capacitance.
An open inductor has infinite resistance and zero inductance.
The reciprocal of a complex number is a complex number
Metal tin becomes superconductor at approximately 3.7 K.
A real current source has a large internal resistance.
The reason why alternating current can induce voltage is it has a
varying magnetic field.
In an ac-circuit, the power dissipated as heat depends on
resistance.
The maximum power transfer theorem is used in electronic circuits
According to Gauss theorem, flux can be equated to charge.
The phase of an alternating quantity is defined as the fractional
part of a period or cycle through which the quantity has advanced
from selected origin.
The admittance of a parallel RLC circuit is found to be the phasor
sum of conductance and susceptance.
In an inductive coil, the rate of rise of current is maximum near
the final maximum value of current.
For a series circuit, the higher the quantity factor the narrower
the passband.
The impedance in the study of electronics is represented by
resistance and reactance.
An ideal current source has an internal conductance of zero
siemen/s.
Norton’s theorem is the converse of Thevenin’s theorem
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Intrinsic – the name of the semiconductor material that has an
equal number of electrons and holes
Element that has four valence electrons are classified as
elemental semiconductor
Germanium (Ge) – example of elemental semiconductor
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP),
Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs) – example of a compound
semiconductor
Covelent bond – the chemical bond that is present in a crystal
lattice of silicon atoms
Forbidden gap – the area that separates the valence band and
the conduction band.
At absolute zero temperature, semiconductor acts as an insulator
The electron flow in a semiconductor material is opposite in
direction of hole flow
10 - 10^4 ohm-cm – typical range of the resistivity of a
semiconductor
Metallic bonding – chemical bond that is significant in metals
Intrinsic semiconductor – a semiconductor that is free from
impurities
Doping – the process of adding impurities in a semiconductor
Pentavalent – impurities with five valence electrons
Trivalent impurities – Example of acceptor impurities
If the substance used in doping has less than four valence
electrons, it is known as acceptor
Antimony(Sb), Arsenic(As), Phosphorus(P) – commonly used
as donor impurities
Boron(B), Gallium(Ga), Indium(In) – Example of trivalent
impurities
Donor-doped semiconductor becomes an N-type semiconductor
Compensated semiconductor – a semiconductor that is doped
with both donor and acceptor impurities
The resistance of a semiconductor is known as bulk resistance
Silicon – the most extensively used semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor – semiconductor whose electron and
hole concentrations are equal
Silicon is widely used over germanium due to its low leakage
current
Drift current – current flow in a semiconductor that is due to the
applied electric field
Diffusion current – the movement of charge carriers in a
semiconductor even without the application of electric potential
Typically, 0.05 eV energy is required for a valence electron to
move to the conduction band for a doped semiconductor
Conduction of electrons in a doped semiconductor happens at
conduction band
Valence band – where the conduction of holes occur in a doped
semiconductor
In energy band diagram of a doped semiconductor, the donor level
is near the conduction band
The acceptor level in a doped semiconductor is near the valence
band level
In a semiconductor material, the number of free electrons
increases when the temperature rises
The electrical resistance of a semiconductor material will
decrease as the temperature increases
Ionization potential – the potential required to remove a valence
electron
Silicon – nonmetal
Germanium – a semiconductor that is classified as a metalloid or
semimetal
Germanium – semiconductor that is very rare, it only occurs in
minute quantities in many metal sulfides
Compound semiconductors are also known as inter-metallic
semiconductors
Compound semiconductor – semiconductor that is mostly used
in devices requiring the emission or absorption of lights
For high-speed integrated circuit, Gallium arsenide
semiconductor material is best to be used
One part per million impurity concentration is needed for a
sample of silicon to change its electrical property from a poor
conductor to a good conductor
The restriction of certain discrete energy levels in a semiconductor
material can be predicted generally by using Bohr model
Electron Volt (eV) – is defined as the energy acquired by an
electron moving through a potential of one volt.
EHP optical generation is the basis in operation of
semiconductor photoconductors
Selenium – the semiconductor that is used in xerography
Recombination - when an electron at the conduction band falls
back to the valence band it will recombine with the hole.
Germanium semiconductor is mostly used to detect near infrared.
Silicon carbide (SiC) semiconductor is good for high-temperature
applications
Indium antimonide semiconductor has the highest mobility
A semiconducting glass is known as amorphous semiconductor
For an electroluminescent of green and red lights, gallium
phosphide semiconductor is best
Less than 1 watt – typical range of power dissipation for a
semiconductor to be considered as “low power” or small signal”
Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) semiconductor material has the highest
energy gap
InSb semiconductor has the smallest energy gap
Mobility – defined as the average drift velocity of electrons and
holes per unit electrostatic field. The ease with which a charge
carrier moves in a semiconductor material
InSb semiconductor material has the highest value of electron-
mobility
AIP semiconductor material has the slowest electron-mobility
Pn junction is formed when n-type and p-type semiconductors are
brought together
PN junction acts as a one way valve for electrons because when
electrons are pump from P to N, free electrons and holes
are force apart leaving no way for electrons to cross the
junction
Junction diode – the device that is formed when an n-type and p-
type semiconductors are brought together
Forward bias – an external voltage applied to a junction reduces
its barrier and aid current to flow through the junction
Diode – a device containing an anode and a cathode or a pn
junction of a semiconductor as the principal elements and provides
unidirectional conduction
Unidirectional conduction in two-electrodes in any device other
than a diode, such that rectification between the grid and cathode
of a triode, or asymmetrical conduction between the collector and
base of a transistor is called diode action
The p-type material in a semiconductor junction diode is technically
termed as anode
Cathode in a semiconductor junction diode is referred to the n-
type terminal
Depletion region – the area in the semiconductor diode where
there are no charge carriers
A junction diode is said to be forward-biased if a voltage greater
than threshold is applied, with cathode less positive than
anode
Reverse saturation current is a very small amount of current
that will flow in the diode when it is reverse biased
Threshold voltage – the minimum voltage required before a
diode can totally conduct in a forward direction
The threshold voltage of the diode will decrease when it operates
at higher temperatures
The forward current in a conducting diode will increase as the
operating temperature increases.
As the operating temperature of a reverse-biased diode is
increased, its leakage or reverse saturation current will increase
exponentially
Reverse current – the small value of direct current that flows
when a semiconductor device has reverse bias
The breakdown voltage of a junction diode will decrease as
operating temperature rises.
In every increase of 10 °C in the operating temperature of a diode
will cause its reverse saturation current to double
Dc resistance – the resistance of the diode when operating at a
steady state voltage
Dynamic resistance – the resistance of the diode that is
significant when operating with a small ac signal
When a diode is used in large ac voltages, the resistance that is to
be considered is average resistance
The diode resistance will decrease when the applied voltage is
increased
The primary use of Zener diode in electronic circuits is a voltage
regulator
In electronics, an avalanche breakdown primarily depends on
ionization
When a diode is reverse biased the depletion region widens, since
it is in between positively charge holes and negatively charge
electrons, it will have an effect of a capacitor, this capacitance is
called transition capacitance
In a semiconductor diode, the total capacitance, that is the
capacitance between terminals and electrodes, and the internal
voltage variable capacitance of the junction is called diode
capacitance
Diffusion capacitance or storage capacitance is significant
when the diode is forward biased
Varactor and varistor – a diode that is especially designed to
operate as a voltage-variable capacitor. It utilizes the junction
capacitance of a semiconductor diode
The capacitance of a varactor will increase when the forward bias
voltage is increased.
Reverse recovery time – the time taken by the diode to operate
in the reverse condition from forward conduction
In operating a diode at high-speed switching circuits, one of the
most important parameters to be considered is reverse recovery
time.
Forward recovery time – the time required for forward voltage or
current to reach a specified valued after switching the diode from
its reverse-to-forward-biased state.
Maximum dissipation power – the maximum power the diode
can handle
Current capacity is the most important specification for
semiconductor diode.
The power handling capability of a diode will decrease if it is to
operated at a higher temperature
Power derating factor – diode parameter that will inform the
user as to what factor does the power handling capability of the
diode is reduced as the operating temperature is increased
Zener diode – a semiconductor device especially fabricated to
utilize the avalanche or zener breakdown region. This is normally
operated in the reverse-region and its application is mostly for
voltage reference or regulation
Tunnel diode – Refers to a special type of diode which is capable
of both amplification and oscillation
Avalanche – the effect when the electric field across a
semiconductor is strong enough which causes the free electrons to
collide with valence electrons, thereby releasing more electrons
and a cumulative multiplication of charge carriers occur.
Tunnel diode – a negative resistance diode commonly used in
microwave oscillators and detectors, it is sometimes used as
amplifiers. This device is also known as Esaki diode
Gunn diode – diode whose negative resistance depends on a
specific form of quantum-mechanical bond structure of the material
One of the electronic semiconductor devices known as diac,
function as two terminal bi-directional switch
Diac – another name of a three-layer diode. This is also considered
as an ac diode.
Point-contact diode – semiconductor diode that have a fine wire
whose point is in permanent contact with the surface of a water of
semiconductor material such as silicon, germanium or gallium-
arsenide
When the p-n junction of a semiconductor diode is inserted with an
intrinsic material, the diode becomes a PiN diode
Shockley diode – a four layer semiconductor diode whose
characteristic at the first quadrant is similar to that of a silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR)
Backward diode – a diode that is especially processed so that its
high-current flow takes place when the junction is reverse biased. It
is a variation of a tunnel diode.
Thyrector – a silicon diode that exhibits a very high resistance in
both direction up to certain voltage, beyond which the unit
switches to a low-resistance conducting state. It can be viewed as
two zener diodes connected back-to-back in series.
IMPATT diode – a type of Read diode that uses a heavily doped n-
type material as its drift region
Diode pack – a device containing more than one diode. An
example is the full-wave bridge-rectifier integrated circuit
Diode impedance – is the combination of the inductance of the
leads and electrodes, capacitance of the junction, and the
resistance of the junction of a semiconductor diode
Zener effect – In a reverse-biased pn junction, the sudden large
increase in current that occurs when a particular value of reversed
voltage is reached, and which is due to ionization by the high
intensity electric field in the depletion region
Gunn effect – the appearance of RF current oscillations in a dc-
biased slab of n-type gallium arsenide in a 3.3 kV electric field
Zener impedance – the impedance presented by a junction
operating in its zener breakdown region.
Characteristic curve – a curve showing the relationship between
the voltage and the current of the diode at any given temperature
Load line – the line that is plotted in the diode characteristic curve
which represent the load
The magnitude of the load-line slope will increase when the load
resistance is decreased.
Clipper – diode circuit that is used to cut a portion of the input
signal
Series clipper – a clipper circuit wherein the diode is connected in
series with the load.
Parallel clipper – a clipper circuit wherein the diode is shunted
with the load
Clamper – a network with a diode an a capacitor that is used to
shift the dc-level of the input signal
Half-wave rectifier is a good example of a series clipper
Clamper must have a capacitor
2 resistors are used in a diode-capacitor half-wave voltage doubler
Diode array – a combination of several diodes in a single housing
Diode chopper – a chopper, employing an alternately biased
diode as the switching element.
Zener voltage regulator – a simple voltage-regulator whose
output is the constant voltage drop developed across a zener diode
conducting in the reverse breakdown region. The regular circuit
consists of a zener diode in parallel with the load and an
appropriate limiting resistor
DTL – logic circuitry in which diode is the logic element and a
transistor acts as an inverting amplifier
Half-bridge – bridge rectifier having diodes in two arms and
resistors in the other two.
Crowbar – an over-voltage protection circuit employing a zener
diode and a SCR whose function is to produce high overload by-
pass current on a circuit.
The flow of electron in a NPN transistor when used in electronic
circuit is from emitter to collector
Transistor – a three terminal, three layer semiconductor device
that has the ability to multiply charge carriers. This device was first
introduced at Bell Laboratories, by Brattain and Bardeen in 1947
and which opens a completely new direction of interest and
development in the field of electronics
Transistor – an active semiconductor device, capable of
amplification, oscillation, and switching action. It is an acronym for
transfer reisistor and had replaced the tube in most applications.
The base in the region/area in a transistor is the smallest in
construction
Emitter – the region or area in a transistor that is heavily doped
Alloy-diffused transistor – a transistor in which the base is
diffused and the emitter is alloyed. The collector is provided by the
semiconductor substrate into which alloying and diffusion are
affected.
Alloy transistor – a transistor whose junction are created by
alloying
Alloy junction – In a semiconductor device, a p-n junction formed
by alloying a suitable material such as indium with the
semiconductor.
Diffused transistor – a transistor in which one or both electrodes
are created by diffusion
Bipolar transistor – a two-junction transistor whose construction
takes the form of a pnp or a npn. Such device uses both electron
and hole conduction and is current-driven
Point-contact transistor – the predecessor of the junction
transistor, and is characterized by a current amplification factor,
alpha of greater than one.
For a transistor, the outer layers are heavily doped
semiconductors
The ratio of the total width of the outer layer to that of the center
layer is 150:1
The ratio of the doping level of the outer layers to that of the
sandwiched material is 10:1 or less
Limiting the number of “free” carriers will decrease the
conductivity but increases the resistance
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
participate in the injection process into the oppositely polarized
material.
Unipolar device employs only electrons or hole
At forward-biased junction of pnp transistor, majority carriers flow
heavily from p- to the n-type material
The minority-current component of a transistor is called leakage
current
Ico – is temperature sensitive, and can severely affect the stability
of the system, when not carefully examined during design
For the transistor, the arrow in the graphic symbol defines the
direction of emitter conventional current flow through the
device
In the dc mode, the levels of Ic and Ie due to the majority carriers
are related by the quantity alpha (α)
In the ac mode, alpha is formally called common-base, short-
circuit, amplification factor
Phrases “not pointing in” and “pointing in” simply mean npn and
pnp
In the dc mode, the levels of Ic and Ib are related by a quantity
called β
For practical transistor devices, the level of β typically ranges
mostly in midrange of 50 to 400
The formal name of beta is common-emitter forward-current
amplification factor
β – it is a particularly important parameter that provides a direct
link between current levels of the input and output circuits for a
common-emitter configuration
The cutoff region is defined as the area below Ic = Iceo
With an ohmmeter, a large or small resistance in either junction of
an npn or pnp transistor indicates faulty device
At base-emitter junction, using an ohmmeter, if the positive lead is
connected to the base and the negative lead to the emitter, a low
resistance reading would indicate npn transistor
At base-emitter junction, if the positive lead is connected to the
base and the negative lead to the emitter, a high resistance
reading would indicate pnp transistor
High-power devices – transistors of heavy duty construction
Saturation point – on a voltage-current condition curve, the point
belong to which a further increase in voltage produces no further
increase in current.
Saturation – it is applied to any system where levels have reached
their maximum values
For an “on” transistor, the voltage Vbe should be in the
neighborhood of 0.7 V
Active region in a transistor amplifier is normally employed for
linear amplifiers
In the active region, the collector-base junction is reverse, while
the base-emitter junction is forward-biased
Dc biasing is necessary, in order to establish the proper region of
operation for ac amplification
At cutoff region, the collector-base and base-emitter junctions of a
transistor are both reverse-biased
In saturation region, the collector-base and base-emitter junctions
of a transistor are both forward-biased
If the base-emitter junction is reverse biased and the base-collector
junction is forward biased, the transistor will be at cut-off region
Transistor operate at cut-off region if both the base-emitter and
base-collector junctions are reverse-biased
The transistor should be operating at active region to have
minimum distortion at the output signal
Quiescent – In dc biasing, it means quiet, still, inactive
Emitter – the transistor terminal that handles most current
Stability factor indicates the degree of change in operating-point
due to temperature variation in the dc biasing
Cut-off current flows between the collector and emitter terminals
when the base is open
When the transistor is saturated, Vce is approximately 0 V
Collector-emitter resistance of ideal transistor at cut-off is Infinite
Icbo – the leakage current that flows at the collector-base junction
when the emitter is open
Reverse saturation current – the most correct technical term of
the reverse leakage current that flows between the collector and
base junctions when the emitter is open circuit
Icbo of an ideal transistor is zero mA
The maximum voltage that can be applied across the collector-
emitter terminal for a given transistor is specified as Vceo
When base is common to both the input and output sides of the
configuration and is usually the terminal closest to, or at ground
potential, it is called common-base terminology
Common collector transistor configuration has the highest input
resistance
Lower input resistance characteristic refers to that of a
common-base (C-B) as compared to common-emitter (C-E) and
common-collector (C-C) amplifiers
A transistor is said to be configured as common emitter if the
emitter terminal is not used as an input nor output
Most frequently used transistor configuration for pnp and npn is
common-emitter
Common-emitter configuration hybrid parameters is usually
specified by the manufacturers
Hr and ho – hybrid parameter that is usually neglected in circuit
analysis
In most transistor input equivalent circuit it comprises of a resistor
and a voltage source
Common-collector configuration has the highest input resistance
Common-base configuration has a high voltage gain and a current
gain of approximately equal to one
Common-emitter configuration has the highest power gain
Common-collector configuration has the highest power gain
Output characteristic curve is most useful
Maximum power curve – the graph of the product of collector-
emitter voltage Vce and collector current Ic in the transistor output
characteristic curve
The base of a transistor serves as a gate element of the FET
BJT is current-controlled device; FET is voltage-controlled
device
Another difference between a BJT and a FET with regards to its
normal biasing, is that the input circuit is forward-biased for
BJT while reverse for FET
Due to the reverse-biased input circuit of FETs, FET offer high
input impedance then BJT
The operation of BJT involves both the flow of electrons and holes
and is therefore, considered as a bipolar device. Unlike BJT, FET’s
operation involves only either electrons of holes and is considered
as a unipolar device
Considered as the basic FET or the simplest form of FET is the JFET
S-G-D JFET : E-B-C BJT
One obvious advantage of a JFET over BJT is its high input
resistance
A BJT is a current-controlled current-source device while JFET is a
voltage-controlled current source device
Channel – the area in a JFET where current passes as if flows from
source to drain
The channel of a JFET will skews as current flows to it.
For a normal operation of an n-channel JFET, you bias the gate-
source junction by negative-positive respectively
Pinch-off voltage – the voltage across the gate-source terminal of
a FET that causes drain current Id equal to zero
Drain-source saturation current – the current that flows into the
channel of a JFET when the gate-source voltage is zero
Current-voltage characteristic curve – the graph of the drain
current Id versus drain-source voltage Vds with Vgs as the
parameter
Fieldistor – an early version of the field effect transistor in which
limited control of current carriers near the surface of a
semiconductor bar or film was obtained by an external electric field
applied transversely
JFET – A FET in which the gate electrode consists of a pn junction
JFET has the lowest input resistance
In order to increase further the input resistance of a FET, its gate is
insulated. An example of this type is the MOS-FET
SiO2 is the insulator used in most MOS-FET
Substrate – In MOSFET, it is the foundation upon which the device
will be constructed and is formed from a silicon base
Enhancement type – a type of MOSFET wherein originally there is
no channel between the drain and the source
Depletion type of MOSFET whose channel is originally thick but
narrows as the proper gate bias is applied
Threshold voltage – the amount of voltage needed at the gate-
source terminal for an enhancement type MOSFET so that a
channel can be formed for the current to flow
To switch off the depletion type MOSFET, the channel should be
depleted. Depletion of the channel is done by applying enough
voltage across the gate-source terminal. This voltage is called pin-
off voltage
The substrate of a MOSFET is usually connected internally to
source
In an n-channel enhancement type MOSFET, the gate voltage
should be positive with respect to the source in order to produce
or enhance a channel
To deplete a channel from a p-channel IGFET depletion type, the
gate voltage should be positive with respect to the source.
N –type material - The substrate used in a p-channel IGFET
enhancement type
Substrate (SS) – the base material of a MOSFET which extends as
an additional terminal
MOSFET enhancement type operates as close as BJT in terms of
switching
Generally, MOSFET has low power handling capability than BJT. To
increase MOSFET power, the channel should be made wide and
short
V-MOSFET has a wide and short effective channel
V-MOSFET – a type of FET wherein the channel is formed in the
vertical direction rather than horizontal
In general, FETs is particularly more useful in integrated-circuit (IC)
chips
FET – a monolithic semiconductor-amplifying device in which a
high-impedance GATE electrode controls the flow of current
carriers through a thin bar of semiconductor called the CHANNEL.
Ohmic connections made to the ends of the channel constitute
SOURCE and DRAIN electrodes
Solid State Devices / Circuits
Varactor diodes are commonly used as a voltage controlled
capacitance
The electrons in the largest orbit travel more slowly than the
electrons in the smaller orbits
Common base – a transistor configuration with the lowest current
gain
A semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic
semiconductor
Valence orbit is the other term for outer orbit
For either germanium or silicon diodes, the barrier potential
decreases 2 mV for each Celsius degree rise
Piecewise linear model – a diode modeling circuit which
considers, the threshold voltage, average resistance and switch as
the diode’s equivalent circuit
Diffusion and drift – two mechanisms by which holes and
electrons move through a silicon crystal
A semiconductor is an element with a valence of four
Valence orbit controls the electrical properties of the atom
Conductor is a substance that contains atom with several bands
of electrons but with only one valence electron
Pure silicon contains 8 valence electrons as a result of covalent
bonding
The peak inverse voltage of a full wave center tapped rectifier
circuit is equal to twice the peak of the input signal
Diffusion or storage capacitance is the term used to refer to the
forward bias capacitance of a diode
The number of electrons in the valence orbit is considered as
the key to electrical conductivity
Each atom in a silicon crystal has 8 electrons in its valence orbit
Lifetime is the amount of time between the creation and
disappearance of a/an free electron
A silicon crystal is intrinsic semiconductor if every atom in the
crystal is a silicon atom
At room temperature, a silicon crystal acts approximately like an
insulator
An extrinsic semiconductor is a doped semiconductor
Diffusion is associated with random motion due to thermal
agitation in the movement of holes and electrons in a silicon crystal
The peak inverse voltage of a half wave rectifier circuit is
approximately equal to the peak amplitude of the input signal
Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent impurity is called a p-
type semiconductor
Silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent impurity is called a
n-type semiconductor
Junction diode is another name for a pn crystal
An acceptor atom is also called trivalent atom
Pentavalent atom – donor atom
In an n-type semiconductor, free electrons are called majority
carriers
In an n-type semiconductor, holes are called minority carriers
Each pair of positive and negative ions at the junction is called a
dipole
When temperature increases, barrier potential decreases
Avalanche effects occurs at higher reverse voltages
The creation of free electrons through zener effect is also known as
high-field emission
Zener effect depends only on the intensity of the electric field
Junction temperature is the temperature inside the diode, right
at the junction of the p and n-type materials
Gate voltage is the input parameter of a FET
Forward current – one of the important diode parameter which
gives the magnitude of current the diode can handle without
burning
The maximum reverse voltage that can be applied before current
surges is called reverse breakdown voltage
Tunnel diode – another name for Esaki diode
The most important application of Schottky diode is in digital
computers
A diode is a nonlinear device because its current is not directly
proportional to its voltage
The sum of the resistances of the p-region and the n-region is
called bulk resistance
The typical bulk resistance of rectifier diode is less than 1 ohm
The reverse bias diode capacitance is termed as transition
region capacitance
Reverse recovery time – the time taken by the diode to operate
in the reverse condition from forward conduction
Approximately, the atomic weight of germanium is 72.6
Atomic weight of silicon at 300K is 28.09
An LED and a phototransistor is equivalent to an Optocoupler
Optocoupler is otherwise known as Optoisolator
When the emitter junction is forward biased while the collector
junction is reverse biased, the transistor is at active region
When both the emitter and collector junction are forward biased,
the transistor is said to be at saturation region
Second approximation – An equivalent circuit of a diode in which
it is represented as a switch in series with a barrier potential
Third approximation – an equivalent circuit of a diode in which it
is represented as a switch with a battery in series with a resistance
A silicon crystal is an intrinsic of semiconductor if every atom in
the crystal is a silicon atom
With npn voltage divider bias, you must use negative power
supply
A half-wave signal has a period of 16.7 ms
A full-wave signal has a period of 8.3 ms
When doping increases, bulk resistance of a semiconductor
decreases
FET has the least noise level
MOSFET has the highest input impedance
The frequency of a half-wave signal is equal to the line
frequency
For a full-wave rectifier, the output frequency equals two times
the input frequency
The average dc voltage of a half wave rectifier circuit is 31.8% of
the value of the peak input voltage
The average dc voltage of a full wave rectifier circuit is 63.6% of
the value of the peak input voltage
Typical leakage current in a pn junction is in the order of μA
The resistance of a forward biased pn junction is in the order of
