Regional Planning Class Slides 10 To 11-Revised

Development Planning Methods:
Regional Development Planning

(URP3003 ) - URP III - Semester I
Lecturer: earl bailey M.Sc. Etc….
Faculty of the Built Environment

School of Building and Land Management
Urban and Regional Planning Department
1
“If everything happened at the same time
there would be no development. If
everything existed in the same place there
could be no particularity. Only space makes
possible the particular, which then unfolds
in time……….to let this space-condition
particularity grow without letting the whole
run wild :– that is political art”
(AUGUST LOSCH, The economics of location, 1939, p 508)
2
Planning
Planning is the application of scientific
methodologies to policy making.
Conscious and deliberate efforts are made
to increase the validity of policies in the
context of their present and anticipated
future of the environment in which planning
takes place (Faludi, 1994)
Validity, accuracy, consistency and reliability
What is Regional Planning?
Regional planning is the process of formulating
and clarifying social objectives in the ordering of
activities in supra-urban space.
For some, this arbitrary division into level would
seem to contradict the essentially comprehensive
and theoretically indivisible nature of planning,
while others would argue that there is no natural
continuum and merely disparate existence.
However, from a practical viewpoint, some sub-
division is necessary to allow an understanding of
such a comprehensive subject and as a basis for
administration (LA, KSAC, PMC, NAA etc).
4
Regional Development Planning
Undertaken by governments with the aim of improving the
well-being of people in areas where there is concern about
present and future living conditions.
Economic conditions receive the greatest attention
Economic issues; high rates of unemployment, low income
levels or lack of investment opportunities) are closely
associated with a broad range of physical and social issues;
substandard health and housing conditions, inadequacies in
physical infrastructure (e.g., water supplies, waste disposal,
and transport facilities), environmental pollution, and
deficiencies in educational, recreational and social services.
Planned program of regional development normally attempts
to address these issues comprehensively.
5
Origin of regional planning
The practice of regional planning usually involves an
initiative on the part of state. Why?
Always underlined with a specific method or procedure
and a definite concept of development (e.g. Procedural
Planning Theory combined with Regional Planning Doctrine)
Doctrine feeds on a number of theories in the social
and environmental sciences which are designated as
substantive theories in regional planning
Both doctrine and theory are informed by certain
ideological assumptions that change the content of
regional planning and determines its outcome (figure 1.1)
6
Origin of regional planning
History helps us to gain a better understanding of the
variations in the actual practice of planning.
Without practice doctrine would remain barren
Britain – doctrine arouse largely as a pragmatic
response to realistic problems (improper waste disposal and
general unhealthy living conditions)
United States – Doctrine came first and continued to

evolve independently of practice. (doctrine was essentially
academic while practice was bureaucratic)
Doctrine combines = normative + substantive +

procedural (practical dimensions of regional planning)
7
Principal dimensions of regional Figure 1.1
planning and their interrelations Ideology
The internal
relationships among
the five major
Regional Substantive
dimensions of Procedural theory in
planning planning
doctrine regional
regional planning theory planning
and the underlying
reality of socio-
economic, political Regional
and spatial planning
practice
organization.
Existing socio-economic
political and spatial
organizations etc of society
8
Planning – ideological historical development
A historical perspective contains at least five

(sometimes overlapping) strands of planning in the
modern world.
1. The liberal-humanist tradition.
2. Utopian-revolutionary planning.
3. Policy analysis planning.
4. Socio-cultural diversity sensitivity planning.
5. Consultative and participatory planning.
9
Planning – The liberal-humanist
tradition.
The earliest liberal-humanist tradition arose in part
as a response to the terrible living conditions of
early industrial cities.
Involved contribution from associated
fields/disciplines such as;
– public health,
– civil engineering,
– architecture and
– urban design. 10
Planning - Utopian-revolutionary
utopian-revolutionary planning evolved in tandem with the
liberal-humanist tradition. This was intent on not simply
ameliorating the socio-spatial conditions of capitalist
urbanism, but on transforming them radically.
Tradition of planning understood as social change,
exemplified in the early moments of modernism and still
active today, for instance, in the worldwide anti-neoliberal
movement.
The learning-by-doing (or the ‘science of muddling
through’) approach to planning also boasts of a long
lineage of its own, often leaning for theoretical support on
the American philosophy of pragmatism.
11
Planning - Policy analysis
Of more recent vintage is the now more
mainstream tradition of planning focused on
policy analysis and rooted mostly in the
discipline of neoclassical economics and
proximate social sciences - which
sometimes defines planning as the
rectification of market failure.
However this can be broadened to include
the rectification of economic, social, cultural
and ecological failures!
12
Planning - Socio-cultural diversity
sensitivity
Over the last two decades, yet another
tradition of planning has emerged out of a
special concern with social and cultural
diversity, speaking to the situation of
various culturally or economically
marginalized groups (including women,
people of colour, gays and lesbians).
13
Planning - Consultative and
participatory
At the same time planning has transformed
from an approach rooted in top-down
social engineering to an approach that is
increasingly consultative and participatory
in its nature.
14
In reality, of course, the operative definition of planning is keenly
contested by a variety of traditions and their political values.
The practice of planning, likewise, is the negotiated - or compromised -
outcome of a struggle between divergent perspectives held by different
social groups on how the world works and what to do about it.
Even a cursory perusal of the last century tells us that different
conceptions of planning have been dominant at different times.
From the Second World War until about the mid-seventies, for
example, the most influential theories and practices of planning owed
much to the values of the welfare state and Keynesian economics.
15
The last two decades of the twentieth century, by contrast, witnessed

