Jonathan Khan December 6, 2010

Ms. Crowley AP Biology

Pg, 110
5. The difference between a chromosome and a chromatid is

a. A chromosome is

i. A dark staining body which is only visible during cell division. The chromosome is

composed of histones, [proteins which DNA wraps around, for stabilization (found in

eukaryotes only)] and DNA. Also present is the centromere, which is a fixed point along

the length of the chromosome. The centromere is a small clear circular zone, which

controls movement of the chromosomes during mitosis.

b. A chromatid is

i. The genetic information from each parent. Each gamete in humans contains one

chromatid, so that when fertilization occurs, the diploid [2 n] number is resorted.

Essentially, a chromatid is a half of a single chromosome, and contains half of the coding

for the genes which are located on whichever chromosome it came from.

c. For a cell in prophase that has 6 chromosomes,

i. The number of chromatids present are 12

1. To determine the number of chromatids from the number of chromosomes,

a. multiply the number of chromosomes by 2

ii. The number of centromeres present are 6

1. The number of centromeres present in a cell during prophase is always equal to

the number of chromosomes present.

6. The stages of mitosis are

a. Prophase

i. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes

ii. The nuclear membrane, and the nucleoli disappear

 iii. Centrioles begin to migrate to the poles

iv. Formation of spindle fibers occurs

1. Made of microtubules

2. Attach to centromere at the kinetochore

3. Astral rays

a. Shorter spindle fibers which anchor Centrioles

4. Nonkinetochore spindle fibers

a. Do not attach to the genetic material

v. Sister chromatids are held together by the centromere

b. Metaphase

i. Longest phase of mitosis

ii. Sister chromatids align along the metaphasal plate [equatorial plate]

1. The push pull theory states that in order to move sister chromatids,

a. Shorter spindle fibers will lengthen

b. Longer spindle fibers will shorten

c. Anaphase

i. Shortest phase of mitosis

ii. Sister chromatids separate

1. Centromere must divide

2. Spindle fibers begin to dismantle

iii. Centromere uncouples

iv. This process is very energy consuming

v. The theory behind this is

1. The push pull theory

d. Telophase

i. Daughter nuclei begin to form

 ii. Nuclear membranes begin to re form

iii. Chromosomes elongate, and form chromatin again

iv. Spindle fibers completely disappear

v. Cytokinesis

1. Division of the cytoplasm

2. In animal cells

a. Furrow encircles the cell in the plane of the equator

b. A contractile ring of actin and myosin microfilaments forms just below the

plasma membrane, which acts to draw it inward to pinch the cell and

cytoplasm in two from the outside in.

3. In plant cells

a. A structure called the cell plate forms

i. It is consisted of vesicles made by the Golgi body which line up

and form cell plate,

ii. Vesicles give rise to middle lamella and the beginnings of a

primary cell wall

9. The stages of meiosis are

a. Prophase I

i. The chromatin condenses into chromosomes

ii. The nuclear membrane, and the nucleoli disappear

iii. Centrioles begin to migrate to the poles

iv. Formation of spindle fibers occurs

1. Made of microtubules

2. Attach to centromere at the kinetochore

 3. Astral rays

a. Shorter spindle fibers which anchor Centrioles

4. Nonkinetochore spindle fibers

a. Do not attach to the genetic material

v. Homologous Chromosomes form

vi. There is also the addition of

1. Synapsis

a. Coming together of homologous chromosomes [side to side] to form the

synaptonemal complex

2. Tetrad

a. Four sister chromatids

3. Crossing over

a. Genetic recombination

i. Increases variation

b. Precise lining up of the homologous chromosomes during which of the 2

internal sets of chromatids, matching parts of each may swap.

c. Each place where crossing over occurs is called a chiasma.

b. Metaphase I

i. Sister chromatids align along the metaphasal plate [equatorial plate]

1. The push pull theory states that in order to move sister chromatids,

a. Shorter spindle fibers will lengthen

b. Longer spindle fibers will shorten

c. Anaphase I

i. Homologous chromosomes separate

ii. Centromeres however, do not uncouple

iii. Sister chromatids remain intact, they do not separate

d. Telophase I

i. Daughter nuclei begin to form

ii. Nuclear membranes begin to re form

iii. Chromosomes elongate, and form chromatin again

iv. Spindle fibers completely disappear

v. Cytokinesis

1. Division of the cytoplasm

a. Furrow encircles the cell in the plane of the equator

b. A contractile ring of actin and myosin microfilaments forms just below the

plasma membrane, which acts to draw it inward to pinch the cell and

cytoplasm in two from the outside in.

e. Interkinesis

i. The same process occur as which occur in interphase, except

1. There is no replication of DNA

f. Prophase II

i. The chromatin condenses into chromosomes

ii. The nuclear membrane, and the nucleoli disappear

iii. Centrioles begin to migrate to the poles

iv. Formation of spindle fibers occurs

1. Made of microtubules

2. Attach to centromere at the kinetochore

3. Astral rays

a. Shorter spindle fibers which anchor Centrioles

4. Nonkinetochore spindle fibers

a. Do not attach to the genetic material

g. Metaphase II
 i. Sister chromatids align along the metaphasal plate [equatorial plate]

1. The push pull theory states that in order to move sister chromatids,

a. Shorter spindle fibers will lengthen

b. Longer spindle fibers will shorten

h. Anaphase II

i. Separation of sister chromatids occurs

ii. The centromere uncouples at this stage

i. Telophase II

i. Daughter nuclei begin to form

ii. Nuclear membranes begin to re form

iii. Chromosomes elongate, and form chromatin again

iv. Spindle fibers completely disappear

v. However, this time the result is the formation of four haploid [monoploid] cells

j. Cytokinesis

i. Division of the cytoplasm

1. Furrow encircles the cell in the plane of the equator

2. A contractile ring of actin and myosin microfilaments forms just below the

plasma membrane, which acts to draw it inward to pinch the cell and cytoplasm in

two from the outside in.

12. The three methods which produce variation during sexual reproduction are

a. Meiosis

i. This process of producing haploid cells increases variation by providing one of two

necessary sets of genes needed for a somatic cell.

b. Crossing over
 i. This process which occurs during meiosis greatly increases variation by swapping

matching parts of the two inner non sister chromatids during the synaptonemal complex.

c. Fertilization

i. This process completes variation by combining two different sets of genes of which the

dominant gene will almost always be expressed, and creates the greatest variation.

14. When comparing spermatogenesis with oogenesis, it can be a difficult process. This is based on the fact

that these two processes have nearly the same outcome except for three main differences.

a. Spermatogenesis

i. Produces four viable sperm at a time

ii. Occurs only in males

iii. Production of sperm starts at puberty in humans and continues until death.

b. Oogenesis

i. Produces only one viable egg at a time [technically meiosis II is not completed until

fertilization].

ii. Occurs only in females

iii. Production of eggs starts during the embryonic stage, is paused, re starts at puberty, and

ends at menopause.