ohm
The removal by electronic means of one extremity of an input
waveform is called clipping
Shockley diode – a type of diode with no depletion layer
Varistor are used for line filtering to eliminate spikes and dips and
is also called transient suppressor
Diffusion – Defined as the random motion of holes and free
electrons due to thermal agitation
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a semiconductor is
negative
Class A – a large signal amplifier which is biased so that collector
current flow continuously during the complete electrical cycle of
the signal as well as when no signal is present
Class C – a large signal amplifier which is biased so that current is
non-zero for less than one-half cycle
A class AB amplifier stage operates with a small forward bias on
the transistor so that some collector current flow at all times
Derating factor – A factor shown on a data sheet that tells how
much you have to reduce the power rating of a device
The time it takes to turn off a forward-biased diode is called the
reverse recovery time
A heavily doped semiconductor has low resistance
Gallium arsenide, aluminum arsenide and gallium phosphide are
classified as compound semiconductor
A lightly doped semiconductor has high resistance
Conductance – the property or ability of a material to support
charge flow or electron flow
Dember effect – also known as photodiffusion effect
Bulk effect – an effect that occurs within the entire bulk of a
semiconductor material rather than in a localized region or junction
Dember effect – the creation of a voltage in a conductor or
semiconductor by illumination of one surface.
Point-contact diode uses a metal catwhisker as its anode and is
classified as a hot-carrier diode
10 mA is the typical operating current of an LED
At absolute zero temperature, a semiconductor behaves as a/an
insulator
Avalance breakdown in a semiconductor take place when reverse
bias exceeds a certain value
Anotron – a cold-cathode glow-discharge diode having a copper
anode and a large cathode of sodium or other material
BARITT diode – A microwave diode in which the carriers that
transverse the drift region are generated by minority carrier
injection from a forward-biased junction instead of being extracted
from the plasma of an avalanche region
A voltage multiplier is an electric circuit that converts AC to DC
but where the DC output peak value can be greater than the AC
input peak value
The charge of a hole is equal to that of a proton
β – it is the current gain for the common-emitter configuration
An emitter resistor is used for biasing a bipolar junction
transistor in most amplifier circuits
Load line is a line drawn between the open-circuit voltage and the
short-circuit current on a JFET characteristic curve
Another name for a photoconductive cell is photoresistive
device
When both the emitter and collector junctions are reverse biased,
the transistor is said to be at cut-off region
Varactor diode – a type of diode used for tuning receivers and is
normally operated with reverse bias and derived its name from
voltage variable capacitor
Binistor – A silicon npn tetrode that serves as a bistable negative-
resistance device
Spacistor – a multiple-terminal solid-state device similar to a
transistor that generates frequencies up to about 10,000 MHz by
injecting electrons or holes into a space-charge layer which rapidly
forces these carriers to a collecting electrode.
Silicon is not a good conductor
1.5 V is the approximate voltage drop of LED
Under standard condition, pure germanium has a resistitivity of 60
ohm-cm
The holding of one extreme amplitude of the input waveform to a
certain amount of potential is called clamping
Clamper is also known as DC restorer
Percentage ripple can be calculated by getting the ratio of the ac
voltage to dc voltage and multiplying the result by 100%
Silicon has the smallest leakage current
Recombination refers to annihilation of a hole and electron
Zener and avalanche effects are the two possible breakdown
mechanism in pn junction diodes
Zener breakdown occurs in pn diodes when the electric field in
the depletion layer increases to the point where it can break
covalent bonds and generate electron hole pairs
The amount of additional energy required to emit an electron from
the surface of a metal is called work function
When the temperature of a pure semiconductor is increased, its
resistances decrease.
As a general rule, holes are found only in semiconductors
Hole in a semiconductor is defined as the incomplete part of an
electron pair bond
When the number of free electrons is increased in doped
semiconductor, it becomes a n type semiconductor
Reducing the number of free electrons in a doped semiconductor
forms a p type semiconductor
Pure semiconductor atoms contain 4 valence electrons
An acceptor atom contains 3 valence electrons
The resistivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is 2 ohm-cm
The forward resistance of a crystal diode is in the order of ohm
1 is the ideal value of stability factor
1.6726 x 10^-27 kg is the approximate mass of an atom at rest
Approximate mass at rest of a proton is equal to that of a neutron
Charge of an electron is approximately equal to -1.6022 x 10^-19
C The voltage drop across the diode remains relatively constant
Electrolytic capacitors are used in transistor amplifiers
The reason why a common collector is used for impedance
matching is because its input impedance is very high
In power supplies, circuits that are employed in separating the ac
and dc components and bypass the ac components around the
load, or prevent their generation are called series capacitors
Isotopes – nuclei with common number of protons, but with
different number of neutrons
FET has a high input impedance because its input is reverse
biased
A MOSFET is sometimes called insulated gate FET
An advantage of a MOSFET over a BJT in an RF amplifier circuit is
low noise
The voltage gain of an emitter follower circuit is low
A transistor is considered a current controlled device
A FET is considered a voltage controlled device
The value of coupling capacitor, Cc n RC coupling is about 10 μF
FET has a pinch-off voltage of about 5 V
Luminous efficacy – a measure of the ability of an LED to
produce the desired number of lumens generated per applied watt
of electrical energy
Photoconductive effect means the increased conductivity of an
illuminated semiconductor junction
When light strikes on a photoconductive material the
conductivity of the material increases
Varactor diode – a type of diode used for tuning receivers;
operate with reverse bias and derived its name from voltage-
variable capacitor
Gallium arsenide semiconductor material is used in the
construction of LED
Atomic mass is approximately the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons of an atom
Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus or the
number of electrons in an atom
The charge of a proton has the same value to that of an electron
but opposite in sign
Mass of proton or neutron is 1,836 times that of an electron
LAD – a photodiode which conducts current only when forward
biased and is exposed to light
Red is the most commonly used color for an LED
If the temperature of a semiconductor material increases, the
number of free electrons increases
Varactor diode’s transition capacitance is directly proportional to
the product of the permittivity of the semiconductor material and
the PN junction area but inversely proportional to its depletion
width
A photodiode is a light-sensitive device whose number of free
electrons generated is proportional to the intensity of the incident
light.
Scale current – another name for saturation current in a diode,
which arises from the fact that it is directly proportional to the
cross-sectional area of the diode
In an amplifier, the emitter junction is forward biased
The principal characteristic of a zener diode is the constant
voltage under conditions of varying current
Varactor diode – a device whose internal capacitance varies with
the applied voltage
The common collector transistor configuration has the highest
value of input resistance
Coupling – the method of connecting amplifier in cascade
Collector is the largest region of a bipolar transistor
Tunnel diode – A diode that has a negative resistance region and
widely used in the design of oscillators, switching networks and
pulse generators.
Diac – refers to a three layer diode
Zener diode – diode that operates in the reverse breakdown
voltage and is used as a voltage regulator
IGFET – Another name for a metal-oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor
In enhancement-type MOSFET, the saturation region is used if
the FET is to operate as an amplifier
In enhancement-type MOSFET, the triode and saturation regions
are used for operation as a switch
Unijunction transistor has three terminals, namely base 1, base 2
and emitter
Silicon and germanium semiconductor devices exhibit both
metallic and nonmetallic characteristics
when current flow increases rapidly in a forward-biased diode
Free electrons are the majority current carriers in the N-type
silicon
A LED is a diode that gives off light when energized
IR emitters – are solid state gallium arsenide devices that emit a
beam of radiant flux when forward biased
Input characteristic curve – a graphical representation in
transistor wherein the emitter current is plotted against the
variable emitter base voltage Veb for constant value of collector-
base voltage Vcb
When the collector current Ic is plotted against the collector base
voltage at constant emitter current Ie, the curve obtained is called
output characteristic curve
Eg for silicon is 1.12 eV and for germanium is .072 eV. It can be
concluded that less number of electron hole pairs will be
generated in silicon than in germanium at room
temperature
Junction diodes are commonly rated by its maximum forward
current and PIV
A special type of diode which is often used in RF switches,
attenuators, and various types of phase shifting device is called
PIN diode
Output characteristic – A volt-ampere characteristics curve that
describes the relationship of the output voltage of a transistor to its
output current at a set input current
The use of RC coupling is particularly desirable in low level, low
noise audio amplifier stages to minimize hum pick up from stray
magnetic fields
The way in which the gain of an amplifier varies with the frequency
is called frequency response
The maximum rectification efficiency of a half wave rectifier is
40.6 %
The maximum rectification efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is 81.2
%
Transformer coupling – a coupled amplifier which has the major
advantage of permitting power to be transformed from the
relatively high output impedance of the first stage to the relatively
low input impedance of the second stage
Electron mobility property of silicon at 300 K is approximately
equal to 0.135 m^2/v-s
In a push-pull power amplifier, an input transformer can be used as
a phase-splitter providing equal amplitude input signals opposite
in polarity
If the line frequency is 60Hz, the output frequency of a bridge
rectifier is 120 Hz
FET is considered a unipolar device
Harold Black – invented the feedback amplifier in 1928
The arrow in semiconductor symbols always point toward the N
region and away from the P region
If the input power of a half wave rectifier has a frequency of 400
Hz, then the ripple frequency will be equal to 400 Hz
If the input frequency of a full-wave rectifier is 400 Hz, the ripple
frequency will be twice as great as the input frequency
Common emitter circuit – also called as the conventional
amplifier
Another name for a light activated diode (LAD) is photodiode
The semiconductor device that radiate light or utilize light are
called optoelectronic devices
Structural category of a semiconductor diodes can be either
junction and point contact
Zener diodes can be primarily classified as voltage regulation
and voltage reference
The principal characteristic of a tunnel diode is a negative
resistance region
Varactor diode – a special type of semiconductor diode which
varies its internal capacitance as the voltage applied to its terminal
varies
The maximum forward current in a junction diode is limited by its
junction temperature
When a transistor is fully saturated the collector current is at
its maximum value
A FET without a channel and no current occurs with zero gate
voltage is enhancement-mode FET
FET and CMOS devices are susceptible to damage from static
charges
JFETs are often called square law devices
Equivalent of transistor at saturation in JFET’s is constant-current
When a JFET is cut-off, the depletion layers are touching
The voltage that turns on an enhancement-mode device is the
threshold voltage
Depletion-mode MOSFET acts mostly as a JFET
JFET’s input impedance approaches infinity
The current gain of an emitter follower circuit is high
The drift transistor has a high frequency cut off due to its low
inherent internal capacitance and low electron transit time
through the base
The maximum operating frequency of a transistor should be 50
percent of the frequency cut-off of the transistor to ensure best
performance
When transistor applications call for a temperature operating
condition which exceeds 185 F, Silicon element is most suitable
Heat dissipation is the most important factor of a power
transistor
When the electron transmit time through the base region is very
short, this provides higher cut-off frequency
When the transistors are used in video amplifiers, its main
limitation is poor frequency response
Impedance matching in circuit is important for maximum transfer
of energy
A unijunction transistor is a three-terminal device consisting of two
semiconductor layers
Ionization – the process by which atoms are constantly losing and
regaining free electrons
Parasitic oscillations – termed as unwanted oscillation that may
occur in almost any type of circuits, oscillator, amplifier, power
supply, receiver and transmitters.
Linear amplifier – an RF amplifier which will amplify a weak signal
voltage in relatively the same proportion as it will amplify a
stronger signal voltage
Peak inverse voltage – it is the maximum amount of reverse
voltage which can be applied on a diode before the breakdown
point is reached
Element – it refers to any of the over 100 different substances
which have never been separated into simpler substances by
chemical means and which alone or in combination constitute all
matter
LED – it is also known as a solid state lamp which utilizes the fall of
electron from the conduction level to the valence level to develop
an energy release in the form of heat or light
Present atomic theories place the mass and positive charge of an
atom in a central nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
The photons as fundamental particle is considered as a bundle of
radiant energy or light, the amount of energy being related to the
frequency
Electron emitted by the mechanical impact of an iron striking a
surface is called secondary electrons
The break up of nuclei into nuclear fragments that are themselves
nuclei is called fission
Neutrinos - Particles of zero charge and zero mass
9.1096 x 10^-31 kg – approximate mass of an electron at rest
Valence shell – term used to describe the outermost shell of an
atom
Free electrons – are the electrons at the outermost shell which
are usually weakly attracted by the core such that an outside force
can easily dislodge these electrons from the atom
The reason why electrons are not pulled in the positive charged
nucleus is because of the centrifugal force which usually became
exactly equals the inward attraction of the nucleus
Valence band – the highest energy band of an atom which can be
filled with electrons
Conduction band – an energy band in which electrons can move
freely
Gold is considered as the best conductor
Crystal – it is an arrangement of silicon atom combine to form a
solid such that there are now 8 electrons in the valence shell
Covalent bond – the sharing of valence electrons to produce a
chemically stable atom
Bound electrons – the eight electrons which are tightly held by
the atom
When an atom has bound electrons, it is described as filled or
saturated since valence orbit can hold not more than 8
electrons
Ambient temperature – refers to the temperature of the
surrounding air
Free electrons – the term used to describe the released electrons
dislodged form its original shell due to increase in temperature
which joins into a larger orbit
Hole – the term used to refer to the vacancy left by the free
electron when it departs from its original shell
Recombination – the merging of a free electron and a hole inside
the silicon crystal
Lifetime – the amount of time between the creation and
disappearance of a free electron
The purpose of adding an impurity atom to an intrinsic crystal is to
increase its electric conductivity
An extrinsic semiconductor produced n-type when a pentavalent
atom are added to the molten silicon
Phosphorus, antimony and arsenic are pentavalent atom
P-type – an extrinsic semiconductor which is produced when a
trivalent atom are added to the molten silicon
Linear power derating factor – the reduction of power handling
capability of the diode due to the increase of ambient temperature
form room temperature
Maximum junction temperature – the maximum temperature
the diode can operate before burning
Reverse recovery time of the diode is computed as the sum of the
storage time and transition interval from the forward to reverse
bias
Thermal energy causes intrinsic semiconductor to have some
holes
When a diode is forward biased, the recombination of free
electrons and hole may produce heat, light & radiation
Phosphorous doping element has a valence of 5
Silicon doping element has a valence of 4
Boron doping element has a valence of 3
Proton – it is a stable positive charge in the nucleus that is not
free to move.
Hole – a positive charge outside the nucleus which is present only
in semiconductor due to unfilled covalent bonds
When charges are forced to move by the electric field of a potential
difference, drift current is said to flow
When a PN junction is connected to a battery in such a way that P-
side is connected to positive terminal of the battery and negative
terminal to N-side, this connection is known as forward bias
When a PN junction is connected to a battery in such a way that P-
side is connected to negative terminal of the battery and positive
terminal to N-side, this connection is known as reverse bias
An electron in the conduction band has higher energy then the
electron in the valence band
An ideal diode should have zero resistance in the forward
bias and an infinitely large resistance in reverse bias
Thermal voltage is approximately equal to 25 mV at room
temperature
Boltzmann’s constant is equivalent to 8.62 x 10^-5 eV/K
The preferred form of biasing a JFET amplifier is through the self
bias
The gate-to-source on voltage of an n-channel enhancement mode
MOSFET is greater then Vgs
Carrier drift – a mechanism for carrier motion in semiconductors
which occurs when an electric field is applied across a piece of
silicon
Avalanche breakdown occurs in pn diodes when the minority
carriers that cross the depletion region under the influence of the
electric field, gain sufficient kinetic energy to be able to break
covalent bonds in atoms with which they collide
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Class A amplifier has an output current flowing during the whole
input current cycle.
If a transistor amplifier provides a 360° output signal, it is classified
as class A
Class B – an amplifier that delivers an output signal of 180 only
Class AB – a class of amplifiers wherein the output signal swings
more than 180° but less than 360°
The distinguishing feature of class C amplifier is that the output is
present for less than 180 degrees of the input signal cycle
Class C – a full 360° sine-wave signal is applied as an input to an
unknown class of amplifier, if the output delivers only a pulse of
less than 180°
Class D amplifiers are intended for pulse operation
Class S amplifier are used to amplify either amplitude modulated
(AM) or frequency modulated (PM) signal
Class D amplifier has the highest efficiency
25% is the efficiency of a series-fed class A amplifier
A class A amplifier has an efficiency of only 25%, but this can be
increased if the output is coupled with a transformer. Up to 50%
efficiency will be reached due to coupling
Class B amplifiers deliver an output signal of 180 and have a
maximum efficiency of 78.5%
Transistorized class C power amplifier will usually have an
efficiency of 33%
For pulse-amplification, class D amplifier is mostly used. Class D
amplifier efficiency reaches over 90%
Efficiency of class AB is in between the efficiency of class A and B,
that is from 25% - 78.5%
Class A (transformer-coupled) is the most effient
In order to have the best efficiency and stability, the loadline of a
solid state power amplifier be operated just below the
saturation point
In most transistor class A amplifier, the quiescent point is set at the
center
For a class B amplifier, the operating point or Q-point is set at
cutoff
The Q-point for class A amplifier is at the active region, for class B
it is at cutoff region, while for class AB is slightly above cutoff
The Q-point of a class C amplifier is positioned below cutoff
region
Class C amplifiers are considered as non-linear
Class A or B amplifiers can be used for linear amplification
Class BC amplifier is biased to class C but modulates over the
same portion of the curve as if it ware biased to class B
Transformer-coupled push-pull amplifier – two class B
amplifiers connected such that one amplifies the positive cycle and
the other amplifies the remaining negative cycle. Both output
signals are then coupled by a transformer to the load
Complementary-symmetry amplifier – a push-pull amplifier
that uses npn and pnp transistors to amplify the positive and
negative cycles respectively
Quasi-complementary push-pull amplifier – a push pull
amplifier that uses either npn or pnp as its final stage. The circuit
configuration looks like the complementary-symmetry
Class A amplifier has the least distortion
Nonlinear distortion – a type of distortion wherein the output
signal does not have the desired linear relation to the input
Amplitude distortion – Distortion that is due to the inability of an
amplifier to amplify equally well all the frequencies present at the
input signal
Harmonic distortion – a nonlinear distortion in which the output
consists of undesired harmonic frequencies of the input signal
The overall gain of an amplifier in cascade is the product
Cascaded amplifier – a multistage transistor amplifier arranged
in a conventional series manner, the output of one stage is
forward-coupled to the next stage
Darlington configuration – a direct-coupled two-stage transistor
configuration wherein the output of the first transistor is directly
coupled and amplified by the second transistor. This configuration
gives a very high current gain
Cascode configuration – a two-stage transistor amplifier in which
the output collector of the first stage provides input to the emitter
of the second stage. The final output is then taken from the
collector of the second stage
Cascode amplifier – famous transistor amplifier configuration
designed to eliminate the so called Miller effect
Common-emitter and common-base transistor configuration is
used in a cascode amplifier
Darlington – transistor configuration known to have a super-beta
1.6 V is the approximate threshold voltage between the base-
emitter junction of a silicon darlington transistor
Feedback pair – transistor arrangement that operates like a
darlington but uses a combination of pnp and npn transistors
instead of both npn
Differential amplifier – an amplifier basically constructed from
two transistor and whose output is proportional to the difference
between the voltages applied to its two inputs
Operational amplifier (op-amp) – an amplifier having high
direct-current stability and high immunity to oscillation, this is
initially used to perform analog-computer functions such as
summing and integrating.
Op-amp – one of the most versatile and widely used electronic
device in linear applications
Op-amp – it is a very high-gain differential amplifier with very high
input impedance and very low output impedance
An operational amplifier must have at least 5 usable terminals
Differential amplifier – the circuit at the input stage of
operational amplifiers
Differential amplifier – an amplifier whose output is proportional
to the difference between the voltages applied to its two inputs
In op-amps functional block diagram, high gain amplifier follows
the differential amplifier
A good op-amp has a very high input resistance
Ideally, op-amps have infinite input resistance and zero output
resistance
The input of an op-amp is made high by using super beta
transistor at the input differential stage or by using FETs at
the input differential stage
Complementary amplifier is commonly used at the output stage
of op-amps
Common collector – the transistor configuration used at the
output complementary stage of most op-amps
Most op-amps use a common collector at the output stage to have
a very low output resistance
Level shifter – the stage followed by the output complementary in
op amps functional block diagram
The purpose of level shifter in op-amps is to set and/or adjust
the output voltage to zero when the input signal is zero
Primarily, op-amps are operated with bipolar power supply,
however, we can also use single polarity power supply by
generating a reference voltage above ground
When the same signal is applied to both inverting and non-
inverting input terminals of an ideal op-amp, the output voltage
would be zero V
Common mode – the operating mode of an op-amp, when both
inputs are tied together or when the input signal is common to both
inputs
Common gain – the gain of an op-amp if operated in common
mode input
When one input of the op-amp is connected to ground and the
other is to the signal source, its operation is called single-ended
input
If op-amps are operated in differential mode, its gain is technically
termed as differential gain
Open-loop gain is the highest
Common-mode rejection ratio – the ratio of the differential gain
and common gain of an op-amp
+VSAT to –VSAT is the maximum output voltage swing of an op-
amp
Input bias current - the current needed at the input of an op-amp
to operate it normally
Ideal op-amp requires no input current, but real op-amp needs a
very small input current called input bias current. At both inputs,
the bias currents have a slight difference. Its difference is called
input offset current
Input offset current drift – the change in input offset current
due to temperature change
The reason why a slight difference between the input bias current
occurs in op-amp is due to the unsymmetrical circuit component
parameters. This unsymmetrical condition also produces a
difference in input voltage called input offset voltage
In op-amps, input offset voltage drift is the change in input
offset voltage due to the change in temperature
Ideally, the output voltage of an op-amp is zero when there is no
input signal, however, in practical circuit, a small output voltage
appears, this voltage is known as output offset voltage
The output offset voltage of an op-amp are due to input offset
current and input offset voltage
You minimize the output offset voltage due to the input offset
current of an op-amp by installing a bias-current-
compensating resistor
The approximate value of the bias-current compensating resistor in
op-amp circuit is equal to the parallel combination of the
input and feedback resistors
In op-amp analysis, the input offset voltage is represented by a
battery
The battery representing the input offset voltage in op-amp circuit
analysis is connected between the non-inverting and ground
terminal
The effect of the input offset voltage to the output voltage if the
op-amp has no feedback element is it causes the output to
saturate either towards positive or negative
By making the feedback resistance small we can minimize the
effect of the input offset current and input offset voltage at the
output offset voltage
The most effective way of minimizing the output offset voltage of
an op-mp is by properly using and adjusting the offset-null
terminals
Slew rate – op-amp parameter(s) that is important in large signal
dc amplification
In large signal dc-amplifiers using op-amp, drift parameter has the
least effect on its performance
For ac-amplifiers using op-amps, slew rate and frequency
response parameters can affect its performance
If an op-amp is used to amplify small ac-signals, frequency
response parameter should greatly consider to ensure better
performance
Internally compensated op-amps – op-amps with internal
frequency compensation capacitor to prevent oscillation
Break frequency – the frequency at which the open-loop gain of
an op-amp is 0.707 times its value at very low frequency
The voltage gain of op-amp will decrease when its operating
frequency is increased
Roll-off – the reduction of op-amps gain due to increase operating
frequency
20dB/decade roll-off – a gain reduction by a factor of 10 per
decade
6 dB/octave – a reduction of op-amp’s voltage gain by a factor of
two each time the frequency doubles
Unity-gain bandwidth product – frequency at which the voltage
gain of op-amp reduces to unity.
Rise time is defined as the time required for the output voltage to
rise from 10% to 90% of its final value
Slew rate – the maximum output voltage rate of change of an op-
amp
Factors or parameters that determine the op-amps maximum
operating temperature: slew rate and unity-gain bandwidth
product
When an op-amp is used as a comparator, the output voltage
would be +VSAT if V+ > V-
Window comparator – two comparators using op-amps,
configured such that it can detect voltage levels within a certain
range of values rather than simply comparing whether a voltage is
above or below a certain reference
Open-loop gain is significant when an op-amp is used as a
voltage comparator
An op-amp zero-crossing detector without hysteresis, has no feed
back
The feed back element of a differentiator constructed from op-amp
is a resistor
An active integrator uses an op-amp, capacitor is its feedback
element
Unity – the voltage gain of an op-amp voltage follower
Hartley oscillator – A self-excited oscillator in which the tank is
divided into input and feedback portions by an inductive voltage
divider or a tapped coil
Multivibrator – a circuit usually containing two transistors or
tubes in an RC-coulped amplifier, the two active devices switch
each other alternately on and off
Monostable – a multivibrator that generates one output pulse for
each input trigger pulse