the ascent of neo-liberal ideology and its stamp on planning practice.
In each case, the kind of planning that proved to be dominant was
neither the ‗true‘ (whatever that means) conception of planning nor the
most ‗advanced‘ one (however that is understood).
Rather, the dominant has been the practice that corresponded to the
given balance of power between different social groups.
The meaning of planning in the twenty first century will depend on
how planners intervene with other political actors and work with
communities in the emerging social and political struggles of our
time.
16
What planners do and how they think about the

world are both diverse.
The question from this then is what constitutes the
unity of planning as an art and a science?
From a pedagogical standpoint, it is possible to
identify three questions that concern all planners.
1. How did the world of our city get to be the way it is?
2. What kind of cities - or world - do we want to live in?
3. How do we get from what we have to what we want?
17
The horizons of planning are shifting with changes in the ever more
globalize political economy of urban development and the environment.
Consequently, many methods and concepts that were valid ten years ago
may no longer be effective, and therefore much of the content of planning
education, practise and thought should be constantly reviewed.
Nevertheless, successful planning always depends upon certain qualities
that practitioners must carry with them through their careers, irrespective
of substantive orientation and the exigencies of social change;
1. Planners must be literate and numerate,
2. Planners must possess the skills of synthesis, practical reasoning,
critical analysis, discerning judgement and persuasion.
18
Contextual questions!
– Why is there a need to plan?
– What is planning?
– How does Regional Planning fit in Planning?
– Why is there a need for Regional Planning?
– What form does Regional Planning take?
These questions are answer both in a specific (subjective)
and general (objective) context
19
Why Plan and Planning?
Movement from laissez-faire to control conditions (socio-
economic) in society
The interaction of private action and market forces often
results in undesirable national/regional situations...THUS!
Inequalities – ecological and socio-economic (protection
of vulnerable and disadvantaged groups)
Increase in population (rural – urban migration) – need to
manage this effect on urban and manage urbanisation
Mitigate conditions of organic, informal, unregulated and
uncontrolled settlement
Etc..
Need for a overall control/management mechanism..
20
Why Regional Planning
The distribution and location of natural
resources normally follow a regional spatial
patterns
The ―core-periphery‖ relationship
Rural – urban relationship
Location of resource base normally confined
to rurality (investment and resourced based
development)
Agriculture dominant economic base
21
What is Planning?
• Physical (planning for the shaping of an area‘s physical
structure – land use/function, which outstrip the ability of market
mechanism to cope)
• Economic (levels of economic prosperity through the

market mechanism)
• Allocative (coordination, resolution of conflict

ensuring that existing system is efficient in operationing –
more regulatory in nature)
• Innovative (planning for the efficient functioning of

existing systems, improving and developing new aims etc)
22
What is Planning?
• Multi objective (the goal is an ideal and
expressed in abstract terms)
• Single objective planning (goal is

attainable and measureable by standards set)
• Indicative (general guidelines

and is advisory in nature)
• Imperative planning (command
planning – specific directives)
23
What is Planning?
At the heart of planning lies a commitment to
better cities, healthy environments and social and
economic well-being for everyone.
Planners pursue their ideals and objectives in the
name of the public good as policy makers, public
servants, builders, community organizers and
political activists, working at all levels of
government, with the non-profit sector or in private
practice.
Planner‘s specializations include land use,
housing, transportation, urban design, social
policy, public health, economic development,
international development, and the environment-
among others.
24
What is Planning?
Although the built environment of the city has been
their traditional terrain of action, planners also
work on social, economic and cultural issues and
at various spatial scales.
Planner work, accordingly, ranges in territorial
scope from the design of small towns to policy
planning at the national level to international
development.
The practice of planning today spans the entire
local-global spectrum, taking into consideration the
challenges and opportunities presented to cities,
regions and nations by the forces of globalization.
25
What is Planning?
Major features of general planning include a
sequence of actions, which are designed to
address issues and concerns in the future
Development is NOW – Planning is FUTURE
The Planning concern/issue vary but tend to be

primarily economic and social;
The planning period, the time horizon of 'the

future', also varies according to
The type and level of planning;

26
What is Planning?
Sequential process which can be conceptualised into a number of
stages……………… but not necessarily stages theory, impact theory,
relational theory or ????,
the identification of the problem or opportunities or betterment;
the formulation of general goals and more specific and

measurable objectives relating to the problem; the identification of
possible constraints;
The projection of the future situation., (continuity – thus sustainability)
The generation and evaluation of alternative courses of action;
The production of a preferred plan, which in its generic form may

include any policy statement or strategy as well as a definitive plan.
27
What is Planning?
Planning is primarily a way of thinking about social
and economic problems, planning is oriented
predominantly toward the future, is deeply
concerned with the relation of goals to collective
decisions and strives for comprehensiveness in
policy and programme.
Wherever these modes of thought are applied,

there is a presumption that planning is being
done."
28
Planning theory
Procedural planning theory
Preoccupied with process and procedure but not
necessarily substance (e.g. Stages Theory).
Accuracy and content are left to the epistemological
sources feeding the theory and not so much the theory
itself.
Substantive planning theory

Preoccupied with substance, content, validity and
accuracy of theory.
Places heavy importance on epistemological source/s
29
Strategic Planning
―Strategic planning is about preparing for change.
It involves people viewing their community as group of stakeholders
who are trying to build a consensus on common vision or mission for
the town.
Strategic planning often fits well with the local decision making process
where important decisions tend to be made by a few movers and
shakers‖
Strategic planning for a small town begins with a town‘s people forming
a vision of the type of community they want, given the
ecological/physical, economic and social realities that are likely to exist
in the next 10 – 20 years.
Large corporations often use strategic planning to look five to ten years
into the future and plan for how the company must adopt now in order
to compete and grow.
A company that fails to anticipate changing needs markets and
opportunities may not grow or even survive.
30
Strategic Planning
The important difference with strategic planning from others is that
strategic planning in addition to anticipating changes also anticipates
the particular position that will be a reality in a specific number of years.
A community is sustainable if it has the correct mix of economic assets
leadership and luck!. A sustainable community not only survives but
also provide its citizens with a good place to live and work.
Strategic community planning focus firstly on identifying overall
community strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT).
In short planning for;
Population change
Land use (zoning)
Economic development
Sustainable community
31
Planning practise
Path-dependent and path-shaping
32
Regional – Region
The Region: Fact or Fallacy?
A first step in an outline of the concept of the region is to examine
whether regions are natural phenomena or merely mental
constructions.
The Subjective View
Perform a particularly useful function,
The Objective View
Linked with the search for the elusive 'natural' region. The famous
Oxford geographer, A. J. Herbertson, adopting an analytical approach,
divided the world into 'natural regions' on the basis of four criteria;
Land configuration,
Climate
Vegetation and
Population density,
33
Categories of region Figure 1.2
Regional
Units
Planning or
Homogeneous
Nodal regions programming
region
regions
Single feature Multiple feature

total region
regions regions
hierarchy
(village-district-town-centre-etc)
34
Regional – Region
The Region: Formal or Functional
The concept of the region as a method of classification has evolved through
two distinct phases reflecting the economic advantage from a simple agrarian
economy to a complex industrial system.
Phase I – Formal Region
The first phase saw the 'formal region‘ concerned with uniformity, and defined
according to homogeneity. A formal region is a geographical area, which is
uniform or homogenous in terms of selected criteria.
Economic formal regions are generally based off types of industry or
agriculture. Although there are obvious physical undertones.
Phase II – Functional Region
The second phase saw the development of the 'functional region'-concerned
with interdependence, the interrelationship of the parts, and define on the basis
of functional coherence.
A brief analysis of the concept of the region suggests that regions are a means
to an end, rather than ends in themselves. They may be formal or functional
based off a single or multi-criteria.
35
Types of regions
Uniform region
Homogeneous or formal region, non overlapping and
completely exhaust the space available.
External var iation
Nodal region  max imum
Internal var iation
Contiguous or non-contiguous bonds or links between pairs
of places. Maybe overlapping and interpenetrating.
Functional regions Internalbo nds
 max imum
Externalbo nds
Planning region
Contiguous or non-contiguous delimited on a ad hoc basis
for administrative or organisational purposes. They may
exhaust the study area or be confined to a part of it
36
Types of regions/”regionness”
The evolutionary logics (not a stage theory) – a
framework for comparative analysis;
Region as a geographical unit
Region as a social system
Region as a recognised corporation between any cultural,
economic, political or military fields
Region as civil society
Region as state
Changes in regionness is essential for the core-

periphery order
37
Region as a Geographical unit
Delineated by more or less physical boundaries
and ecological characteristics
Referred to as the Proto-region
No organised human society
Needs human habitation maintaining some sort of
relationship for further regionalisation
Leading to the social dimension of regionalisation
(next level of regionness – Region as a Social System)
38
Region as a social system
Implies trans-local relationship among human groups.
Relations constitute security complex – constituent‘s
security is dependent on each other and the stability of the
regional system.
Social relations may leave room for hostility
May be described as anarchic based off security
arrangements
Low level of organisation – balance of power is essential
for security guarantee
Called a ―primitive‖ region
39
Region as a recognised coorporation
Recognised and agreed coorporation in cultural,