The noise gain of op-amps is 1 + Rf/Ri
Making both the feedback and input resistances as small as
possible resistor combination provides lesser noise in op-amp
circuits
Monostable mutlivibrator is also known as one shot or single
shot
Resistor and capacitor combinations determines the pulse
time in a monostable multivibrator

In most ac-amplifiers using op-amps, the feedback resistor is Bistable – a multivibrator having two stable state
shunted with a very small capacitance to minimize high
frequency noise Bistable multivibrator is also known as Eccles/Jordan circuit

Externally compensated op-amps are op-amps with frequency- Flip-flop is actually a bistable multivibrator
compensation terminals or op-amps with provision to
externally compensate for frequency stability Astable – considered as a free-running multivibrator

In the external frequency-compensation capacitor, the lower its

value, the wider is its bandwidth

Typical value of the external frequency-compensating capacitor of

op-amps is about 3.0 – 30 μF

General purpose op-amps are op-amps with limited unity-gain

bandwidth up to approximately 1 MHz or op-amps with slew
rate about 0.5V/μsec
High-frequency, high-slew rate op-amps – Op-amps designed
to operate at high slew rate, about 2000 V/micosec and at high
frequencies, more than 50 MHz

Generally, hybrid op-amps found its application for high-output

voltage and for high-output current

0.2 mV – the magnitude of the op-amps input offset voltage before

it can be classified as a low-input offset voltage op-amp

Op-amps whose internal transistor biasing can be controlled

externally are categorize as programmable op-amps

Metal can correspond to TO-99

Dual-in-line or DIL package is designed as TO-116

SMT – for high density ICs involving many op-amps

PLCCs, SOICs, LCCCs are examples of surface-mounted

technology (SMT) device

For a circuit to oscillate, it must have a positive feedback

sufficient to overcome losses.