economic, political or military fields
List of areas (countries) which are members of this
organised corporation
Formal region – defined by organisational
membership differentiated from real region –
defined in terms of potentialities and less precise
criteria to asses the relevance and future potential
of a particular regional organisation
40
Region as civil society
Organisational framework facilitates and promotes
social communication and convergence of values
throughout the region
Pre-existence of shared cultural traditions
Culture is continuously created and recreated
Multidimensional and voluntary quality of regional
cooperation
Social characteristics indicating an emerging
―Regional anarchic society‖ (more than anarchy but
less than society
41
Region as state
State with distinct identity, actor capability, legitimacy and
structure of decision making.
Crucial for regional intervention into conflict resolution
(between and within former states)
Creation of welfare for regional security and balance
State formation & nation building = region state
Political order = voluntary evolution of groups of national &
political units into supranational security community where
sovereignty is pooled for the benefit of all
42
The Core - Periphery
Core-Periphery Theory is based on the notion
that as one region or state expands in economic
prosperity; it must engulf regions nearby to ensure
ongoing economic and political success.
The area of high growth becomes known as the
core, and the neighboring area is the periphery.
Cores and peripheries can be towns, cities, states,
or nations.
43
The world can be perceived as a core / periphery
dichotomy where core countries are characterized by high
levels of development, a capacity at innovation and a
convergence of trade flows.
The core has a level of dominance over the periphery
which is reflected in trade and transportation.
Accessibility is higher within the elements of the core than
within the periphery.
Most of high level economic activities and innovations are
located at the core, with the periphery subjugated to those
processes at various levels.
44
45
This pattern was particularly prevalent during the colonial era where the
development of transport systems in the developing world mainly
favoured the accessibility of core countries to the resources and
markets of the periphery, a situation that endured until the 1960s and
1970s.
The semi-periphery has a higher level of autonomy and has been the
object of significant processes of economic development (China, Brazil,
Malaysia, etc.).
Concomitantly, the accessibility of the semi-periphery improved,
permitting the exploitation of its comparative advantages in labour and
resources.
Recent changes in globalization, particularly industrial growth in
developing countries, is challenging this representation.
46
Answers to the disparity between cores and peripheries are
most complex on the international level where these
problems are the most difficult to deal with.
Free trade is the answer - it could allow for periphery
countries to concentrate on producing goods for which they
have an aptitude.
Critics of this claim still maintain that it would make little
difference because the established core countries would
still dominate.
47
Bring back to life the vitality of struggling neighborhoods
and reestablish them as compliments to the city. It takes
knowledgeable foresight by city officials as well as action
through the entire community to accomplish this.
Unmitigated growth and development in one area is going
to have a counter effect in an adjacent area to some
degree.
Backlash affect causes inequality between different areas
and amongst the people who live in each area.
48
Core Expansion Trends & Methods
When a city grows, it must expand its borders to continue
to supply the population with the standard of living they are
used to (e.g. variety of products, standardd of living, etc).
The core will first expand to areas of geographic similarity,
for instance a neighbouring town may find itself becoming a
suburb of the city
When geographic peripheries become exhausted (either
because of resources depletion or the balanced
Economies of Scale), the core then seeks out peripheries
that are culturally similar and share the same language as
the core.
49
Core Expansion Trends & Methods
Only when the core has exhausted all advantageous options of
geographic and cultural similarity will it seek to expand to a periphery
that is truly foreign. (e.g. Developed countries – foreign policy)
A foreign periphery carries a high risk of not complying with requests
from the core.
Peripheries bearing geographic or cultural similarity to the core can
often benefit in the long run, through what is known as Trickle-down
economics, peripheries that have vast cultural differences often lack
any negotiation rights in their colonization. When this happens Trickle-
up economics apply, and peripheries watch as their resources drain
away towards the core.
The more a periphery becomes colonized, the harder it becomes for it
to resist the core. The probability of civil or trans-national war then
starts to slowly approach
50
Semi-periphery
Semi-periphery - an important middle ground
between the core and the periphery.
An area that is more self sufficient and developed
than the periphery but not to the extent of the core.
The semi-periphery is important because it bridges
the gap between the rich core countries and the
poor periphery countries.
Provides balance and order keeping the world
from political and economic crisis in same way that
the middle class does on the national level in
stable core countries.
51
Regionalism
Regionalism may refer to the distinctive local character of
different parts of the world or to a people's perception of
and identification with such places.
A term in international relations that refers to the
expression of a common sense of identity and purpose
combined with the creation and implementation of
institutions that express a particular identity and shape
collective action within a geographical region.
The European Union can be classified as a result of
regionalism.
The idea that lies behind this increased regional identity is
that as a region becomes more economically integrated, it
will necessarily become politically integrated as well.
52
Regionalism
The European example is especially valid in this light, as the EU
as a political body grew out of more than 40 years of economic
integration within Europe. The precursor to the EU, the
European Economic Community (EEC) was entirely an
economic entity.
This is in contrast with regionalization, which is the expression of
increased commercial and human transactions in a defined
geographical region.
In national politics (or low politics), regionalism is a political
notion which favours regionalization—a process of dividing a
political entity (typically a country) into smaller regions, and
transferring power from the central government to the regions.
Opposite process is called unitarisation.
53
Regionalism and Globalisation
Market driven economics.
Information technology
Internationalisation vs. Globalisation
Internationalization in itself is not globalization, though the latter
implies the former.
Anti-globalisation demonstrators usually make that point. They are
not against international connections and the meeting of peoples.
They are just against the marketisation of the world, so people
become seen as market segments rather than communities with
histories and cultures to be cherished.
54
Global movement of;
Trade and trade block (trade imbalance) non-human life
Economic education (Intel and intellectual property)
Social laws and legislations
Cultural food supply
Product and production waste (nuclear and other contaminants)
Market entertainment
Competition and competitiveness education and educating
Communication language
Technology living standards
Rules and regulations
Employment and labour
Criminal
Disasters and hazards (causes and consequences)
Diseases (pandemic and epidemic)
55
Consequences of Globalisation
Questionable terms of trade
Unimproved production of goods and loss of jobs
Increase in criminality
Opportunity for product diversity – going into new markets and new markets coming to us
Retooling of work place
Wholesome communication between managers and workers
Development of competitive advantage
Cultural erosion
Improvement of investment climate (price, labour costs, etc)
Foreign investment – question as to do or not to do?
Ignore certain production patterns and products
Reinvestment in labour, machinery and all production tools
Redefinition of employer and employee relationship
Redefinition of role of government
56
Strategies to tackle globalisation
Work place reorganisation
Sharing of information and team building and communication
International competitiveness of productive levels
Mechanisms for modernisations
Attack the global market as a country and not as individual company
International competition displacing local (internal competition)
Identification of competitive products so we focus on these as global
products thus there is a national effort to market these globally
Training and retraining of employees (managers, administrators,
workers, labourers etc) – role of the trade union in this
57
Strategies to tackle globalisation
Development of specialist products based off our climate (e.g. Tropical fruits
– ackee, guava, avocado, thyme plus the value added)
Packaging, labelling and branding of product
Process reengineering – a redefinition of the production process for banana,
sugar cane, coffee, bauxite etc)
Each stakeholder must feel apart of the whole structure
Creation of new investments through thorough knowledge of the market
place
“Sophistication” of the tourism product, informatics and other tropical
business ventures
Role of Government and other partners –
Responsibility of worker etc to respond to their instinctive will to survive
globally
58
National vision for Globalisation
Alert government who understands what‘s happening in the
global market place
Productive sectors at the cutting edge of technology in their
specialists area
Workforce – flexible, trainable, intelligent and multi-skilled
Management and worker having more synergy
Aware, informed, flexible and efficient business leaders in
production at a fair price within a consistent environment
Change is inevitable
59
Accountability of government and all stake holders
Continuing education at the mastery level
New ways of bridging gaps within society and between Jamaicans
locally and internationally
Change in implementation – needs to more regulated as against free
for all piece meal pattern
Personal and sectoral respect – retraining of managers and workers
everyone at all levels
Continuing awareness of environment by all persons and sectors
World class company in the world class country (not world class
company in a third rate country)
60
Development
A multidimensional process, including in addition
to the economic development process, social
development processes concerned with the
distributional aspects of development
Development as such involves implicit and explicit
value judgements about the direction and speed of
change.
Development is not the same as societal change
(Distribution – Redistribution – Change –
(Empowerment – Awareness – etc)
61
Definition of development
Advancement, progress — gradual improvement
or growth or development
Broadening — the action of making broader
Elaboration, working out — developing in
intricate and painstaking detail
product development — improving an existing
product or developing new kinds of products
The act of developing.
The state of being developed.
A significant event, occurrence, or change.
62
Definition of development
The result or product of building up: accretion, buildup, enlargement,
multiplication, proliferation. See increase/decrease.
Steady improvement, as of an individual or a society: amelioration, betterment,
improvement, melioration, progress. See better/worse.
Something significant that happens: circumstance, episode, event, happening,
incident, news, occasion, occurrence, thing.
The act of developing or disclosing that which is unknown; a gradual unfolding
process by which anything is developed, as a plan or method, gradual
advancement or growth through a series of progressive changes; also, the
result of developing, or a developed state.
The series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their
passage from the embryonic state to maturity, from a lower to a higher state of
organization – relate this definition to human society
The act or process of changing or expanding an expression into another of
equivalent value or meaning.
The equivalent expression into which another has been developed.
63
What Is Human Development?
"The basic purpose of development is to enlarge people's
choices. In principle, these choices can be infinite and can
change over time. People often value achievements that do not
show up at all, or not immediately, in income or growth figures:
greater access to knowledge, better nutrition and health
services, more secure livelihoods, security against crime and
physical violence, satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural
freedoms and sense of participation in community activities. The
objective of development is to create an enabling environment
for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives."
Mahbub ul Haq
64
Development Theories
Economic (growth) model
Social (distribution and redistribution) model
Ecological (human and nature) model
Development Impact Assessment (DIA): Instruments to describe the
consequences of proposed measures or policies in a systematic way,
facilitating a meaningful decision making process (Carry out a)
Descriptive instruments or ways of putting into words opinions on the
way in which people can or should play their part in society
Recognition of the Spatial consequences and implications of the
development process (economic growth, wages – market prices – price
policy – capital flow
Regional Development provides a good combination of all three
preoccupations of development
65
Three definitions of development
1. ECONOMIC - Maximum economic growth
2. SOCIO-CULTURAL - Fair distribution of

existing and potential prosperity
3. ENVIRONMENTAL- Minimalisation of the

damaging effects on nature
SPATIAL AND ASPATIAL
66
Why development?
• Economic growth
• Underdevelopment
• Agrarian to industrial transformation
• Migration from rural to urban
• Slum creation and stagnation
• Decline in food production
• Absence of redistribution
• Growing inequality
• Need for socio-cultural (redistribution models)
and ecological criteria
67
General theories of Development
and Underdevelopment
• Economic Growth
• Modernisation
• Dependency
• Redistribution
• Basic needs
• Ecological
68
Planning and Development
Planning (Responsiveness to change) is concerned
about the management (response and reaction, path
defining, path sustaining and path dependent) of the
multidimensional changes that define society (settlement
and people - a set of people in a place at a particular time,
held together by common behaviours and values)
Development (Resource transformation) is concerned
with identifying and sourcing resources and energies to
sustain the multidimensional changes and simultaneously
satisfy the demands that are displayed and expressed in the
change system.
Management (mode of response and interpretation) -
69
Regional planning – push factors!
Regional planning was to create conditions which
would establish a harmonious relationship human
beings and nature, grounded in a bio-ethics that
would show a deep respect for the limits of human
intervention in natural processes and limit the
cancerous growth of cities
Lewis Mumford, Howard Odum could not prevent
the metropolitanisation of America
To reduce and in the long run eliminate the, major
inequalities in income among regions
70
Regional planning – push factors!
Need for self sustaining growth (in the USA after the 2nd WW)
Need to understand the underlying social relations in production as a
means to legitimate the existing distribution of power in society
Paradigm shift in planning ideology;
– economic growth was regarded as the only measure of development and
growth
– growing awareness of the decisive role of natural resources in sustaining
civilized life;
– new ecological ethics;
– greater concerns with questions of equity;
– deeper understanding of the contradiction between the international
division of labour and the territorial aspiration of new nation states;
– reassertion of the principles of self reliance at all levels of territorial order.
71
The role of the Planner
design vs. social science: (i.e., should the