Oscillator – Circuits that produces alternating or pulsating current

or voltage

Hartley oscillator circuit uses a tapped coil in the tuned circuit

The size and thickness of the crystal material determines the

resonant frequency of a crystal

Relaxation oscillator – type of oscillator whose frequency is

dependent on the charge and discharge of RC network

Klystron oscillator – a microwave oscillator

Colpitts oscillator – a self-excited oscillator in which the tank is

divided into input and feedback portions by a capacitive voltage
divider
Electronic (Audio/RF) Circuit / Analysis/ Design
Class A and B are considered linear amplifier
The voltage gain of a common collector configuration is unity
A two-transistor class B power amplifier is commonly called push-
pull amplifier
If a transistor is operated in such a way that output current flows
for 160° of the input signal, then it is Class C operation
Direct coupling has the best frequency response
A transistor amplifier has high output impedance because
collector has reverse bias
Gain-bandwidth product is considered an amplifier figure of
merit
Logic probe – a piece of equipment in an oscilloscope use to
indicate pulse condition in a digital logic circuit
Comparator – a linear circuit that compares two input signals and
provides a digital level output depending on the relationship of the
input signals
Transformer coupling is generally used in power amplifiers
Class A amplifier’s output current flows for the entire cycle
The coupling capacitor must be large enough to prevent
attenuation of low frequency in an RC coupling scheme
Operating point is the point of intersection of dc and ac load lines
An oscillator produces undamped oscillations
Quiescent point is the operating point in the characteristic curve
Oscillators operate on the principle of positive feedback
In a class A amplifier, the output signal is the same as the input
Biasing condition will change if the input capacitor of a
transistor amplifier is short-circuited
Biasing is used to establish a fixed level of current or voltage in a
transistor
Class C power amplifier has the highest collector efficiency
Class C is a non-linear type of amplifier
An AF transformer is shielded to prevent induction due to stray
magnetic fields
Amplitude distortion is otherwise known as harmonic distortion
Hie represents common-emitter small signal input resistance
The ear is not sensitive to frequency distortion
Class C is an amplifier whose output current flow for less than
one-half the entire input cycle
If gain without feedback and feedback factor are A and Beta
respectively, then gain with negative feedback is given by A/
(1+Aβ )
The collector current in a common base configuration is equal to
alpha times emitter current plus leakage current
The value of collector load resistance in a transistor amplifier is
less than the output impedance of the transistor
The purpose of RC or transformer coupling is to separate bias of
one stage from another
The bandwidth of a single stage amplifier is more than that of
multistage amplifier
Transit time is the time taken by the electrons or holes to pass
from the emitter to the collector
To obtain good gain stability in a negative feedback amplifier, Aβ
is very much greater than 1
The basic concept of the electric wave filter was originated by
Campbell and Wagner
Common-base configuration has the lowest current gain
Common-base and Common-collector transistor configuration
offers no phase reversal at the output
The number of stages that can be directly coupled is limited
because change in temperature can cause thermal
instability
The input capacitor in an amplifier is called coupling capacitor
AC load line has a/an bigger slope compared to that of dc load line
A multistage amplifier uses at least two transistors
RC coupling is used for voltage amplification
An ammeter’s ideal resistance should be zero
Amplifier is the circuit that can increase the peak-to-peak voltage,
current or power of a signal
When the non-linear distortion in an amplifier is D without
feedback, with negative voltage feedback it will be D/(1+Aβ )
A tuned amplifier uses LC tank load
The voltage gain over mid-frequency range in an RC coupled
amplifier is constant
The input impedance of an amplifier increases when negative
voltage feedback is applied
The input impedance of an amplifier decreases when negative
current feedback is applied
To obtain the frequency response curve of an amplifier generator
output level is kept constant
Relaxation oscillator – a type of oscillator wherein the frequency
is determined by the charge and discharge of resistor-capacitor
networks used in conjunction with amplifiers or similar devices
The driver transformer has center-tapped secondary to provide
two signals 180° out of phase to transistors of push-pull
circuit
The advantage of RC coupling scheme is economy
A type of filter which have a single continuous transmission band
with neither the upper nor the lower cut-off frequencies being zero
or infinite is called band pass filter
GPS – an instrument use to measure ones location in terms of
coordinates
Transformer coupling is used for power amplification
The typical value of coupling capacitor in RC coupling is about 10
μF
An electronic transfer from one stage to the next is termed as
coupling
An amplifier configuration where the input signal is fed to the
emitter terminal and the output from the collector terminal is
called common base
If the noise factor of an ideal amplifier expressed in dB, then it is 0
A feedback circuit is independent of frequency
The basic purpose of applying negative feedback to an amplifier is
to reduce distortion
The capacitors are considered open in the dc equivalent circuit of
a transistor amplifier
10 kHz frequency produces the highest noise factor
Power amplifier handle large signals
The operating point is generally located at the middle of dc load
line in class A operation
Low voltage gain describes a common collector amplifier
The general characteristics of a common base amplifier are high
voltage gain, low current gain, high power gain and very
low input resistance
To amplify dc signal, multistage amplifier uses Direct coupling
Klystron oscillator is used in order to produce frequencies in the
microwave region
Practically, the voltage gain of an amplifier is expressed in dB unit
Transformer coupling provides maximum voltage gain
The gain of an amplifier reduces when negative feedback is added
Feedback factor is always less than 1
Class A operation is used for general amplification where no
distortion can be tolerated
Class B operation is used either where the signal needs to be cut
in half, such as in pulse detector or noise detectors or where push-
pull operation of two stages is required
Class AB operation is used where a portion of a signal only is
required, such as the synchronizing pulse separator of a television
receiver
Class C operation has little use in general purpose amplifier, but is
used in high frequency oscillators
Transformer coupling provides high frequency because its DC
resistance is low
Class C operation can have 100% efficiency
The efficiency of class AB operation has a maximum of between
50% to 78.5%
Transformer coupling is generally employed when load resistance
is small
The smaller the voltage regulation, the better the operation of the
voltage supply circuit
In transistor amplifiers, Step down transformer is used for
impedance matching
If an amplifier has a power gain of 100, then its dB gain is 20
In order to have more voltage gain from a transistor amplifier the
transistor used should have thin base
The final stage of an amplifier uses transformer coupling
The largest theoretical voltage gain obtained with a common
collector amplifier is unity
Increasing the overall Beta is an advantage of darlington pair
The frequency of oscillation is inversely proportional to square
root of L and C in an LC oscillator
An oscillator employs positive feedback
The reason why RC coupling is not used to amplify extremely low
frequencies is that electrical size of coupling capacitor
becomes very large
A pair of filter common on high fidelity system which separate
audio frequency band signals into two separate groups, where one
is fed to the tweeter and the other to the woofer is called cross
over network
The frequency response of transformer coupling is poor
The simplest variable-frequency sinusoidal oscillator is the
Armstrong circuit
Current gain is provided by a CB transistor amplifier
In the initial stages of a multistage amplifier, RC coupling is used
The gain of an amplifier with feedback is known as closed loop
gain
Negative feedback is employed in amplifiers
The gain of an amplifier is expressed in db unit because human
ear response is logarithmic
About 50 μF is the typical value of the emitter bypass capacitor in
a multistage amplifier
In a multistage amplifier, if the stages have R and C component
only, class A operation is apparent
Capacitance is normally varied in order to change frequency of
oscillation
Power gain is the main consideration in the output stage of an
amplifier
Transformer coupling provides high gain because of impedance
matching can be achieved
When negative voltage feedback is applied to an amplifier, its
output impedance decreases
An LC oscillator cannot be used to produce very low frequencies
A transistor converts dc power into ac power
Hartley oscillator is commonly used in Radio receivers
An oscillator oscillates due to positive feedback
Generally, tuned amplifiers are operated in class C
A tuned amplifier is used in Radio frequency
The ratio of output to input impedance of a CE amplifier is
moderate
For a constant output frequency, the simplest sinusoidal oscillator
circuit to construct is the crystal circuit
The frequency stability of the oscillator output is maximum in
Wein bridge oscillator
Transformer coupling introduces frequency distortion
A pulsating dc applied to power amplifiers causes hum in the
circuit
The disadvantage of impedance matching is that it gives
distorted output
In a phase-shift oscillator, three RC sections are generally used
In phase-shift oscillator, R and C are the frequency determining
element
The input impedance of CC amplifier depends strongly on load
resistance
Electrolytic capacitors are used in transistor amplifiers
An important limitation of crystal oscillator is its low output
Both positive and negative type of feedback is used in Wien
bridge oscillator
Transformer coupling is the most costly coupling
Piezoelectric effect in a crystal – voltage is developed because
of mechanical stress
The input resistance of a common emitter amplifier is affected by
Re, re and β
More than 10,000 is the typical Q of a crystal
X is the axis that connects the corners of a crystal
Push-pull amplifier is usually employed at the output stage of an
amplifier
The size of a power transistor is made considerably large to
dissipate more heat
When crystal frequency increases with temperature, it has
positive temperature co-efficient
The purpose of the bypass capacitor in a common-emitter amplifier
is it increases voltage gain
An emitter follower is equivalent to common collector amplifier
The crystal oscillator frequency is very stable due to high Q of the
crystal
The bandwidth of an amplifier increases when negative feedback
is applied
The term 1+Aβ in the expression for gain with negative feedback
is known as sacrifice factor
Emitter follower employs 100 % negative feedback
Radio transmitter application would most likely find a crystal
oscillator
Collector efficiency is the most important consideration in power
amplifiers
When the gain versus frequency curve of a transistor amplifier is
not flat, frequency distortion is present
In a Colpitt’s oscillator, feedback is obtained from the center of
split capacitors
When the collector resistor in a common emitter amplifier is
increased in value the voltage gain increases
Output signal of a CE amplifier is always out of phase with the
input signal
The purpose of capacitors in a transistor amplifier is to couple or
bypass ac component
When CE configuration is used for an oscillator, the voltage fed
back must be inverted by 180°
Class B operation has a maximum possible efficiency of 78.5 %
Crystal oscillator – the most stable sine-wave oscillator which
uses piezo-electric quartz crystal
To sustain oscillations, the power gain of the amplifier may be
equal to or greater than 1
In a phase-shift oscillator, 180° phase-shift is obtained by three RC
sections
Feedback circuit usually employs resistive network
Emitter follower is used for impedance matching
Increased over gain is a characteristic of cascaded amplifiers
Logic analyzer is used to sample and display system signal
Quartz crystal is most commonly used in crystal oscillators because
it has superior electrical properties
The operating frequency of a Wien-bridge oscillator is given by 1/
(2πRC)
Class C gives the maximum distortion
Low efficiency of a power amplifier results in more battery
consumption
In an LC oscillator, the frequency of oscillations is given by 1/
(2πsqr(LC))
Class A operation has a maximum possible efficiency of 50%
Common emitter amplifier is a choice when higher power gain is
a requirement
The signal generator generally used in laboratories is Wien-bridge
oscillator
A buffer amplifier is used for minimum loading and minimum
mismatch
Parasitic oscillations are caused by transistor interelectrode
capacitance
Crystal oscillator is a fixed-frequency oscillator
The approximate operating frequency of a phase-shift oscillator is
given by 1/(2πRC sqr(6))
The frequency of the ripple voltage at the output of a full-wave
rectifier at 60 cycles is 120 cyles
Cascaded amplifiers total decibel gain is equal to the product of
the individual gains
In an LC oscillator, if the value of L is increased for times, then
frequency of oscillation is decreased 2 times
A class A power amplifier is otherwise known as single ended
amplifier
The power input to a power amplifier is dc quantity
When shock-excited, a crystal will produce alternating emf longer
than an LC circuit because crystal has fewer losses
The stability of a regulated power supply is equivalent to change
of output voltage over the change in supply voltage
Oscillator circuit that uses a tapped coil in the tuned circuit is
called Hartley
If you move towards an oscillating circuit, its frequency changes
because of hand capacitance
The number of transistor in a single stage amplifier is one
Series current negative feedback occurs when the feedback
voltage is proportional to the output current
An amplifier with efficiency 85% is likely to be Class C
180° is the phase difference between the output and input voltage
of a CE amplifier
Class C operation is preferred in oscillators because it is more
efficient
Sinewave oscillator – a type of oscillator which are composed of
one or more amplifying devices with some frequency-determining
networks introducing positive feedback at a particular frequency so
that oscillation is sustained at the frequency
High input impedance of a transistor is desired
78.5% is the maximum collector efficiency of class B
when a transistor is cut off maximum voltage appears across
transistor
In an LC circuit, when the capacitor energy is maximum, the
inductor energy is minimum
The reciprocal of feedback factor is the approximate gain of an
amplifier with negative feedback
The operating point in a transistor amplifier moves along ac load
line when an ac signal is applied
An oscillator converts dc power into ac power
Transistor is the active device in a transistor oscillator
When the collector supply is 5 V, then collector cut off voltage
under dc conditions is 5 V
The common base amplifier has a lower input resistance
compared to CE and CC amplifier
The voltage gain decreases when a FET with a lower
transconductance is substituted into a FET amplifier circuit
In the zero signal conditions, a transistor sees dc load
The current gain of an emitter follower is less than 1
The current in any branch of a transistor amplifier that is operating
is the sum of ac and dc
An ideal differential amplifiers common mode rejection ratio is
infinite
An open fuse circuit has a resistance equal to infinity
The purpose of dc conditions in a transistor is to set up
operating point
The ac variation at the output side of power supply circuits are
called ripples
The purpose of emitter capacitor is to avoid voltage drop in
gain
A common emitter circuit is also called grounded emitter circuit
The output signal of a common-collector amplifier is always in
phase with the input signal
Unity is the ideal maximum voltage gain of a common collector
amplifier
The output power of a transistor amplifier is more than the input
power due to additional power supplied by collector supply
When a transistor amplifier feeds a load of low resistance, its
voltage gain will be low
The capacitance are considered short in the ac equivalent circuit
of a transistor amplifier
For highest power gain, CE configuration is used
The most important characteristic of a common collector amplifier
is that it has high input resistance
CC configuration is used for impedance matching because its
input impedance is very high
Power stage is the other name of the output stage in an amplifier
When amplifiers are cascaded the overall gain is increased
In a common emitter amplifier, the capacitor from emitter to
ground is called bypass capacitor
A class A power amplifier uses one transistor/s
25% is the maximum collector efficiency of a resistance loaded
class A power amplifier
50% is the maximum collector efficiency of a transformer coupled
class A power amplifier
Class C amplifier are used as RF amplifiers
If the capacitor from emitter to ground in a common emitter
amplifier is removed, the voltage gain decreases
Comparatively, power amplifier has small beta
The driver stage usually employs class A power amplifier
The push-pull circuit must use class B operation
A complementary-symmetry amplifier has one PNP and one NPN
transistor
Power amplifiers generally use transformer coupling because
transformer coupling provides impedance matching
The output transformer used in a power amplifier is a/an step-
down transformer
Transformer coupling can be used in either power or voltage
amplifiers
When negative current feedback is applied to an amplifier, its
output impedance increases
The quiescent current of a FET amplifier is Id
The frequency response of the combined amplifier can be
compared with an AND gate
Minimum interference with frequency response can be given by
direct coupling
The impedance of a load must match the impedance of the
amplifier so that maximum power is transferred to the load
The ratio of output rms power in watts to the input dc power in
watts in the different amplifier class is called efficiency
The voltage gain of a common collector configuration is unity.
Transmit time is the time taken by the electrons on holes to pass
form emitter to collector
ENERGY CONVERSION
Cell – a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical
energy
Cell – a device that is capable of converting chemical energy into
electrical energy
Edison cell – a secondary cell whose active positive plate consists
of nickel hydroxide, and active negative-plate material is powdered
iron oxide mixed with cadmium. Its typical output when fully
charged is Vo = 1.2V
If a cell can be charged after it is depleted, it is considered as a
secondary cell, a storage cell, and an accumulator
Primary cell – cell that cannot be recharged which cannot restore
chemical reaction
Primary cell – a cell whose chemical reaction is not reversible
Battery – a voltage source in a single container made from one or
more cells combines in series, parallel, or series-parallel
A battery is used to supply a steady dc voltage
In a dry cell, the internal resistance increases as it aged
Flash current – the maximum current a cell can deliver through a
0.01 ohm load during testing
In batteries, the material used to insulate the positive plates from
negative plates are technically called separator
Leclanche cell – a primary cell with carbon and zinc as its positive
and negative electrodes respectively, and an electrolyte of either a
gel or paste. This is commonly known as dry cell
Silver-cadmium cell has a nominal open-circuit voltage of 1.05 V
Photovoltaic material – substance, which generates a voltage
when exposed to light
Photovoltaic cell – a cell whose voltage is generated as a
function of light
Silicon, Selenium, Germanium – substance used in photovoltaic
cells
Thermoelectric junction – a junction between two conductors
that exhibits electrical characteristic under condition of changing
temperature
Thermoelectricity – Electricity that is generated due to heat, as in
thermocouple
Prime mover – the source of mechanical power to turn the rotors
of alternators, large and small, A.C and D.C
Generators – electrical machines that convert mechanical energy
to electrical energy
Rotary converter – electrical machine that converts ac voltage to
dc voltage, or vice versa
Frequency converter – electrical machine that changes ac
voltage at one frequency to another ac voltage at another
frequency
Elementary generator – it consist of a single coil rotated in a
magnetic field and produces an A.C. voltage
Generation of voltage in a generator can only happen when there
is a relative motion between conducting wires and
magnetic line of force
Electro/permanent magnets and armature winding – two
essential parts in rotating generators
In electrical machines, armature winding is the set of conductors
wound on laminated cores of good magnetic permeability
In dc generator, commutator converts the alternating emf to DC
Generally, in dc generators, the armature winding is rotated
with respect to a stationary magnetic field produced by
electromagnets or permanent magnets
In electrical machines, ac voltage is generated at the armature
winding
Generally in ac generators, the electromagnets or permanent
magnets are rotated with respect to the stationary
armature winding
Self-excited shunt generator – a dc generator whose excitation
is produced by a winding connected to its own positive and
negative terminals
Field poles in electric machines are always an even number of
them
In a compound generator, series field winding usually has a
lower resistance
In dc-compound generator shunt field winding is relatively made
of fine wires
Voltage vs. load characteristic is important that you should
consider in choosing a dc-generator
The purpose of laminating the field poles and armature of a dc
machine is to reduce eddy current
An alternator with a lagging power factor of 0.8 will have a
greater than voltage regulation at unity power factor
With alternators connected in parallel, the frequency of the system
can be changed by changing the rpm of the prime movers
With alternators connected in parallel, the voltage of the system
can be changed by changing the field excitation
If an ac generator is to be driven from prime mover having variable
speed, such as aircraft engine, a constant speed drive (CSD)
must be used.
0% is the voltage regulation when the full load voltage is the same
as no-load voltage assuming a perfect voltage source
Hydraulic turbines are usually used to drive low-speed
alternators
Steam turbines are usually used to drive high-speed alternators
High-speed alternators are smaller then low-speed
Carbon brushes are widely used in dc machines because it
lubricates and polishes the contacts
Alternators have less chance to hunt if driven by steam turbines
In alternators, the purpose of damper windings is it prevents
hunting
Parallel operation is the term that applies to the use of two or
more generators to supply a common load
In paralleling ac generators, phase angle is very important
Jogging – description used for generators trying to self-adjust its
parameters before paralleling with on line generators
In changing power from one generator to another, No Break
Power Transfer (NBPT) is called when the operational sequence
wherein the incoming generator is connected first before removing
the existing generator
Break power transfer – the present on-line generator will be
disconnected first before connecting the incoming
generator
Alternators are rated in kVA
In electrical power distribution, main transmission lines is the
first distribution line from the main generating station
The lines which carry the energy from the transformer to a
customer’s service are called secondary distribution lines
In electrical power generating/distribution company, distribution
of power to the customers is their highest expenses
In electrical power distributions, porcelain insulator is generally
used
Motors – electrical machines that convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy
Synchronous type of ac-motor, uses a dc-generator to supply
dc-excitation to the rotating field
Generally in dc motors, the armature winding is supplied with
current; or the armature is placed inside a set of radially
supported magnetic poles
In ac motors, generally current is sent into the armature
winding; or the armature winding is usually placed in a
stationary laminated iron core and the rotating element
may or may not be a set of magnetic poles, it depends on
the type of motor
Among the dc motors, series produces the highest torque
Shunt – dc motor that has the most stable speed
In dc motor, during starting severe arcing happens
The primary reason why carbon brushes are preferred over copper
brushes in dc motors is because they produce less arcing
Counter emf or back emf – in dc motors, the emf developed
which opposes to the supplied voltage
To minimize arcing during starting of dc motors, a resistance
should be added to limit the current in the armature winding
Series dc motors’ speed is greatly affected by a change in load. It
will even run-away if the load is removed
Dc motors – motors whose speed can be easily controlled
When a dc motor has no load, the back emf becomes maximum
We get a maximum mechanical power from a dc motor Eb = 1/2V
The torque of a dc motor is directly proportional to the field
strength and armature current
Friction loss – one cause why the shaft torque is less than the
developed armature torque of a dc motor
Series – considered as a variable speed motor
The most common method used in varying the speed of a dc motor
is by varying the field strength
The running speed of a dc series motor is greatly affected by the
load
In choosing a motor for a particular application, you should
consider the speed-torque characteristic
The dc series motor will overspeed when its load is removed
Differentially compounded – a motor whose speed increases as
the load is increased
Flux and speed are the factors that affect iron losses in a dc
motor
One advantage of a cumulatively compounded motor is that it does
not run widely at light loads, this feature is due to shunt winding
In applications where an almost constant speed is required, a dc
shunt motor is a good choice
In applications where a high torque is needed during starting dc
series motor is preferred
In applications where sudden heavy loads happen for short
duration, a cumulatively compounded motor is the best choice
In motors of the same rating, dc shunt has the least starting
torque
Speed is a factor that affect friction and winding loses in dc motors
In dc motors, power loss is contributed greatly by copper loss
Dirt on the commutator may produce excessive sparking
Motor vibrations are usually caused by worn bearings
When a motor is overloaded, it will usually overheat
Dc series motor produces the highest increase in torque
considering the same increase in current
When an armature opens in dc motor, it may cause intermittent
sparking
Motors take large current during starting because there’s still a
low back emf
In dc motors, the speed will decrease with an increase in field
strength
When armature current is increased in a dc motor, its armature
reaction will also increase
To reduce sparking in dc motor, brushes are positioned such that
they will be with the direction of the rotation
Polyphase motors are best suited for heavy-load application
Dc shunt motor speed can be controlled electronically by using a
thyristor in series with the armature winding
SCR thyristor is commonly used in motor speed control
In controlling motor speed, the SCR control the firing angle
In motor speed control, trigger circuit is responsible for SCR firing
Rectifier – a circuit that converts ac-voltage to dc-voltage
Dc-converter – conversion from dc-voltage to another dc-voltage
Ac-converter – a converter that changes ac-voltage to another ac-
voltage level
Inverter must be used if one wished to change dc voltage into ac
voltage
cycloconverter – a converter that changes ac-voltage frequency
from one to another.
In electronic converters, square-wave signal is mostly used to
trigger the active device
A transformer consist of two coils wound on a common core
Transformer is considered by many as an efficient device due to
the fact that it is a static device
With transformer, copper loss is measured when performing
open-circuit test
Open-circuit test with transformers is always done on low-voltage
winding
Short-circuit test with transformers is always done on low-voltage
winding
When the transformer secondary winding is short-circuited, its
primary inductance will increase
Natural air cooling – cooling system for transformers with ratings
less than 5kVA
For transformers, zero efficiency happens when it has no-load
For transformers, maximum efficiency happens when copper loss
is equal to constant loss
In constructing transformers, the primary and secondary winding
should have tight magnetic coupling
Voltage per turn and ampere-turns are the two parameters in
transformer that are the same in both primary and secondary
In transformer, the amount of copper used in the primary is
almost equal as that of secondary
At very low frequencies, transformers work poorly because its
magnetizing current will be very high
If a power transformer is to be operated at very high frequency, it
will have a very high core loss
Primary and secondary are coupled electrically and
magnetically in autotransfomers
In a single-phase transformer, the core flux is alternating
The transformer might burn out when its primary is connected to
at DC supply
Generally, you consider the use of core-type transformer at high
voltage and low current applications
In current transformers, when its primary is energized the
secondary should never be open-circuited
An ideal transformer is the one with no losses and leakage
reactance
The effect of air gaps at the transformer core is it increases
magnetizing current
Eddy currents are wasteful current which flow in cores of
transformers and produces heat
Nothing will happen to the eddy current loss in transformers
when the load is increased
Leakage flux in transformers will cause voltage drop in the
windings
The increase in temperature in a transformer is mainly due to
apparent power
In transformers, the voltage per turn at the primary is the same
as the secondary
In transformer windings, the more number of turns the higher is
the voltage
Core-type transformers has a shorter magnetic path
Practically 85% is copper loss to the total loss in transformers
The purpose of laminating the core of a transformer is to
decrease eddy current loss
Large transformers have approximately an efficiency of 95%
The loss in a transformer due to the changing field is called
hysteresis loss
Coefficient of coupling – the ratio of the amount of magnetic flux
linking a secondary coil compared to the flux generated by the
primary coil
Mutual inductance between two coils can be decreased by moving
the coils apart
An advantage of full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier: the
tube will conduct during both halves of the input cycle
The circuit that converts ac-voltage to a dc-voltage is called a
rectifier
Half-wave – a rectifier that uses either the positive or negative
portion only of the main supply
For a half-wave rectifier, the average output voltage is 31.8% of
the maximum ac-voltage
121% - percent ripple of a half-wave rectifier
To double the capacity of the half-wave rectifier, a full-wave
rectifier, dual supply must be used
0.90 Vmax – the dc-voltage of a full-wave bridge rectifier
Vdc = 0.90 Vrms
0.48 – ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier
To improve the dc output voltage of a power supply, a filter
capacitor may be installed
Making the filter capacitor large in a power supply results to an
increase of the dc-voltage
In capacitor-filtered power supply, the ripple voltage drops to
zero if the load is disconnected
Multi-section LC-filter power supply filter gives the smallest
ripple voltage
Regulation is a better alternative to reduce further the ripples
Shunt regulator – a voltage regulator connected in parallel with
the load
Shunt regulator is the most inefficient
Zener diode – voltage reference element in most voltage
regulators
In voltage regulators, the control element controls the amount of
current, voltage and power
Op-amp – the element/device used as a comparator in most
voltage regulators
Voltage divider network – sampling circuit used in most voltage
regulators
Most voltage regulators use BJT as their control element
Switching regulators – the most efficient voltage regulator and is
therefore used in high-current high-voltage applications
78XX – three-terminal fixed positive voltage regulators commonly
used in industry
The regulated output voltage of a 7924 regulator is -24 V
317 – a three-terminal variable positive voltage regulator

337 three-terminal IC regulator has a variable negative voltage

output

In a three-terminal adjustable positive voltage regulator (317),

1.25 V is the band-gap voltage between the output terminal and
adjustment terminal

Typical ripple rejection of most three-terminal voltage regulators is

0.1%

The simplest way of protecting power supplies from reverse-

polarity / reverse-current flow is by a reverse-biased diode

A crowbar circuit is used as an over-voltage protection in

power supplies

Switching regulators dissipate less power and therefore generate

less heat

Active device used in switching regulators may experience large

over-currents during conduction (turn-on-state) and large over-
voltages during turn-off. These excessive currents and voltages
may cause distraction or damage of the active devices. We protect
them by installing a snubber circuit

Power conditioners clean-up or shape-up the utility-supply

voltage form disturbances such as, overvolt, undervolt, voltage
spikes, and harmonic distortions