planner be trained as an architect
or economist?)
city vs. planning: Should city planning
focus on the "city" (a substantive place) or
on the "planning" (a procedural/behavioural
process of decision making)? (e.g., ends vs.
means)
72
The role of the Planner
utopian (planning for how things could/should be)
vs. pragmatic (how things are)
consensus vs. adversarial (Can and should
planners strive to achieve a common set of goals
and objectives amongst all the social groups in a
city? Or should planners accept the inevitability of
social conflict and disagreement in any plan?)
engaged advocate vs. objective technician (How
far should planners get involved in politics and
take sides?)
73
Organisational and spatial scale of
Planning
comprehensive (large scale designs) vs.
incremental (i.e., "muddling through")
bottom up (grass roots) vs. top-down
planning (centralized planning)
neighbourhood vs. city vs. metropolis vs.
region vs. nation vs. world
(at what level should planning happen?)
74
Priorities and conflicting interests in
Planning
Which goal should planners pursue?
economic development vs. environmentalism
Should Planners plan for an efficient allocation of
resources, or a more socially fair distribution of resources?
equity vs. efficiency
physical vs. social planning, or
planning for people vs. planning for place
territory vs. function (i.e., planning for places vs.
planning for economic sectors)
75
The Planner’s relationship to the
market and government
What is the relationship between Planning vs. the Market:
(1) market failures and non-market failures (neoclassical view);
(2) the market as inherently a failure (Marxist view);
(3) planning as serving the market (a Marxist view, or a cynical view)
(4) a blurred boundary between planning and the market (institutional
view)
Public vs. Private
(Should planning be done in the public and/or private sector?)
Capitalism vs. Socialism: "the logic of the plan to replace the chaos of
the market"
The old justification of socialism vs. ―The logic of the market to replace
the chaos of the plan"
Is this the new critique of Eastern European socialism?
76
Styles of Planning
Comprehensive planning
―Rational model" of planning
Incremental planning
Advocacy planning
Strategic planning
Equity planning
77
Planning terminology
zoning
urban partnerships
linkages and inclusionary zoning
Tennessee Valley Authority
Appalachian Regional Commission
general plan (master plan, comprehensive
plan)
greenbelt
community development
economic development
78
The Central Propositions of
Dependency Theory - 1
Underdeveloped and undeveloped
Underdevelopment is a condition fundamentally different
from undevelopment.
The latter term simply refers to a condition in which
resources are not being used. For example, the European
colonists viewed the North American continent as an
undeveloped area: the land was not actively cultivated on a
scale consistent with its potential.
Underdevelopment refers to a situation in which resources
are being actively used, but used in a way which benefits
dominant states and not the poorer states in which the
resources are found.
79
Historical context of Underdeveloped and
undeveloped
The distinction between underdevelopment and
undevelopment places the poorer countries of the
world in a profoundly different historical context.
These countries are not "behind" or "catching up"
to the richer countries of the world.
They are not poor because they lagged behind the
scientific transformations or the Enlightenment
values of the European states.
80
Dependency Theory
They are poor because they were coercively
integrated into the European economic
system only as producers of raw materials
or to serve as repositories of cheap labor.
They were denied the opportunity to market
their resources in any way that competed
with dominant states.
81
Resources use
Dependency theory suggests that alternative uses
of resources are preferable to the resource usage
patterns imposed by dominant states.
There is no clear definition of what these preferred
patterns might be, but some criteria are invoked.
For example, one of the dominant state practices
most often criticized by dependency theorists is
export agriculture.
82
Dependency Theory
The criticism is that many poor economies
experience rather high rates of malnutrition
even though they produce great amounts of
food for export.
Many dependency theorists would argue
that those agricultural lands should be used
for domestic food production in order to
reduce the rates of malnutrition.
83
Nationalism, regionalism and globalism
The preceding proposition can be amplified:
dependency theorists rely upon a belief that there
exists a clear "national" economic interest which
can and should be articulated for each country.
In this respect, dependency theory actually shares
a similar theoretical concern with realism.
84
Dependency Theory
What distinguishes the dependency perspective is that its
proponents believe that this national interest can only be
satisfied by addressing the needs of the poor within a
society, rather than through the satisfaction of corporate or
governmental needs.
Trying to determine what is "best" for the poor is a difficult
analytical problem over the long run.
Dependency theorists have not yet articulated an
operational definition of the national economic interest.
85
The residence of power for development
The diversion of resources over time (and one must
remember that dependent relationships have persisted
since the European expansion beginning in the fifteenth
century) is maintained not only by the power of dominant
states, but also through the power of elites in the
dependent states.
Dependency theorists argue that these elites maintain a
dependent relationship because their own private interests
coincide with the interests of the dominant states.
86
These elites are typically trained in the dominant
states and share similar values and culture with
the elites in dominant states.
Thus, in a very real sense, a dependency
relationship is a "voluntary" relationship. One need
not argue that the elites in a dependent state are
consciously betraying the interests of their poor;
the elites sincerely believe that the key to
economic development lies in following the
prescriptions of liberal economic doctrine.
87
The Policy Implications of
Dependency Analysis
If one accepts the analysis of dependency theory, then the questions of how
poor economies develop become quite different from the traditional questions
concerning comparative advantage, capital accumulation, and import/export
strategies.
Some of the most important new issues include:
1. The success of the advanced industrial economies does not serve as a
model for the currently developing economies.