Uninterruptible power supply – a power supply that

continuously provides protection against undervoltage, overvoltage
and even power outages
Power Generator / Sources / Principles / Applications
A battery is a group of cells that generate electric energy form
their internal chemical reaction
The main function of a batter is to provide a source of steady
dc voltage of fixed polarity
The volt is a unit of electromotive force
A transformer will work on ac only
In a chemical cell, current is the movement of positive and
negative ions
The speed of a dc motor is inversely proportional to flux per
pole
Low-speed alternators are driven by hydraulic turbines
High-speed alternators are driven by steam turbines
The common 9-V flat battery for transistor radio has six cells
connected in series
For the same rating, the size of low-speed alternator is more than
that of high speed alternator
Silver-zinc, nickel-iron, lead-acid are examples of secondary
cell
Carbon-zinc, zinc chloride, mercuric oxide are examples of
primary cell
12 V is the nominal output of an automotive battery having six
lead-acid cells in series
The brush voltage drop in a dc machine is about 2 V
Carbon brushes are used in a dc machine because carbon
lubricates and polishes the commutator
Carbon-zinc dry cell and lead-sulfuric wet cell are considered
as the main type of battery
The main function of a dc motor is to change electrical energy
to mechanical energy
Shunt motor has the best speed regulation
Voltaic cell – a method of converting chemical energy into electric
energy by dissolving two different conducting materials in an
electrolyte
A commulatively compounded motor does not run at dangerous
speed at light loads because of the presence of shunt winding
DC shunt motors are used in those applications where practically
constant speed is required
Galvanic cell is the other name of voltaic cell
For the same rating series motor has the highest starting torque
The voltage regulation of an alternator with a power factor of 0.8
lagging is greater than at unity power factor
Commulatively compounded motor is the most suitable for
punch presses
In a vacuum cleaner, series motor is generally used.
Sealed rechargeable cell – a type of secondary cell that can be
recharged but with an electrolyte that cannot be refilled
Silver-cadmium is a secondary cell with a nominal open-circuit
voltage of 1.1 V
Series is a variable speed motor
The most commonly used method of speed control of a dc motor is
by varying field strength
Electrochemical series and electromotive series give the
relative activity in forming ion charges for some of the chemical
elements
The ac armature winding of an alternator is always star-
connected
The air-gap in an alternator is much longer than in an induction
machine
Nickel-iron cell is a secondary cell with a nominal open-circuit
voltage output of 1.2 and is otherwise known as Edison cell
A dc series motor is most suitable for cranes
Commulatively compounded motors are suitable for elevators
The voltage output of a cell depends on its elements
The alternators driven by steam turbines do not have a tendency
to hunt
Damper windings are used in alternators to prevent hunting
Leclanche’ cell is the other name of carbon-zinc cell
The primary leakage flux link primary winding only
Overheating of a dc motor is often due to overloads
A small 9-V battery might be used to provide power to and
electronic calculator
The frequency of the system with which several alternators are
parallel can be increased by simultaneously increasing the
speed of prime movers of all generators
A transformer is an efficient device because it is a static device
The amount of back emf of a shunt motor will increase when the
field is strengthened
Three cells connected in series form a battery
Turns ratio can be found in a transformer with open-circuit test
Transformers having ratings less then 5kVA are generally natural
air cooled
An example of a rechargeable dc source is a lead-acid battery
The voltage of the bus-bar to which several alternators are
paralleled may be raised by simultaneously increasing field
excitation of all alternators
The rating of an alternator is expressed in kVA
Commulatively compounded motors are used in applications where
sudden heavy loads for short duration is required
Series motor never uses belt-connected load
A stand-alone solar power system uses solar panels and
batteries
A transformer will have zero efficiency at no-load
The efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper
loss is equal to constant loss
The armature winding of a dc machine is a closed-circuit winding
The speed at which a 6-pole alternator should be driven to
generate 50 cycles per second is 1000 rpm
Connecting batteries of equal voltage in parallel multiplies the
current available
Lead-acid battery – a storage battery in which the electrodes are
grids of lead containing lead oxide that change in composition
during charging and discharging and the electrolyte is dilute
sulfuric acid
Leclanche cell – the common dry cell, which is a primary cell
having a carbon positive electrode and a zinc negative electrode in
an electrolyte of sal ammoniac and a depolarizer
The maximum flux produced in the core of transformer is
inversely proportional to supply frequency
A transformer is so designed that primary and secondary windings
have tight magnetic coupling
For carbon-zinc cells in series will provide about 6 Vdc
Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the
battery are always connected to each other for supplying current to
the load
Universal motor – a series motor designed to operate on dc or ac
Ward-Leonard system – combination of ac motor, dc generator,
and exciter to provide adjustable voltage dc power to a dc motor
A motor takes a large current at starting because back emf is low
A series motor will overspeed when load is removed
When the load on an armature is increased, the terminal voltage
increases if the load power factor is leading
The efficiency of the turbo-alternator increases with increase in
speed.
2.1 V is the output of a lead-acid cell
In an alternator, the effect of armature reaction is minimum at
power factor of unity
For given number of poles (>2) and armature conductors, a lap
winding will carry more current than a wave winding
An 8-pole duplex lap winding will have 16 parallel paths
To increase voltage output, cells are connected in series
To increase current capacity, cells are connected in parallel
Two things which are same for primary and secondary of a
transformer are ampere-turns and voltage per turn
A transformer operates poorly at very low frequencies because
magnetizing current is abnormally high
In an auto transformer, the primary and secondary are
magnetically as well as electrically coupled
Faure storage battery – a storage battery in which the plates
consist of lead-antimony supporting grids covered with a lead oxide
paste, immersed in weak sulfuric acid
Nickel-cadmium cell is a dry storage cell
The field structure of a dc machine uses salient-pole
arrangement
Small dc machines generally have 2 poles
The armature of a dc machine is laminated in order to reduce
eddy current loss
To produce an output of 7.5V, 5 carbon-zinc cells are connected in
series
The demand for a large increase in torque of a dc series motor is
met by a large decrease in speed
As the load increases, a differentially compounded motor will
speed up
The flux in the core of a single-phase transformer is purely
alternating one
The primary of a transformer may burn out when connected to
a dc supply
A constant-voltage source has low internal resistance
If the excitation of an alternator operating in parallel with other
alternators is increased above the normal value of excitation, its
power factor becomes more lagging
The synchronous reactance of an alternator is generally 10 to 100
times greater than armature resistance
DC series motors are used in those applications where high
starting torque is required
A dc motor is still used in industrial applications because it
provides fine speed control
The stator of an alternator is wound for the same number of
poles as on the rotor
Carbon brushes are preferred compared to copper brushes they
reduce sparking
The synchronous reactance of an alternator decreases as the iron
is saturated
A 4-pole dc machine has 4 magnetic circuits
The current in armature conductors of a dc machine is ac
The ac armature winding of an alternator operates at much
higher voltage than the field winding
The field poles and armature of a dc machine are laminated to
reduce eddy current
The back emf or counter emf in dc motor opposes the applied
voltage
The synchronous reactance of an alternator is due to armature
reaction
Back emf in a dc motor is maximum at no load
The mechanical power developed in a dc motor is maximum when
back emf is equal to one-half the applied voltage
The core-type transformer is generally suitable for high voltage
and small output
The transformer that should never have the secondary open-
circuited when primary is energized is current transformer
The field winding of an alternator is dc excited
The salient-pole construction for field structure of an alternator is
generally used for 8-pole machine
When the speed of a dc motor increases, its armature current
decreases
The frequency of emf generated in an 8-pole alternator running at
900 rpm is 60 Hz
In case of a 4-pole machine, 1 mechanical degree corresponds to 2
electrical degrees
The torque developed by a dc motor is directly proportional to flux
per pole times armature current
Induction motor – ac machine in which the torque is produced by
the interaction of currents in the stator and currents induced in the
motor by transformer action
Synchronous motor – machine in which torque is produced by
the interaction of ac currents in the stator and dc currents in the
rotor turning in synchronism
The main drawback of a dc shunt generator is that terminal
voltage drops considerably with load
DC machines which are subjected to abrupt changes of load are
provided with compensating windings
The shaft torque in a dc motor is less than total armature torque
because of iron and friction losses in the motor
Armature reaction in a dc motor is increased when the armature
current increases
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses and leakage
reactance
If a power transformer is operated at very high frequencies, then
core losses will be excessive
With respect to the direction of rotation, interpoles on a dc motor
must have the same polarity as the main poles behind them
The open-circuit test on a transformer is always made on low-
voltage winding
In the short circuit test in a transformer, low-voltage winding is
generally short-circuited
In a dc motor, the brushes are shifted from the mechanical neutral
plane in a direction opposite to the rotation to reduce sparking
The number of cycles generated in a 6-pole alternator in one
revolution is 3
If the lagging load power factor of an alternator is decreased, the
demagnetizing effect of a armature reaction is increased
In very large dc motors with severe heavy duty, armature reaction
effects are corrected by using compensatory windings in
addition to interpoles
The amount of copper in the primary is about the same as that of
secondary
The open-circuit test on a transformer gives iron losses
The speed of a shunt motor is practically constant
The running speed of a dc series motor is basically determined by
load
If the excitation of an alternator operating in parallel with other
alternators is decreased, its power factor becomes more
leading
The distribution of load between two alternators operating in
parallel can be changed by changing driving torques of prime
movers
After a shunt motor is up to speed, the speed may be increased
considerably by decreasing field circuit resistance
When the secondary of a transformer is short-circuited, the primary
inductance is decreased
For the same rating, shunt motor has the least starting torque
The deciding factor in the selection of a dc motor for a particular
application is its speed-torque characteristic
The rotor of a turbo-alternator is made cylindrical in order to
reduce windage losses
The disadvantage of a short-pitched coil is that voltage round
the coil is reduced
The demand for a large increase in torque of a dc shunt motor is
met by a large increase in current
For 20% increase in current, the motor that will give the greatest
increase in torque is series motor
Lead sulfide cell – a cell used to detect infrared radiation; either
its generated voltage or its change of resistance may be used as a
measure of the intensity of the radiation
Local cell – a galvanic cell resulting from difference in potential
between adjacent areas on the surface of a metal immersed in an
electrolyte
Series motor is used to start heavy loads
When load is removed, the motor that will run at the highest speed
is the series motor
The friction and windage losses in a dc motor depends upon speed
If a transformer core has air gaps, then magnetizing current is
greatly increased
The effect of leakage flux in a transformer is to cause voltage
drop in the windings
The iron losses in a dc motor depend upon both flux and speed
The greatest percentage of power loss in dc motor is due to
copper loss
Excessive sparking at the brushes may be caused due to dirt on
the commutator
The temperature rise of a transformer is directly proportional to
apparent power
Magnetization curve – a graphical relation between the
generated emf and field current of a machine
Majority of alternators in use have revolving field type
construction
The stator of an alternator is identical to that of a 3-phase
induction motor
Excessive motor vibration is caused by worn bearings
Hot bearings of a dc motor may be caused by lack of or dirty
lubricant
Intermittent sparking at the brushes of dc motor may be caused
due to an open armature coil
When load on a transformer is increased, the eddy current loss
remains the same
The yoke of a dc machine is made of cast steel
The armature of a dc machine is made of silicon steel
The voltage per turn of the primary of a transformer is the same
as the voltage per turn of the secondary
The winding of the transformer with greater number of turns will be
high-voltage winding
The coupling field between electrical and mechanical systems of a
dc machine is magnetic field
The real working part of a dc machine is the armature winding
4-pole dc machines are most common
The core-type transformer provides shorter magnetic path
The greatest percentage of heat loss in a dc machine is due to
copper loss
The size of a dc generator can be reduced by using magnetic
material of high permeability

Compound machine – a machine with field excitation by both

shunt and series windings

The armature winding of a dc machine is placed on the rotor to

facilitate commutation

The yoke of a dc machine carries one-half of pole flux

The greatest eddy current loss occurs in the armature of a dc

machine

The commentator pitch for a simplex lap winding is equal to 1

In a simplex wave winding, the number of parallel path is equal to

2

In a practical transformer, copper losses account to 85% of the

total losses

By laminating the core of a transformer, eddy current loss

decreases

The number of parallel paths in a simplex lap winding is equal to

number of poles

In a dc machine, the number of commutator segments is equal to

number of coils

A dc compound generator having full-load terminal voltage equal to

the no-load voltage is called flat-compounded generator

The terminal voltage of a series generator varies widely with

changes in load current
The nature of armature winding of a dc machine is decided by
commutator pitch

The voltage regulation of an alternator is larger than that of a dc

generator because of complex effects of armature reaction

High-voltage dc machine use wave winding

In a lap winding, the number of the brushes required is equal to

number of poles

The approximate efficiency of a large transformer is 95%

In a wave winding, the commutator pitch is approximately equal to

twice the pole pitch

A triplex wave winding will have 6 parallel paths

For a given dc generator, the generated voltage depends upon

both speed and flux

For the same rating, a dc machine has more weight than an ac

machine

Slip – difference between the speeds of rotating magnetic field and

the associated rotor

The field winding of a dc shunt motor usually carries 2% to 5% of

ht rated current of the machine

A separately excited dc generator is not used because a separate

dc source is required for field circuit

The effect of armature reaction is to decrease the total flux

In a dc generator, armature reaction weakens the flux at the

leading pole tip
ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTATIONS
Accuracy – the degree of exactness of measurement when
compared to the expected value of the variable being measured
Measurement – the art, or process of determining the existence
of knowing the magnitude of something, directly or indirectly in
terms of a recognized standard
Test – a procedure, or sequence of operations for determining
whether a component or equipment is functioning or working
normally
In measurement, accuracy is the degree of exactness compared
to the expected value of the variable being measured
A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements is
called precision
Precision is also known as reproducibility
In measurements, the sum of a set of numbers divided by the total
number of pieces of data in the given set is called arithmetic
mean
Error – the deviation of a reading form the expected value
Instrument errors – errors due to frictions of the meter
movement, incorrect spring tension, improper calibration or faulty
instruments
When an instrument is subjected to harsh environments such as
high temperature, strong magnetic, electrostatic, or
electromagnetic field, it may have a detrimental effects and cause
errors known as environmental errors
Observation errors – errors introduced by the observer or user
Parallax error – errors in analog meter reading due to your
physical position with respect to the meter scale
Deviation – the difference between any number within the set of
numbers and the arithmetic mean of that set of numbers
Standard instrument/device – an instrument or device having
recognized permanent or stable value that is used as a reference
Resolution – the smallest change in a measured variable to which
an instrument will respond
Instrument – a device or mechanism used to determine the value
of a quantity under observation
Amepe is the basic unit for measuring current flow
An instrument used to detect and measure the presence of
electrical current is generally called galvanometer
D’ Arsonoval is the common type of meter moving
D’ Arsonoval meter movement – a permanent-magnet moving-
coil instrument
Moving-iron instrument – an instrument which depends on
current in one or more fixed-coils acting on one of more pieces of
soft iron, at least one of which is movable
Moving-magnet instrument – depends on the action of a
movable permanent magnet, in aligning itself in the resultant field,
produced either by a fixed permanent magnet and an adjacent coil
or coils carrying current, or by two or more current-carrying coils
whose axes are displaced by a fixed angle
Thermocouple ammeter is mostly used in measuring high-
frequency currents
Measurement of high dc-voltages is usually done by using
electrostatic
Electrostatic – measuring instrument that can be used only to
measure voltages
Pyrometer – this instrument measures temperatures by electric
means, especially temperatures beyond the range of mercury
thermometers
Pyranometer – this instrument refers to that one, which measures
the intensity of the radiation, received from any portion of the sky
Infinity is the normal indication on a megger (megaohmmeter)
when checking insulation
Megaohmmeter, megger – Resistance measuring instrument
particularly used in determining the insulation resistance
Wattmeter – an electrodynamic meter used to measure power
Dynamometer – a device used to mechanically measure the
output power of a motor
Electrodynamometer – an indicating instrument whose movable
coils rotate between two stationary coils, usually used as
wattmeter
Dynamometers are mostly used as wattmeter
Air friction damping method is generally used in dynamometers
Wattmeter dynamometer instrument has a uniform scale
For a dynamometer to be able to measure high current, a current
transformer should be used
Error in voltmeter reading is due to loading
Error in ammeter reading is due to insertion
An ohmmeter type of meter requires its own power source
Error in ohmmeter reading is due to battery aging
Decreasing the value of the shunt resistor of an ammeter, its
current measuring capability increases
Increasing the value of the series resistor of a voltmeter, its voltage
measuring capability increases
Clamp probe – a device that is used to measure current without
opening the circuit
Clamp-meter ammeter has no insertion error
To prevent damage of the multirange ammeter during selection, an
Ayrton shunt should be used
For the greatest accuracy, the input impedance of a VOM should be
as large as possible
Voltage measurement in a high impedance circuit requires a
voltmeter with high input impedance
In order to make an accurate measurement as possible, the
internal resistance of a voltmeter must be as high as possible
The purpose of the rheostat in ohmmeter is to compensate the
aging battery of the meter
The zero-adjust control in an analog type ohmmeter is used to
compensate for the differing internal battery voltage
The scale of a hot wire instrument is a squared function
Moving iron instruments have a scale function that is squared
To increase the measuring capability of a moving-iron ac ammeter,
a different number of turns of operating coil should be used

PMMC electrical instrument is the most sensitive
Basically, a PMMC instrument can be used only in dc
measurement
Spring action – controlling torque in PMMC
Eddy current damping method is used in induction type
ammeter
Induction type instruments are mostly used as watt-hour meter
In indicating instruments, the controlling torque increases if the
deflection becomes greater
Controlling torque and deflecting torque are forces that are
acting on the pointer of an indicating instrument as it rest on its
final deflected position
Controlling, damping, and deflecting torques are the forces
acting on the pointer of an indicating instrument when it is in
motion
Aluminum – material that is mostly used as a pointer in indicating
instrument
A Kelvin electrostatic voltmeter uses fluid friction method of
damping
Shunts in meters should have a very small temperature
coefficient of resistance
In a moving coil ammeter, a swamping resistor is connected in
series with the coil to compensate for temperature variations
We use the dynamometer in dc and ac
Electrostatic instrument – meter that depends for its operation
on the forces of attraction and repulsion between electrically
charged bodies
Induction instrument – instrument that depends for its operation
on the reaction between magnetic flux set up by currents in fixed
windings and other currents set up by electromagnetic induction in
movable conduction parts
Permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument – a meter that for
its operation, it depends on a movable iron vane which aligns itself
in the resultant field of a permanent magnet and an adjacent
current carrying coil
Vane-type instrument uses the force of repulsion between fixed
and movable magnetized iron vanes, or the force between a coil
and a pivoted vane-shaped piece of soft iron to move the indicating
pointer
Kelvin voltmeter – its an electrostatic voltmeter in which an
assembly of figure 8 shaped metal plates rotates between the
plates of a stationary assembly when a voltage is applied between
the assemblies. The length of the arc of rotation is proportional to
the electrostatic attraction and thus, to the applied voltage
Magnetometer is an instrument used for measuring the strength
and direction of magnetic field
Varmeter and reactive volt-ampere meter are the instrument
used for measuring reactive power in vars
Bridge is a circuit that has four or more arms, by means of which
one or more of the electrical constants of an unknown component
may be measured
Resistance bridge, wheatstone bridge – a four-arm bridge. All
arms of which are predominantly resistive; used for measuring
resistance
Varley loop – this is a method of using a Wheatstone bridge to
determine the distance from the test point to a fault in a telephone
or telegraph line or cable
Maxwell bridge – this refers to a four-arm ac bridge used for
measuring inductance against a standard capacitance
Hay bridge – refers to an ac bridge for measuring the inductance
and Q of an inductor in terms of resistance, frequency and a
standard capacitance
Kelvin double bridge – this is a special bridge for measuring very
low resistance (0.1 or less). The arrangement of the bridge reduces
the effects of contact resistance, which causes significant error
when such low resistance are connected to conventional resistance
bridges
Schering bridge – a type of four-arm capacitance bridge in which
the unknown capacitance is compared with a standard
capacitance. This bridge is frequently employed in testing
electrolytic capacitors, to which a dc polarizing voltage is applied
during the measurement
Wein bridge – a frequency-sensitive bridge in which two adjacent
arms are resistances and the other two arm are RC combinations
When the capacitors of a Wien bridge are replaced by inductors,
the bridge becomes Wein inductance bridge
Slide-wire bridge – a simplified version of the Wheatstone bridge
wherein, two of the ratio arms are replaced by a 100 cm long
Manganin of uniform cross-sections and provided with a slider
Radio-frequency bridge – bridge used to measure both inductive
and capacitive impedances at higher frequencies
Balance bridge – a bridge wherein all legs are electrically
identical
Spectrum analyzer is an electronic instrument capable of
showing on screen and maybe on print, relative spacing of
transmitter carriers, their sidebands and harmonics
Spectrum analyzer – an instrument capable of displaying
simultaneously the amplitude of signals having different
frequencies
A spectrum analyzer is a real-time analyzer
Indications of spectrum analyzer is presented by means of a CRT
Oscilloscope – an electronic measuring device that provide
instantaneous visual indication of voltage excursions
Oscilloscope – an instrument that is capable of displaying
waveforms by means of a fluorescence in a CRT
Storage oscilloscope – types of oscilloscopes that are able to
retain the display for a longer period for analysis. The display is
retained by the use of flood gun
Sampling oscilloscope uses sampling technique in processing
signals having frequencies beyond its normal capabilities
Generally, oscilloscope uses electrostatic deflection
Signal generators – a device or instrument, which delivers
signals of precise frequency and amplitude, usually over a wide
range
The two most common audio oscillators are Wein bridge and
phase-shift
The two most popular RF oscillators are Colpitts and Hartley
Noise generator – a device or instrument able to generate noise
with accurate voltage for test purposes
You need a noise generator when evaluating noise
characteristics of an amplifier

In RF or microwave system, reflectometer is used to measure the

incidental and reflected signals

Reflectometer – a type of photometer used to measure reflection

Dip meter – a tunable RF instrument, which, by means of a sharp

dip of an indicating meter, indicates resonance with an external
circuit under test

Grid-dip meter – a type of dip meter employing a vacuum tube

oscillator, whose indicating dc microammeter is in the grid circuit

In meter movement, you prevent the meter from oscillation and

overswing by damping

When the meter is insufficiently damped, it is considered as

underdamped

A meter when overdamped will become insensitive to small

signals
Test and Measurement
An ammeter is an indicating instrument
As the deflection of the moving system increases, the controlling
torque in an indicating instrument increases
D’Arsonval is the best type of meter movement
Wattmeter dynamometer type has uniform scale
When both deflecting and controlling torque act, the pointer of an
indicating instrument comes to rest
The output voltage of a thermocouple increases with
temperature
Analog instrument – an instrument in which the magnitude of the
measured quantity is indicated by means of a pointer
If the pointer of an indicating instrument is in motion, damping
and controlling torques oppose the deflecting torque
Electrical currents can be induced with a coil and a magnet by
moving either the magnet or the coil
The fuse should never be replaced with a higher rated unit
The pointer of an indicating instrument is generally made of
aluminum
The time interval that a waveform is high (or low) is the pulse
width of the signal
A Wheatstone bridge is balanced if the ratio of resistors on one
side of the bridge equals the ratio of resistors on the other
side
The pointer of an indicating instrument is in the final deflected
position, the damping torque is zero
Deflecting force – a moving system force in analog instruments
which causes the moving system to deflect from its zero position
Controlling force – a moving system force in analog instruments
which ensures that the deflection of the pointer for a given value of
measured quantity always has the same value
All voltmeters except electrostatic is operated by the passage of
current
Disc is made of conductor and non-magnetic material in eddy
current damping
The time interval between pulses is called pulse delay
An oscilloscope provides easy measurement of peak to peak
values
Fuse is an element in electronics which serves as a protection
against overlead
Diode sensor provides a dc voltage approximately 1V to 10 mW
Hot-wire instrument has a squared scale
For time measurements, horizontal scale of the scope is used
Fluid friction damping is employed in Kelvin electrostatic
voltmeter
Current range extension in moving coil instruments can be
achieved by placing a low resistance resistor in shunt with the
instrument
Permanent-magnet moving coil instrument can be used in dc work
only
Control grid CRT element provides for control of the number of
electrons passing farther into the tube
Orthogonal nulling refers to garaging the two adjustments of an
AC bridge together in such a way that changing one adjustment
changes the other in a special way, but changing the second
adjustment does not change the first
When the vertical input is 0V, the electron beam may be positioned
at the vertical center of the screen
The reason why the scale of a permanent-magnet moving coli
instrument is uniform is because it is spring controlled
Thermal converters – a sensing element that provides a dc
voltage less than 10mV with typical power range of 0.1 to 100 mW
Tank circuit frequency can be measured by Grid-dip meter
Shunts are generally made of Manganin material
1 μA meter is the most sensitive
A dynamometer instrument is mainly used as a wattmeter
Dynamometer movement is the most expensive
Attraction and repulsion instrument are considered as moving-
iron instruments
In wheatstone bridge, bridge balance is a condition where there is
no current that flows through the load
The temperature coefficient of resistance of the shunt material is
negligible
In VTVMS, zero adjust is used to balance both halves of the
difference amplifier or cathode-coupled amplifier
In an oscilloscope, intensity control adjusts the brightness of the
spot by changing the voltage on the control grid
Damping force – a force in analog instrument which quickly
brings the moving system to rest in its final position
A small swamping resistance is connected in series with operating
coil of a moving coil ammeter in order to compensate for the
effects of temperature variation
The typical power range of diode sensor is 0.1 nW to 10 mW
A milliameter operates on the magnetic attraction-repulsion
principles
Wheatstone bridge – a dc bridge widely used for the accurate
measurement of resistance
Potentiometer bridge is a dc bridge that is very useful for
making extremely accurate voltage measurements
Majority of the analog measuring instrument utilizes magnetic
effect
Multimeter typically provides measurement of rms values (for a
sinusoidal waveform)
Dynamometer type instrument can be used for both dc and ac
works
Permanent-magnet moving coil is an instrument in which
springs provide the controlling torque as well as serve to lead
current into and out of the operating coil
In VTVMS, sensitivity refers to the smallest signal that can be
reliably measured
The frequency of rotation in some rotating machinery can be
measured by a Spectral meter
An instrument used for observing voltage and current waveforms is Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) provides a visual presentation
the oscilloscope of any waveform applied to the input terminals

An electrostatic force does not act on the moving systems of
analog instrument
When current through the operating coil of a moving-iron
instrument is tripled the operating force becomes nine times
50 mA is the typical full-scale deflection current of a moving coil
instrument
Ammeter – an instrument used for measuring the amount of
current flowing in a circuit
The interval of a pulse from start to end is the period of the pulse
Cathode ray tube (CRT) is considered as the “heart” of the
cathode ray oscilloscope
Phosphor – a material that glows when struck by the energetic
electrons in a CRT
Thermiston sensor provides a change of resistance with typical
power range of 1 μW to 10 mW and with maximum frequency
greater than 100 GHz

DMM – a type of meter that gives a precise reading of voltage,
current or resistance where there is the generation of samples at
the input and then feeds it to a digital read-out
50 mV is the typical full-scale voltage across a moving coil
voltmeter
Most AC voltmeters have an rms scale which is valid only if the
input signal being measured is a sinusoidal signal
Wheatstone bridge measures dc resistance
Hay bridge is used to measure high-Q inductors (Q>10)

The period of a repetitive signal is one cycle of the waveform Maxwell bridge measures an unknown inductance in terms of
known capacitance
Cathode – an element of a CRT that releases electrons when
heated indirectly by a filament Maxwell bridge is used for measuring medium Q coils (1<Q<10)

Moving-iron instrument has a squared scale
A pattern displayed by oscilloscope which has a steady
characteristic is called Lissajous
Changing the number of turns of operating coil extends the
range of a moving-iron ac ammter
Sawtooth generator is not a basic part of a CRT
Wien bridge has a series RC combination in one arm and a
parallel RC combination in the adjoining arm and used as a notch
filter in harmonic distortion analyzer
Sensitivity of a voltmeter is express in ohm/volt
The smallest change in applied stimulus that will indicate a
detectable change in deflection in an indicating instrument is called
resolution

For amplitude measurements, vertical scale is calibrated in either Insulation material is measured by Megger
volts per centimeter (V/cm), or millivolts per centimeter (mV/cm)

Thermocouple ammter is used to measure high-frequency

currents

Electrostatic is used for measuring high direct voltage

A common technique for measuring power at high frequency is to

employ a sensing element that converts the RF power to a
measurable dc or low-frequency signal

The CRT provides the visual displaying showing the form of the
signal applied as a waveform on the front screen of a cathode ray
oscilloscope.

Electrostatic instruments are exclusively used as voltmeters

0.1 μW to100 μW is the typical power range of thermocouple

sensors

An electric pyrometer is an instrument used to measure high

temperature

Permanent-magnet moving coil is the most sensitive

Induction watt-hour meter is the most commonly used induction

type instrument

An integrating type of instrument is the watt-hour meter

Indicating instrument is assumed to be most accurate at half of

full part of the scale

On a simple ohmmeter, the 0 ohm mark is located at far right of

the scale

One of the basic functions of electronic circuit is the generation

and manipulation of electronic waveshapes
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
Breaker – one type of circuit control device which may be manual,
automatic or multi-contact
Switching a tapped inductor and using a saturable reactor
are the common methods of controlling electrical power with
reactance
Saturable reactor – a reactive device used in controlling
electrical power by using two windings on a common iron core. The
control winding is supplied with small dc-current which causes the
reactance of a large ac-winding to change accordingly
Magnetic amplifier – a saturable reactor with regenerative
feedback
Thyratrons in industrial electronics refers to gas-filled triode
Ignitrons – an electronic switch that has the highest single-device
current capacity and can withstand overloads better
SCR – a semiconductor, electronic switch that has the highest
single-device current rating
The purpose of installing thyrectors across the incoming power
lines to the speed control system is to protect drive circuits
from high voltage transient surges
Semiconductor devices equivalent to thyratrons are generally
called thyristor
Phase control power control switching method greatly generates
RFI or EMI and is therefore limited to low-frequency applications
One of the electronic semiconductor devices known as diac,
function as two terminal bi-directional switch
Bidirectional-trigger diac trigger diode has the highest holding
voltage
Break-over devices – general term of electronic devices used to
control or trigger large-power switching devices
Trigger diode – a break-over device that is basically a diode
SCR – a four-element solid state device that combines the
characteristics of both diodes and transistors
SCR - the most popular thyristor used in electrical power
controllers
Conducting and non-conducting are the two stable operating
conditions of an SCR
To stop conduction during which SCR is also conducting, interrupt
anode current
To turn “ON” or trigger an SCR is by making the gate positive
with respect to its cathode
The anode to cathode continues to conduct even if the gate
triggering voltage is removed
Holding voltage – the voltage across the anode and cathode
terminals of an SCR when conducting
Holding current – the minimum amount of current needed for an
SCR to conduct continuously
Breakback voltage – the voltage decreased across the anode and
cathode of an SCR from non-conducting state to conducting state
Minimum-gate trigger voltage is the needed voltage at the gate
of an SCR before it conducts
Water cooling is the only recommended to be used for the largest
power dissipating device
To increase the forward-voltage blocking capability of SCRs we
connect them in series
In connecting two SCRs in series, during “OFF” state, the voltage
source must be properly shared between them, but due to devices’
difference, there might be unequal voltages across each SCR, we
equalize these voltages by using a blocking-equalizing
resistor
Snubber circuit – a circuit used for voltage equalization during
ON-OFF switching action of SCRs in series
In controlling electrical power using phase control method with
SCR/triac being the active device, firing delay angle is the period
of the cycle before the device switches to conduction
SBS – a three terminal device that behaves roughly like SCR,
except that it can conduct current in either direction when at ON.
Gate, anode 1 and anode 2 are the three terminals of a TRIAC
SUS – a thyristor that is very similar to an SCR except that it has
low voltage and current ratings. It is very temperature stable, and
is therefore suitable to be used as a triggering device
Silicon unilateral switches (SUSs) generally have a breakover
voltage of 8 V, however, this value can be altered by normally
connecting a zener diode. The diode is installed by diode’s
cathode to SUS’s gate and diode’s anode to SUS’s cathode
Shockley diode – thyristor whose characteristic curve closely
resembles that of SCR’s and SUS’s, except that its forward
breakover voltage (+VBO) is not alterable, for the device has no
gate terminal
The forward breakdown or breakover voltage of SCRs and triacs
will decrease if the gate current is increased
For a unijunction transistor (UJT) to switch ON, the voltage
between the emitter and base 1 should be greater than the
peak voltage with emitter being more positive
In selecting thyristors for a particular application, thyristors with
high breakdback-voltage is generally desirable
Portion in the welding process interval during which the welding
current is flowing is called heat sub-interval
In automatic welding system, basically there are 5 intervals
In automatic welding, squeeze interval is the first interval
wherein the material to be welded are held together
After the squeeze interval, weld interval comes next in the
automatic welding system
During welding or weld interval, when a welding current is flowing
the system is said to be at heat subinterval
Cool subinterval – the portion of the weld interval during which
the current is absent
After the welding interval, it goes to hold interval wherein the
electrode pressure is maintained on the metal surfaces
Next to hold interval is release interval in automatic welding
system
After the release interval in automatic welding, the system will go
to standby interval
Open-loop system – refers to the system that has no feedback
and is not self correcting
The system is overdamped if a position servo system does not
respond to small changes in the input
The purpose of using a differential synchro instead of a
regular synchro is that differential synchros can handle
more signals and also performs addition and subtraction
function
Open-loop – industrial circuit or system that is not self-correcting
Closed-loop is a circuit or system that is self-correcting
Open-loop in control system means: it has no feedback, it is not
self-correcting, it is not self-regulating
Hydraulic fluid actuators has the greatest force capability
Hydraulic actuator requires the highest initial cost
Hydraulic robot actuator has the highest operating cost
Hydtraulic - the most messy robot actuator
Hard interrupt – a robot software or program that produces only
two-position motion for a given robot axis

In control system, closed-loop means: it has feedback, it is self-
correcting, it is self-regulating
When a closed-loop system is used to maintain physical position it
is referred as servo system
In closed-loop control system, error is the difference in the
measured value and the set value or desired value
Error signal in closed-loop systems is also known as difference
signal, deviation, system deviation
In a closed-loop control system, when the error signal is zero the
system is at null
Point-to-point program – a robot program that has the ability to
move a robot to any position within the range but without specific
path
Continuous path program – a robot program that has the ability
to move a robot to any position within the range with specific path
When a robot moves on several axis at the same time, it is to have
compound motion
In robotics, SCARA means Selective Compliant Articulated
Robot Arm or Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm
SCARA Robots has 4 axis of motion

Offset – the small error signal or system deviation where the SCARA Robots are designed for assembling
system cannot correct anymore
SCARA Robots are attractive in industry because it is relatively
A good closed-loop control system has the following characteristics: cheaper
with very small offset signal or voltage, quick response,
highly stable

In control system, the manner in which the controller reaats to an

error is termed as mode of control

On-off – mode of control wherein the controller has only tow

operating states. This mode is also known as ban-bang control

Proportional is a mode of control wherein the controller has a

continuous range of possible position, not just two as in bang-bang
control

Proportional plus integral – proportional mode of control

wherein the controller is not only considering the magnitude of the
error signal but as well as the time that it has persisted

Proportional plus derivative – proportional mode of control

wherein the controller is not only considering the magnitude of the
error signal but as well as its rate of change

Error signal magnitude, error signal period of occurrence,

and error signal rate of change are being considered in
Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative mode of control

If on-off mode of control is the simplest, proportional plus

integral plus derivative is its opposite or the most complex

The articulated arm and cylindrical are two of the most

common mechanical configuration of industrial robots

One advantage of hydraulic actuator in industrial robots include

great force capability handling heavy loads

Hydraulic and Pneumatic includes two of the actuator type used

in industrial robots

Servo – a system in which the precise movement of a large load is

controlled by a relatively weak signal

Industrial robot – a programmable, multifunction manipulator

designed to move materials, parts, tools or specific devices

Robotics – the technology for automations

The number of axis a robot is free to move is called degrees of

freedom
Industrial Electronics / Principles / Applications
Radiation sensing – is nucleonic sensing method employing
usually one or more radioisotope sources and radiation detectors
EEG – concerned with the measurement of electric signals on the
scalp which arise from the underlying neutral activity in the brain
(including synaptic sources)
In therapeutic radiology and in nuclear medicine, the energies of
interest range from about 100 to 10000 keV
SCS is a four-layer diode with an anode gate and a cathode gate
Diac is basically a two-terminal parallel-inverse combination of
semiconductor layers that permits triggering in either direction
The typical value of the interbase resistance of a UJT is between 4
to 10 kohm
PUT stands for Programmable Unijunction Transistor
Diac thyristor conducts current in both direction when turned on
SCR is a three terminal device used to control large current to a
load
Seebeck effect – another term for thermoelectric effect
Forward blocking region and Reverse blocking region are
the regions corresponding to open-circuit condition for the
controlled rectifier which block the flow of charge from anode to
cathode
The V-I characteristics for a triac in the first and third quadrants are
essentially identical to those of SCR in the first quotation
When the temperature increases, the inter-base resistance of a UJT
increases
The three terminals of a triac are two main terminals and a
gate terminal
A triac is equivalent to two SCRs in inverse-parallel
In diagnostic radiology and for superficial therapy purpose, the
energy spectrum of radiation varies from about 10 to 100 keV
The x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum has a
corresponding range of wavelengths from 0.1 to 0.0001 nm
The three terminals of an SCR are the cathode, anode, gate
An SCR have four semiconductor layers
A triac is a bidirectional switch
The normal way to turn on an SCR is by appropriate anode
current
A triac can pass a portion of both positive and negative half-
cycle through the load
A diac has two terminals
An SCR combines the features of a rectifier and transistor
Gate is the control element in an SCR
A triac have four semiconductor layer
A diac has three semiconductor layer
The p-type emitter of a UJT is heavily doped
A diac has two pn junction
A UJT is sometimes called double-based diode
A diac is an AC switch
An SCR is made of silicon and not germanium because silicon has
low leakage current
Gate is the control element in an SCR
Rate effect – an effect that reduces the possibility of accidental
triggering of the SCS
Sawtooth generator is a common application of UJT
Diac does not have a gate terminal
An SCR is a current triggered device
When a UJT is turned on the resistance between emitter terminal
and lower base terminal decreases
A UJT has one pn junction
The UJT may be used as a sawtooth generator
The normal way to turn on a diac is by breakover voltage
Essentially power electronics deals with the control of ac power at
60 Hz frequency
When the emitter terminal of a UJT is open, the resistance between
the base terminals is generally high
AC power in a load can be controlled by connecting two SCRs in
parallel opposition
To turn off an SCR, reduce anode voltage to zero is done
Regulator – control system that maintains a speed voltage, or
other variable within specified limits of a preset level
To turn on a UJT, the forward bias on emitter diode should be more
than the peak point voltage
When the temperature increases, the intrinsic stand off ratio is
essentially constant
Damping ratio – dimensionless parameter of the second-order
characteristic equation
Transfer function is the ratio of two exponential functions of time
A diac is turned on by breakover voltage
LASCR – an SCR whose state is controlled by the light falling upon
a silicon semiconductor layer of the device
A diac is simply a triac without gate terminal
Negative-resistance region lies between the peak point and
valley point of UJT emitter characteristics
Biomedical electronics – refers to the application of electronic
theory, technology, instrumentation, and computing system to
biological research and medical problems
UJT exhibits negative resistance region
The UJT operates in negative-resistance region after peak point
SCR is a rectifier constructed of silicon material. Silicon is chosen
because of its high temperature and power capabilities
Photovoltaic transduction – a transduction principle used
primarily in optical sensors
SCR – is a solid state equivalent of gas-filled triode
The supply voltage is generally less than that of breakover
voltage in an SCR
 When an SCR is compared to a switch, it is considered as a
The triac is fundamentally a diac with a gate terminal for unidirectional switch
controlling the turn-on conditions of the bilateral device in either
direction When the firing angle of an SCR is increased, its output decreases

When the supply voltage exceeds the breakover voltage of an SCR,
it starts conducting
Servomechanism – a feedback control system in which the
controlled variable is mechanical position
Forward breakover voltage is the voltage above which the SCR
enters the conduction region
Root locus – a locus or path of the roots traced out on the s-plane
as a parameter is changed
Open-loop control system – a control system in which the output
is related to the input by device parameters only
When an SCR is OFF, the current in the circuit has small leakage
current
An SCR can exercise control over positive or negative half-
cycle of ac supply
Gyro is the most widely used attitude and attitude-rate
transducers
Bellow – a sensing element which is typically made from a thin-
walled tube formed into deep convolutions and sealed at one end,
whose displacement can then be made to act on a transduction
element
The voltage across an SCR when it is turned on is about 1 V

Holding current is that value of current below which the SCR

switches from the conduction state to the forward blocking region
under stated conditions

Reverse breakdown voltage is equivalent to the zener or

avalanche region of the fundamental two-layer semiconductor
diode

The required gate triggering current of GTO is 20 mA

Flywheel governor – an automatic speed control device using the

centrifugal force on rotating flyweights as the feedback element

Seismic mass is the sensing element of acceleration transducer

GTO is applicable to some areas of counters, pulse generators,

multivibrators

Thy – a greek word which means “switch”