2. Dependency theory repudiates the central distributive mechanism of the
neoclassical model, what is usually called "trickle-down" economics.
3. Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency theorists discount
aggregate measures of economic growth such as the GDP or trade
indices.
4. Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue policies of self-
reliance.
88
Dependency Analysis
When economic development became a focused area of study, the
analytical strategy (and ideological preference) was quite clear: all
nations need to emulate the patterns used by the rich countries.
Indeed, in the 1950s and 1960s there was a paradigmatic consensus
that growth strategies were universally applicable, a consensus best
articulated by Walt Rostow in his book, The Stages of Economic
Growth.
Dependency theory suggests that the success of the richer countries
was a highly contingent and specific episode in global economic
history, one dominated by the highly exploitative colonial relationships
of the European powers.
A repeat of those relationships is not now highly likely for the poor
countries of the world.
89
Dependency Analysis
Dependency theory repudiates the central
distributive mechanism of the neoclassical model,
what is usually called "trickle-down" economics.
The neoclassical model of economic growth pays
relatively little attention to the question of
distribution of wealth. Its primary concern is on
efficient production and assumes that the market
will allocate the rewards of efficient production in a
rational and unbiased manner.
90
Dependency Analysis
This assumption may be valid for a well-integrated,
economically fluid economy where people can quickly
adjust to economic changes and where consumption
patterns are not distorted by non-economic forces such as
racial, ethnic, or gender bias.
These conditions are not pervasive in the developing
economies, and dependency theorists argue that economic
activity is not easily disseminated in poor economies.
For these structural reasons, dependency theorists argue
that the market alone is not a sufficient distributive
mechanism.
91
Dependency Analysis
Since the market only rewards productivity, dependency
theorists discount aggregate measures of economic growth
such as the GDP or trade indices.
Dependency theorists do not deny that economic activity
occurs within a dependent state. They do make a very
important distinction, however, between economic growth
and economic development.
92
Dependency Analysis
For example, there is a greater concern within the
dependency framework for whether the economic activity is
actually benefiting the nation as a whole.
Therefore, far greater attention is paid to indices such as
life expectancy, literacy, infant mortality, education, and the
like.
Dependency theorists clearly emphasize social indicators
far more than economic indicators.
93
Dependency Analysis
Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue
policies of self-reliance.
Contrary to the neo-classical models endorsed by the IMF
and the WB, greater integration into the global economy is
not necessarily a good choice for poor countries.
Often this policy perspective is viewed as an endorsement
of a policy of autarky, and there have been some
experiments with such a policy such as China's Great Leap
Forward or Tanzania's policy of Ujamaa.
94
Dependency Analysis
The failures of these policies are clear, and the failures
suggest that autarky is not a good choice.
Rather a policy of self-reliance should be interpreted as
endorsing a policy of controlled interactions with the world
economy: poor countries should only endorse interactions
on terms that promise to improve the social and economic
welfare of the larger citizenry.
95
Underdevelopment
Underdevelopment is obviously extensive. Depending on where the
line is drawn between developed and underdeveloped societies.
The underdeveloped world makes up between 75 and 85 percent of
the world's population.
The World Bank [1999 figures] classifies countries encompassing
40% of the world's population as low-income (average GNP per
capita of $410 per year);
countries with 35% of world population as lower-middle-income
(average per capita GNP of $1,200 per year);
countries with 10% of world population as upper-middle-income
(average per capita GNP of $4,900 per year); and
countries with just 15% of world population as high-income (average
per capita GNP of $25,730 per year).
96
Underdevelopment
We should also take note of the persistence of
underdevelopment.
The membership list of the exclusive club of rich countries
has not changed much between 1900 and the present.
In 1900 the club consisted of Western Europe, and North
America [minus Mexico] with Japan applying for
membership.
Now it consists of Western Europe, North America [still
minus Mexico] and Japan with Eastern Europe, South
Korea and Taiwan knocking at the door.
97
Theories of Underdevelopment
Development economics is one of the most
unsettled fields of economics.
It is awash with a profusion of competing theories
of the causes of underdevelopment and swarming
with even more approaches to development policy.
Nonetheless, the major theories of
underdevelopment fall into two broad categories:
1. stage (or linear) theories and
2. non-linear theories.
98
Stage theories stress the similarities between the
underdeveloped economies today and the now-developed
economies during earlier phases of their industrial
revolutions.
Non-linear theories stress the differences between the
conditions faced by underdeveloped countries today and
the conditions under which the now-developed countries
began their industrial revolutions.
Conservative and radical development economists do not
automatically fall into any particular camp.
There are conservative and radical versions of stage
theories and there are conservative and radical versions of
non-linear theories.
99
Stage Theories
The best-known stage theory of economic development
was developed WW Rostow.
Rostow described five stages of growth which he used to
explain the major discontinuities of economic development
as they affected the now-industrialized nations.
1. Pre-industrial/Traditional stage
2. Preconditions for take off
3. Take off
4. Drive to Maturity
5. Mass Consumption
100
1. Pre-Industrial/Traditional Stage
The strength of Rostow's theory is how deeply rooted it is in
the economic history of the rich countries.
The major weakness is the assumption that the poor
countries are poor simply because they "took off" later than
the rich countries (or because they have yet to take off).
Rostow identifies a pre-industrial stage which he labels
traditional society. The first step on the road to
development is to meet the preconditions for take-off
101
2. Preconditions for Take Off