1 μs is the typical turn-on time of an SCR

An SCR is a solid state equivalent to Gas-filled triode

The gate of an SCR is positive with respect to its cathode

A normally operated SCR has an anode which is positive with

respect to cathode

Hygrometer – a device which can measure humidity directly, with

a single sensing element. It is usually calibrated in terms of relative
humidity

Bourdon tube – one of the most widely used sensing elements,

particularly for pressure ranges higher than 2 MPa

Changing gate voltage can change the angle of conduction in an

SCR

An SCR is a member of the thyristor family

An SCR have three pn junction

Sonic, Radiation & Vibrating element are methods used for

density sensing

When SCR starts conducting, then gate loses all control

An SCR when turned on has a typical voltage across of 1V

The typical turn-off time of an SCR is about 5 to 30 μs

An SCR is made of Silicon

ECG stands for electrocardiography while EEG stands for

electroencephalography

Acceleration transducers are also called accelerometers

Microelectronics
The integrated circuit was invented at Texas instrument in 1958 by
Jack Kilby
Inductor component cannot be fabricated into ICs
The purpose of a comparator in op-amps is to produce a change
in output when an input voltage equals a reference voltage
The op-amp comparator circuit uses no feedback
Integrated circuit is a complete electronic circuit, containing
transistors, diodes, resistor, and capacitors processed on and
contained entirely within a single chip of silicon
Planar diffusion – a process used to produce IC semiconductor
elements
Very large-scale integration (VLSI) integrated circuit is having
more than 1,000 gates
A low power characteristic that does not apply to an op-amp
An integrator op-amp uses capacitor as an element in the
feedback path
Large-scale integration (LSI) integrated circuit is having more
than 100 gates
The difference in Vbe values is a source of output offset voltage
The voltage gain of differential amplifier equals the AC collector
resistance divided by two time the AC resistance of the
emitter diode
Medium-scale integration (MSI) integrated circuit is having 10
to 100 gates
Integrated circuit having up to 9 gates is called small-scale
integration (SSI)
VCO – exhibits a frequency that can be varied with a dc
control voltage
The reason why integrated circuits are divided into digital and
linear categories is because they are simply circuits that
happen to be constructed integrally and like all circuits, are
either switching type of amplifying type
The output of a differentiator is proportional to the rate of change
of the input
ICs have advantage over discrete device circuits which is lower
cost, high reliability, smaller size
2 Mohm is the typical input resistance of the op-amplifier when
measured under open loop
After assembly, the ICs are tested and classified as either military
of industrial
Relaxation oscillator operate in the principle of the charging and
discharging of a capacitor
ICs for military and space applications are tested in the
temperature range of -55°C to + 125°C
For most commercial and industrial applications, ICs are tested in
the temperature range of 0°C to +70°C
BIFET – an IC op-amp that combines FET’s and bipolar transistor
Heat sink – a mass of metal attached to the case of a transistor to
allow the heat to escape more easily
Digital IC processes digital signals
Linear IC processes analog signals
Common-mode signal – a signal that is applied with equal
strength to both inputs of a differential amplifier or an op-amp
Prototype – a basic circuit that a designer can modify to get more
advanced circuits
Operational amplifier is the most commonly used type of linear
IC
741 op amp has been considered as the industry standard of
linear ICs
Flat from dc to the critical frequency type of response that
characterizes the single pole, low pass filter
An advantage of a shunt regulator over a series type it has an
inherent current limiting
The most popular IC used in timing circuits is the 555 timer
The total power dissipated by the operational amplifier is typically
50 mW
In the standard letter-number identification code of operational
amplifiers, the letter prefix which normally consists of two or three
letters identifies the manufacturer
An op amp circuit that has its output tied directly to the inverting
input terminal is called a voltage follower
Most op amp circuits use negative feedback
D is the package suffix code for a plastic dual-in-line for surface
mounting on a pc board
25 mA is the approximate short circuit current output of 741 op
amp
Discrete unit – a circuit whose components are soldered or
otherwise connected mechanically
MPP value in an op-amp is synonymous with output voltage
swing, equal to the difference of the two supply voltages,
the maximum unclipped peak-to-peak output of an
amplifier
Power bandwidth is the highest undistorted frequency out of an
op amp for a given slew rate and peak voltage
The summing point in op-amps is a terminal of the op-amp
where the input resistors are commonly connected
In terms of circuit component, the term pole refer to a single RC
circuit
0.5 V/μs is the slew rate of a 741 operational amplifier
Slew rate specification of an amplifier tells how fast the output
voltage can change
80 nA is the typical input bias current of a 741 operational
amplifier
The open-loop of an op amp is its voltage gain when there is no
negative feedback
The term “monolithic” is derived from a combination of the Greek
words “monos” and “lithos” which means single-stone
RC synthesis – a technique used to eliminate the need for
inductive elements in monolithic integrated circuits
Most linear ICs are low-power devices with power dissipation
ratings of less than 1 W
555 timer – an integrated circuit for both astable and monostable
applications
Astable mulivibrator is a square wave clock
In a 5 V level detector circuit the inverting input is connected
to +5V
To convert a summing amplifier to an averaging amplifier the ratio
of Rf/R must be equal to the reciprocal of the number of
inputs
Compensating capacitor – a capacitor inside an op-amp that
prevents oscillations
Integrated circuit – a device that contains its own transistors,
resistors and diodes
Slew rate provides a parameter specifying the maximum rate of
change of the output when driven by a large step-input signal

An oscillator is described by unity gain and zero phase shift The absolute maximum rating for op-amps interval power
around the feedback loop dissipation is 500 mW

To use a comparator for zero-level detection, the inverting input is +-30V is the absolute maximum rating for an op-amps differential
connected to ground input voltage

In most modern IC op-amps, the 741 requires 2 power supplies The maximum CMRR of μA741 op-amp is 70 dB

In an op-amp integrator, the feedback path consist of a capacitor
Microwave ICs cover the frequency range from 0.5 to 15 GHz
Monolithic – considered as the fundamental form of IC
The letter prefix LM identifies National Semiconductor
Corporation manufacturer
μA is the letter prefix used by Fairchild semiconductor on their op-
amp product

Plastic dual-in-line for insertion into sockets has a package suffix Letter suffix identifies the package style that houses the op amp
code of N and P chip

The specific application of μA741C op-amp is for commercial The package suffix code for ceramic dual-in-line is J

Czochralsky pulling technique is the most common method
used for the growth of single crystals for IC fabrication
The charge-coupled device (CCD) is a unique and versatile
semiconductor structure invented in 1969 by W.S. Boyle and
G.E. Smith
The summing amplifier has two or more inputs, and its output
voltage is proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its
input voltages
When higher power IC’s are needed we can use thin & thick film
IC’s

Trip point – the value of the input voltage that switches the output
of a comparator or Schmitt trigger
Virtual ground - a type of ground that appears at the inverting
input of an op-amp that uses negative feedback
In IC op-amps, one of the most important input characteristics is
the input offset current which is defined as the difference
between the base currents.
Monolithic IC’s are forms of discrete circuits

The intel i486 32-bit microprocessor incorporates 1 million

transistors on a single chip

In IC op-amps, the input bias current is defined as the average of

the two base currents

CMRR means common-mode rejection ratio, the ratio of

differential voltage gain to common-mode voltage gain

The typical dimension of a MOSFET in a single IC chip is 1.5 mils x

3 mils

Slew rate – the maximum rate that an output voltage of an op-

amp can change

Stray wiring capacitance – the unwanted capacitance between

connecting wires and ground

The typical dimension of a BJT in a single IC chip is 4 mils x 6.5

mils

The typical dimension of a diode in a single IC chip is 3 mils x 4.5

mils

Astable multivibrator is equivalent to a relaxation oscillator

If the base 10 is called decimal number system, then base 12 is

called duodecimal number system

Planar technology is the principal method used in the fabrication

of semiconductor devices for hybrid and monolithic ICs

The gain reduction in operational amplifier is known as roll-off

20 dB per decade (-20 dB/decade) – the rate of gain reduction

in operational amplifiers
COMPUTER PRINCIPLES
William Oughtred – an English mathematician who invented the
slide rule in 1622
John Van Neumann – built a computer in 1946 at the Institute of
Advance Study (IAS), Princeton, USA, that uses binary numbers and
stores information
Computer – an electronic device design to accept data performs
prescribed computational and logical operations at high speed and
output the result of this operation
UNIVAC – first commercial computer introduced in 1953 that uses
valves
ENIAC – the first electronic computer and was completed in 1946
ENIAC was developed at University of Pennsylvania
Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly constructed ENIAC and
UNIVAC
ENIAC consist of 18,000 vacuum tubes
ENIAC could perform 5,000 additions or up to 500 multiplications
per second.
Whirlwind I, developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology is
capable of 20,000 operations per second
Computers – refers to the increased use of data conversion
circuits as a result of increased application
Control unit is a group of circuits that provides timing and signals
to all operation in the computer
ALU – refers to the part of computer that performs mathematical
operations
ALU which carries arithmetic and logic operations process binary
numbers
Bit is the smallest part of a computer language
A digital word consisting of only four bits is called nibble
Digital electronics – electronics methodology in solving
application problems using circuits, in which there are only two
possible voltage levels
In digital electronics, there are mainly two possible voltage levels
and these make binary number system to be useful in its analysis
8 symbols are used in octal digital number system
Hexadecimal digital number system use 16 symbols
Conversion from binary to octal number system needs a grouping
of bits by three
The most practical way of converting hexadecimal numbers to
binary is to give each number its four equivalent bits
Boolean algebra – mathematics used in expressing, analyzing,
and designing of digital electronic circuits
Karnuagh map is the most commonly used method in simplifying
Boolean expression or logical functions. In this method only 1’s and
0’s are entered into the table, while map-entered variable
technique includes variables into the table
Quine-McCluskey tabular method – a suitable method in
simplying Boolean expression when the system deals with more
than six variables
Low level is used to represent logic 1 in a negative logic circuit
High level is used to represent logic 0 in a negative logic circuit
OR is a gate which has two or more low inputs signals to get a low
output
OR gate is the logic circuit having two or more inputs but only one
output, with high output if any or all inputs are high, with low
output only if all inputs are low
OR gate – a logic gate whose output is HIGH when a single HIGH at
its input is present
An output of logic zero can be generated by OR gate if all inputs
are zero
OR gate – logic gate that generates an output of logic zero if and
only if all inputs are zero
A solid state device which only gives a “1” output if all inputs are
also “1” is called an AND gate
AND gate – only when all inputs are logic one that this gate can
deliver an output of logic one
A solid state logical device which only gives a “1” output if all
inputs are “O” is called NOR gate
To cause a three-state buffer to output 0-1 levels, the signal OE
must be at logic 1
The rapidly flashing logic probe tip tell you that the logic node
being probe has rapidly changing logic activity
Exclusive NOR is a single bit comparator
Sequential refers to the class of logic circuit containing flip-flops
Binary counter is the counter that follows the binary sequence
Multiplexer logic circuit is analogous to a single pole mechanical
selector switch
An encoder is an MSI(medium-scale-integrated) circuit that
provides an output code that corresponds to which of a set
of input line is true
Multiplexing is called the time sharing of one line with multiplex
signals
Data selector is also called multiplexer
Producing one output pulse for every 10 inputs pulses refers
to a function of a decade counter digital IC
Decade counter refers to BCD counter
In a system with MOS devices, the main bus loading factor is likely
to be capacitive
When a logic circuit rejects an unwanted signal, this is termed as
noise margin
Speed of a logic circuit is normally expressed as propagation
delay
Bus is a multi-wire connection between digital circuits
Digitize is the process used to describe analog-to-digital
conversion
Time division multiplexing is the process of converting multiple
analog input signals sequentially to digital output
A circuit that changes pure binary code into ASCII is called a code
converter
The output pulses of the logic pulser can be used to overdrive
logic nodes high or low
Circuit used to implement Boolean expression or equations: logic
gates/circuits, ditigal circuits, an binary circuits
NAND gate – logic gate whose output is HIGH when one or all its
inputs is LOW
NAND gate generates an output of logic zero(LOW) only when all
its inputs are logic one(HIGH)
NOR gate – only when all inputs are low thus, this logic gate
produces an output of HIGH
NOR gate – a logic gate whose output is logic zero every time one
of its inputs goes to logic one
NAND gate – gates with HIGH output level every time one of its
inputs goes LOW
XOR logic gate gives an output of logic one if there is and odd
number of 1’s at the input
XNOR – logic gate that gives a HIGH output when the input has an
even number of 1’s
If the fan out of a logic gate is not enough, a buffer should be used
A buffer multiplies the number of gates a certain output can drive,
and this can also be used as a voltage follower, a current
amplifier or an isolator
XOR – is considered as a controlled inverter
Universal gate – a logic gate that can be wired to function like
any other gate
NOR and NAND – known as universal gates
2 NAND-gates are needed to have an AND function
3 – the number of NAND-gates needed to form an OR-gate
OR function can be achieved by using 2 NOR gates
Binary 0 is the probable output if all inputs of a TTL gate are
binary 1
Noise immunity – refers to the ability of a logic circuit to
withstand noise superimposed on its input signal
Fan-in – the number of logic gates of the same family that can be
connected to the input of a particular gate without degrading the
circuit performance
Fan-out – refers to the number of logic gate of the same family
that can be driven by a single output of a particular logic gate
RTL – a bipolar logic family that uses resistors at its circuit
DTL – logic family that uses diodes and transistors as its circuit
elements. This logic family is more resistant to noise than RTL
HLDTL – a logic circuit family with a supply voltage of 25 V, and
are generally used in industry where machinery causes electrical
noise and large power line transients to occur
STTL – a variation of transistor-transistor-logic (TTL), wherein
transistor’s base and collector junctions are clamped with a
Schottky diode
In a transistor-transistor-logic (TTL), if the base collector junction of
a transistor is clamped with a Schottky diode it becomes Schottky
TTL. The significance of having this diode is it increases the
switching speed
ECL bipolar logic circuit is the fastest
CML, CSL and NSL are other name of emitter-coupled logic (ECL)
Of the MOS logic family, CMOS is the fastest
PMOS are generally supplied with a voltage up to 24 V
CMOS are normally supplied with a voltage up to 15 V
By providing a pull-down resistor at the interconnection
(PMOS output to CMOS input) you interface PMOS to CMOS
NMOS can be interfaced to CMOS by providing a pull-up resistor
Open-collector configuration – a digital IC whose output
transistor has no internal pull-up resistor
In digital ICs, such as buffers and registers, tri-state output
configuration is used if they are intended for “busing”
Complementary – the output configuration of most CMOS ICs
In TTL ICs, substrate pnp input configurations gives a high-input
impedance at both logic states (HIGH and LOW state)
The purpose of the internal clamping diodes at the input of a logic
circuit is to minimize negative ringing effects
In TTL ICs with more than one gate available, sometimes not all
gates are used. To handle this unused gates force the output to
go HIGH
To handle unused inputs in a logic gate/logic IC pull them down
or up, depending on circuit function
Flip-flop is the memory element used in clocked sequential logic
circuit
A static memory will store information even when power is not
applied to the memory
The reason why more cells can be stored in a given area with
dynamic cells is because they are smaller
A magnetic bubble is a solid state memory device, which
depends on the magnetic polarization of domains, usually in a
garnet type material
Magnetic cores are non-semiconductor devices still used in digital
memories
The density of data recorded on magnetic tape is measured in bits
per inch
A memory circuit that has 9 address inputs have 512 storage
locations
Clock periods are measured from similar points on the clock
waveform
Card readers are not a storage device
The function of flip-flop as logic element is it stores binary data
Register is not a type of flip-flop
The higher voltage level in digital gates and flip-flop circuits is Yes
or One
Memory word is a byte data stored in a memory location
Accessing is called retrieving data from memory
Applying ultraviolet rays can erase EPROMS
Stack is a segment register which normally access variables in the
program
Buffer is a storage device used to accommodate a difference in
rate of flow of data or time of occurrence of events when
transmitting from one device to another
Latch is a device that stays on once triggered and store one or two
conditions as a digital circuit
The typical number of bits per dynamic memory location is 1
Address is an output applied to Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a kind of memory where only manufacturer can store
program and has a group of memory locations each permanently
storing a word
In shift registers made up of several flip-flops, the clock signal
indicates when to shift a bit of data from input of the flip-
flop to the output
The duration within it takes to read the content of a memory
location after it has been addressed is called access time
A static memory generally contains row and column decoders
ROM is called a memory device which holds fixed set of data in a
circuit
Access time – an interval required to address and read out
memory word
Counter refers to a circuit that stores pulses and produces an
output pulse when specified number of pulses is stored
A dynamic memory will store information as long as power is
applied and the memory is refreshed periodically
Flip-flop – several gates combined to form the basic memory
element
An RS flip-flop constructed from NOR-gates would have an
undefined output when the inputs R/S combinations are
HIGH/HIGH
When a flip-flop is constructed from two NAND-gates, its output will
be undefined is the R/S inputs are LOW/LOW
D flip-flop – a flip-flop whose output is always the same as its
input. This is sometimes used as a delay element
T flip-flop – flip-flop that changes state every time the input is
triggered
Master/slave flip-flop – flip-flop arrangement, such that the first
receives its input on the positive edge of a clock pulse, and the
other receives its input form the output of the first during the
negative edge of the same pulse
Clocked flip-flop – combination of flip-flop, arranged so that they
can be triggered at the same time
JK flip-flop, T flip-flop, D flip-flop - A flip-flop without an
undefined output state condition whatever the input combination is
Register – group of flip-flops used to store more bits
Sequential access digital memory uses shift register storage
circuit
Volatile – memory whose contents are lost when, electrical power
is removed
Blowing fuse – can program PROMs
ROM – type of memory wherein the data are permanently stored.
Usually the storing of data is done during manufacturing of the
component
PROM – a type of ROM that allows data to be written into the
device by a programmer. After it has been programmed it cannot
be reprogrammed again
PROM, EPROM and EEPROM are semiconductor memory device
in which data can be stored after fabrications
EPROM & RPROM can be programmed, and reprogrammed after
the old programs are erased usually be an ultraviolet light
EEPROM – a variation of PROM, wherein its stored data can be
erased by electrical signal instead of ultraviolet light
The time interval to undertake a refresh operation in a typical
dynamic RAM is 2 ms
RAM – semiconductor-based, volatile data storage device that can
be written and read randomly
DRAM – Random access memory that needs recharging of
capacitors
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) uses capacitor as its data storage element,
while static RAM (SRAM) uses flip-flip
Bubble memory – type of memory that is formed by a series of
magnetic bubbles at the substrate
Magnetic core – non-semiconductor digital memory device
PROM programmer – a hardware used to program a PROM
Shift register – computer hardware device constructed to perform
shifting of its contained data
Serial to parallel register – register wherein data can be serially
inputted, while the output can be retrieved in parallel manner
PLA and PAL – digital device similar to that of a ROM and whose
internal connections of logic arrays can be programmed by passing
high current through fusible links
The difference between a programmable logic array (PLA) and a
programmable array logic (PAL) is that with PLA, both OR and
AND- gates are programmable, while in PAL, only AND- gate
is programmable
Universal logic module (ULM) – a circuit used for selecting a
single output from multiple inputs
Multiplexer – another name for universal logic module (ULM)
Demultiplexer – a device/circuit used to separate two or more
signals from one line
Ring counter – an electronic counter in which bistable units are
cascaded to form a loop
Twisted ring counter is formed when the complemented output
of the last stage of a shift register is fed back to the input of the
first stage
Decade scaler – a digital circuit that produces logic 1 output pulse
for every 10 input pulses
Binary code are converted into ASCII by code converter
Digitize – the technical term used when signals are converted
from analog-to-digital
Program is a sequence of instructions that tells the computer
machine on how available data shall be processed
Diagram showing procedures that are followed, and actions taken
is called flow chart
Machine language is a medium of communication with a
computer where programs are written in mnemonics
An assembler, a program which converts instruction written in a
source language into machine code, which can be read and acted
upon by the computer
Computer program – a detailed step by step of direction telling a
computer exactly how to proceed to solve a specific problem or
process a specific task
Compiler is a program that translates English-like words of high
level language into the machine language of a computer
Compiler is a software that converts a high level language
program into machine or assembly language program
The purpose of the fetch cycle in a computer is to obtain
instruction
Interpreter refers to a program that translates and then
immediately executes statements in a high level language
A macro-instruction is an instruction in a source language that is
to be replaced by a defined sequence of instructions in the same
source language
Microprocessor – a very high-dense and probably the most
versatile integrated circuit used in digital electronics. It is known to
function as the central processing unit of most computer
applications
Microcomputer – the smallest computer in terms of physical size
Encoder – a logic/digital circuit that generates an output code for
every input signal
Binary coded decimal gives each digit of a decimal number with
a corresponding binary equivalent
Gray code is considered as minimum change code
ASCII is a 7-bit alphanumeric code that is widely used
Mnemonic – the op-code of a computer instruction
JUMP – an instruction that causes the program to go to another
task
LOAD – an instruction that can move data from memory to the
accumulator
STORE – an instruction that moves data from accumulator to the
memory
FETCH – part of the instruction cycle where the instruction is
moved from memory to the instruction register
CLI – an instruction, which means “clear the interrupt mask”
Underflow – refers to a condition wherein the result of an
arithmetic operation is more negative than the capacity of the
output register
Overflow – refers to a condition wherein the result of an arithmetic
operation is more than the capacity of the output register
Machine instructions represented by mnemonics is considered as
assembly language
Machine language – the first generation language of instruction,
and is considered as the most primitive instruction that can be
given to a computer
COBOL, FORTRAN, and ALGOL are examples of high-level
language
4GL or 4th generation language – an advanced programming
language, more advance than high-level language
Compiler – translator from high-level program to machine
instructions
Compiler – translates source program to object program
Assembler – assembly language to machine language translator
Source program – a program in a programming language, as
written by the programmer
A source program can run in computers only after translation into a
machine code by a compiler. This machine code is referred as the
object program
Interpreter – a program that can read a source program in high-
level language, translates, and executes the statement in one
operation
Program – a sequence of instruction of statements designed to tell
the computer how to carry out a particular processing task
The instructions and data in a computer system is referred to as
Software
Asynchronous – refers to digital interface in which data
characteristics are individually synchronized and may be sent at a
time
A network facility used to connect individual similar network
segments forming a larger extended network is called repeaters
Parity detector is the circuit that detects bit error in binary
characters
Modem – a device that enables users to transmit computer data
and fax messages along telephone lines
Modems are device that allow computer to communicate with
other computers through telephone lines or radio frequency
Bridges is a network facility used to interconnect distinct network
physically
Files in E-mail communication are sent thru attachment
Host – the first recipient in E-mail communication
Network – the interconnections of computers, terminals, and other
equipment
Private data network – a network classification that is usually
built and owned by a single company or government organization
Public data network – a network that is built and owned by a
common carrier
Peer-to-peer – network configuration that let computers share
their resources
Hierarchical network – a computer network configuration that
makes the host computer manages a network of dependent
terminals
Circuit switching – a network switching that creates a dedicated
temporary connection between computers in a network
Host – the component that provides control of supporting services
for other computers, terminals, or devices in a network
Local area network – it is a type of computer networking
technology that is used to connect computers that are located
within the same room, building, or complex
File server – it is a fast computer with a large amount of
secondary storage, to which all of the other computers in a network
have access for data storage & retrieval
Client/server computing – it is also known as cooperative
processing that involve using two or more networked computers to
perform an application task
Printer server – a type of server that allows multiple users to take
advantage of a single printing device
Star – this topology is the most efficient centralized network for a
small company

Hub – it is the other term that is used to refer to a central device

into which each node of a star network is directly connected

Terminal – it is simply the term that is used to refer to an I/O

device that relies entirely on the host computer for processing

Diskless – workstations in a star network that can operate without

storage devices

A ring network requires that message travel around the ring to the
desired destination

Networks that transmit data across town using electromagnetic

signals are called MANs

The process of choosing a terminal on a network to receive data is

called selection

A microcomputer attached to a network requires a network

interface card

To upload is to send a file to a remote computer

To download is to receive a file from a remote computer

Network protocol – it is the term that is used to describe the

conventions of how network components communicate with each
other

Network topology – it is the term that is used to describe the

form or the shape of a network

Polling is the process of asking each remote terminal, one at a

time, if it has data to send

Hierarchical network topology has more than one level of host

computer

System Network Architecture – it describes its System Service

Control Point (SSCP), Logical Units (LU), and Physical Units (PU) as
network addressable units

Networks that include telecommunications are called WANs

A multi-network IBM token ring network is also a star network

Token ring – network topology, where stations are connected to a

concentric ring through a ring interface unit (RIU).

A router will decide which route the message or messages should

follow through the network

Bridge – used in connecting networks at different sites

Gateway – similar to a bridge, which connects networks at

different sites, it connects networks with different protocols

Repeater – used to extend the length of a network or to expand

the network
Computer Fundamentals
The decimal system is composes of 10 numerals or symbols
Change in state is toggle
A digital circuit is also referred to as a logic circuit
CMOS means Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
Microcomputer is the smallest type of computer in terms of their
physical size
If each digit of a decimal number is represented by its binary
equivalent, the result is a code called binary-coded decimal
BCD code has always 4 bits per number
Logical subtraction is not one of the three basic operations in
Boolean algebra
32 bits are required to represent an eight digit decimal number in
BCD
The Gray code belongs to a class of codes called the minimum-
change codes, in which only one bit in the code group changes
when going from one step to the next
The most widely used 7-bit alphanumeric code is the ASCII
A straight binary code takes the complete decimal number and
represents it in binary
The number of input combinations will equal 2^N for an N-input
truth table
The OR operation result will be 1 if any one or more variables is a 1
AND – a circuit that operates in such a way that its output is high
when all its inputs are high
The only input combination that will produce a high at the output of
a five-input AND gate is that all inputs should be high
AND gate is equivalent to a NAND gate followed by an inverter
CLC – a circuit with no memory characteristic, and so its output
depends only on the current value of its input
Karnaugh map – a graphical device used to convert a truth table
to its corresponding logic circuit in a simple, orderly process
The output of an EX-NOR gate when a logic signal and its exact
inverse are connected to its input is 1
ULSI – one of the standard levels of complexity of integrated
circuits which contains 100,000 and more number of gates
DIP is the most common type of digital IC package
0 to 0.8 V is an acceptable voltage range of a logic 0 for TTL
2 to 5 V is an acceptable voltage range of a logic 1 for TTL
0 to 1.5 V is an acceptable voltage range of a logic 0 for CMOS
operating at Vdd = 5 V
3.5 to 5 V is an acceptable voltage range of a logic 1 for CMOS
operating at Vdd = 5 V
When the input to a digital IC is left unconnected for TTI ICs it acts
like a logic 1
An unconnected input is termed as floating
CMOS integrated circuit response unpredictable, may overheat
and be destroyed to a floating input
Shorted signal lines – this type of fault has the same effect as an
internal short between IC pins
ROM does not describe a flip-flop circuit
SET = CLEAR = 1 is the normal resting state of the SET and
CLEAR inputs in a NAND gate latch
All arithmetic operations take place in the ALU of a computer
A full adder has 3 inputs
A full adder has 2 outputs
A half adder has 2 inputs
The three basic parts of a BCD adder circuit are two 4-bit adders
and connection logic
Accumulator is the principal register of an arithmetic logic circuit
Machine language – a computer programming language in which
groups of 1s and 0s are used to represent instructions. It is also the
only language a computer actually understood
Encoder – a digital circuit that produces an output code depending
on which of its inputs is activated
PLD – an IC that contains a large number of interconnected logic
functions wherein the user can program the IC for a specific
function by selectively breaking the appropriate interconnections
PAL – class of programmable logic device wherein its AND array is
programmable while its OR array is hard-wired
Field Programmable Logic Array – class of programmable logic
device wherein both its AND and its OR arrays are programmable
2’s complement form – a result which is obtained when a one is
added to the least significant bit position of a binary number in the
1’s complement
Astable multivibrator – a digital circuit that oscillates between
two unstable output states
Backplane – an electrical connection common to all segments of
an LCD
BDC counter – a binary counter that counts from 0000 to 1001
before it recycles
Ring counter – a shift register in which the output of the last flip-
flop is connected to the input of the first flip-flop
Reset – a term synonymous with CLEAR in computer systems
Op code – that part of a computer instruction that defines what
type of operation the computer is to execute on specified data
Mnemonic – an abbreviation that represents the op code of a
computer instruction
Monotonoicity – a property whereby the output of a digital-to-
analog converter either increases or stays the same as the input is
increases
Optical disk memory – class of mass memory devices that use a
laser beam to write and read onto a specified coated disk
Wired-AND – a term used to describe the logic function created
when open-collector outputs are tied together
Strobing – a technique often used to eliminate decoding spikes
Glitch – a momentary, narrow, spurious and sharply defined
change in volume
A single bit comparator is usually implemented using Exclusive
NOR
An equivalent Boolean equation for an exclusive NOR is xy+x’y’
Data storage in a memory is termed as Writing
Data retrieval from a memory is called Reading
A decoder with four inputs can have a maximum of 16 outputs
Another name for a digital multiplexer is data selector
An astable multivibrator has no stable state
A bistable multivibrator has two stable states
A monostable multivibrator has one stable state
A type of multivibrator circuit which generates a square wave of its
own is the astable
Don’t care – a situation when a circuit’s output level for a given
set of input conditions can be assigned as either a 1 or a 0.
Combinational logic circuit – circuits made up of combinations
of logic gates, with no feedback from outputs to inputs
BCD-to-7-segment driver – a digital circuit that takes a 4-bit BCD
input and activates the required outputs to display the equivalent
decimal digit on a 7-segment display
DC clear – asynchronous flip-flop input used to clear Q
immediately to 0
Down counter – a counter that counts from a maximum count
downward to zero
Bubble – small circle on the input or output lines of logic circuit
symbols which represent inversion of a particular signal
A multiplexer is described by its size through 2^N x 1, where n =
number of bits
Hang-up state – a situation in a system where it can never leave
or progress to another state
Bubble diagram – a diagram consisting of a set of circles, where
each circle contains a number of state within it
Truncated counter – a counter that counts sequentially but does
not step through all possible states, it returns to zero after a
particular state
Monostable circuit – a circuit that produces an output pulse for a
fixed period of time in response to a trigger and then returns to its
quiescent state
Tweaking – a small change made in resistance or capacitance to
time a circuit precisely
Astable circuit – a square wave oscillator or clock generator
Debouncing circuit – a circuit designed to produce a clean output
in response to a switch closure
Duty cycle for repetitive waveform is defined as the ratio of the
ON time to the total time
Reset – the state of a flip-flop when Q = 0 and Q’ = 1
Set - the state of a flip-flop when Q = 1 and Q’ = 0
Toggle – a state causing the flip-flop to change or reverse its state
5 flip-flops should be used to realize 32-count capacity
Clock skew – the time difference which results when a clock may
not arrive at all flip-flops at precisely the same time
A race condition that exists if a circuit output depends on which of
two nearly simultaneous inputs arrive at a point in the circuit first
A one-input JK flip-flop is the T flip-flop
A JK flip-flop can be made to function like a T flip-flop by simply
connecting the J and K inputs together as one-input
The one-input RS flip-flop is the D flip-flop
In clock circuits, SWG means Square wave generators
Strobe – an input signal that can activate or disable a gate
Johnson counter – a ring counter where the output is inverted
and tied back to the input
Pseudo-random sequence generator – a circuit that goes
through 2^(n-1) states in a random fashion
Strobe – an input that disables multiplexer or demultiplexers when
it is HIGH
Blowing – application of excessive current to a fuse in order to
open it
An outstanding advantage of LCDs from LEDs is that LCDs
essentially acts as a capacitor and consume almost no
power
PALASM – a computer language that enables Programmable Array
Logic (PAL) users to generate a file that can be used to blow a PAL
Data bus – a type of computer bus which is bidirectional
Simulation table – a table used by a PLD language, such as
PALASM, to calculate the expected outputs for a set of inputs
Configurable logic block – a programmable block of logic within
a gate array, that contains a flip-flop for storage and also allows
the user to specify logic functions on its inputs
Address bus – this type of bus carries the memory address from
the computer to the memory
Control bus – this bus carries lines that control the operation of
the memory from the microprocessor to the memory
Memory address register – a register which holds the address of
the word currently being accessed
Memory data register – a register which holds the data being
written into or read out of the addressed memory location
Prototype – a preproduction model of a system built for testing
and debugging
Debugging – correcting the faults in a circuit or system
Asynchronous SLC – a sequential logic circuit where the storage
elements commonly used are time delay devices (usually gates)
A block added to the combinational logic circuit to form a
sequential logic circuit is the memory
The state of the flip-flop before the occurrence of a clock pulse is
called as its present state
The state of the flip-flop after the occurrence of a clock pulse is
called as its next state
NAND – it is said to be a universal gate because any digital system
can be implemented with it
D flip-flop – a flip-flop which follows its input in the next state
An n-bit binary parallel adder requires n full adders in its least
design
A magnitude comparator has 2^(2n) entries in the truth table
where n = number of comparator bits
An included input terminal in a magnitude comparator IC which is
significant when both inputs compared are equal is called as its
cascading inputs
In designing a 16 x 1 multiplexer, 4 selection lines are needed
If F = xy + x’y’ Boolean expression is to be implemented using
decoders and OR gates, the connection involves 2 to 4 line
decoder with 1 OR gate
Handshaking – a system of coordinating I/O between the
transmitting and receiving devices
Screen image – an area of memory that holds the ASCII
characters that are being displayed on a monitor
UART – an IC that transforms parallel data to serial in the
asynchronous format and vice versa
Jump – an instruction that alters the normal course of a program
by causing it to jump to another instruction
LOAD – an instruction that causes data to be brought from
memory into an accumulator register
FETCH – the portion of an instruction cycle where the instruction is
sent from memory to the instruction register
STORE – an instruction that causes data in the accumulator to be
moved to the memory or a peripheral register
Underflow – this occurs when the result of an arithmetic operation
is a more negative number than the output register can
accommodate
Overflow – this occurs when the result of an arithmetic operation
is a larger number than the output register can accommodate
2’s complement – a representation of numbers when negative
numbers are obtained by complementing their positive equivalent
and adding 1
Hypertext mark-up language is the language used in making an
internet web page
Benchmark – a program which can be executed on several
different computers to compare their speed and performance
Register – a single word memory location used to temporarily hold
data during program execution
Trace – refer to the debugging method in which the program is
executed one instruction at a time and the register contents can be
examined after each step
Console – in a computer system, it is a unit of hardware where the
control keys are located
TTL, DTL and ECL, which are frequently used to refer to certain
“families” of digital integrated circuits, are actually names of
general varieties of electronic circuits used as logic gates, form
which, in essence, the building blocks in each series are
constructed
In the data sheet of a digital building block, operating speed is
typically expressed in terms of propagation delay times for
both possible output transitions
The fan out capability of a digital building block depends on the
current capability of its output and the current requirement of each
input driven by that output, and maybe defined as the number of
inputs that one output can transmit to
Noise margin, which is one indication of how likely it is that
information communicated between digital building block will be
incorrect due to noise, depends on the “safety margin” between
the output voltage produced by the transmitting block and input
voltage required by the receiving block for each of the two logic
state
Typical propagation delay range for modern digital integrated
circuit is 1 to 100 nanoseconds
The most commonly used IC package for digital integrated circuits
is the DIP plastic
A multiwire connection between digital circuit is usually called a
bus
(A + B)’ = A’B’ is a form of De Morgan’s theorem
“Limbo” state of a flip-flop occurs when both outputs are the
same
A logic circuit that is triggered by a clock signal is synchronous
BCD counter - another name for a decade counter
Shift register can perform parallel-to-serial data conversion
0 and 1 are used in the binary number system
8 bits are in a byte
In the 7400 Family of TTC Device, Quad 2-input NAND gates has a
device number equivalent to 7400
Quad 2-input XOR gates in the 7400 Family of TTL device has a
device number equivalent to 7486
A JK Flip-flop will operate in the toggle mode when J = 1, K = 1
A digital circuit test equipment which is a troubleshooting tool that
generates a short-duration pulse when activated manually, usually
by pressing a button is the Logic pulser
An RS flip-flop will not change in state when R = 0, S = 0
A T flip-flop can be derived by connecting the two inputs of the JK
flip-flop together
Radix – the number of digits used by a number system
There are less than 12 gates in an SSI chip
The logic gates in a MSI chip is between 12 to 99 gates
There are 10,000 or more logic gates in a VLSI chip
Assembler is not a part of the hardware organization in an
computer
Software – it consists of the instructions and data that the
computer hardware manipulates to perform useful work
The most primitive instructions that can be given to a computer are
those interpreted directly by the hardware in machine language
form
Assembly language – it represents machine instructions by
mnemonic names and allows memory addresses and other
constants to be represented by symbols rather than bit strings
Compiler – it is needed to translate a high-level program into a
sequence of machine instructions that performs the desired task
Text editors and formatters belong to the area of computing known
as word processing
The processor or central processing unit is the heart of the The function of the comparator in the ADC is to tell control
computer logic when the DAC output exceeds the analog input

Processors with more than two registers for arithmetic and logical
operations are classified as general register processors
ROM is a non-volatile device
With a RWM a processor can store data at any address and read
back the stored information at any time
Checksum in ROM’s is a code placed in the last one or two ROM
locations that represents the sum of the expected ROM data form
all other locations
Interfacing (computer system) – synchronization of digital
information transmission between the computer and external I/O
devices

The system program use to translate directly an assembly An operand address is the address of the data to be operated as
language to machine language is called assembler the CPU executes the instruction called for by the opcode

SOC – a command to an ADC to start conversion CPU device puts data on the data bus during a write operation

Speeds of modems are generally classified by the number of bits Instruction mnemonic means a short abbreviation for the
per second they can transmit operation

High speed modems transmit between 2400 and 9600 bps
Low speed modems method of modulation is usually frequency
shift keying
Low speed modems generally handle data rates between 300 and
2400 bps
The most important memory element which is made of an
assembly of logic gates is called flip-flop
Low, high is the normal resting state of the SET and CLEAR
inputs in a flip-flop
When a flip-flop is set, Q = 1, Q’ = 0, clear Q = 0, Q’ = 1
Synchronous control inputs and clock input are the two types
of inputs that a clocked flip-flop have
Clock skew – arrival of a clock signal at the clock inputs of
different flip-flops at different times as a result of propagation
delays
Combinational logic circuit – a circuit made up of combinations
of logic gates, with no feedback from outputs to input
DMUX – a logic circuit that depending on the status of its selected
inputs will channel its data input to one of several data outputs
An analog memory circuit used to eliminate aperture error is called
a track/store amplifier
Logic monitor is not a dynamic test instrument
A translated program in machine language is called an object
program

The flip-flop can change only when the appropriate clock transition
occurs. It is a condition called edge triggered

Set up time – it is the required interval immediately following the

active edge of the clock signal during which the control inputs must
be held stable

Hold time – it is the required interval immediately following the

active edge held of clocks during which the control inputs must be
held

The triangle inside the rectangle which is part of the IEEE/ANSI

symbology at clock input indicate edge-triggered operation

D type of flip-flop is best suited for synchronous transfer because

it requires the fewest interconnections from one flip-flop to the
other

The fastest method for transferring data from one register to

another is the parallel transfer

The major advantage of serial transfer over parallel transfer is

fewer interconnections between registers

Transducer – it converts a non-electrical physical quantity to an

electrical quantity

An actuator in the DAC controls a physical variable according to

an electrical input signal

Full scale error – the maximum deviation of DAC output from its
ideal value, expressed as percentage of full scale

Setting time – the time it takes for the DAC output to settle to
within ½ step size of its full scale value when the digital input
changes from zero to full scale

Voltage DAC’s are generally slower than current DAC’s because of

the response time of the op-amp current-to-voltage converter