This involves enough modernization of agriculture
to feed a growing population of non-farmers;
Development and modernization of some
infrastructure in the form of roads, canals or
railroads; and the growing influence and power of
a group willing and able to lead the country into
industrialization.
102
3. Take Off
Once the preconditions are met, the country is ready for take-off. Savings
of 10 to 15% of GDP will be regularly invested in one or more
manufacturing industries.
This is the point at which self-sustaining growth begins.
The leading industry brings other industries along through both forward
and backward linkages. For example, Swedish timber exports grew rapidly
in the 1860s. This provided investment opportunities in the logging and
sawmilling industries. Growth then occurred in the saw blade industry [a
backward linkage] and the wood-products industries such as door-jambs
and furniture [forward linkages].
Note that some industries might not have sufficient linkages to propel an
economy into take-off. Jamaica's bauxite exports go from the mines to the
harbor without any linkages to the local economy other than the mining jobs.
103
4. Drive to Maturity
The next stage broadens the economic base of the growing
economy.
Rostow switches his metaphor at this stage and calls it the
drive to maturity.
More forward and backward linkages are exploited. A
cacao exporter starts to export chocolate bars and to
manufacture the agricultural machinery used on the cacao
plantations. Sweden's wood-product exports broaden to
include matches while the use of hydroelectric power for
remote sawmills is the first step in the development of an
electrical industry
104
5. Mass Consumption
The final stage, the age of high mass
consumption, starts when rising wages lead
to the increased consumption of new
consumer goods. Most times these are
ostentatious goods leading to an increase in
ostentations demand
Note that this stage is similar to the process
of ripening.
105
Marxist Stage Theory

Marx also had a stage theory of economic
development. Capitalism is, by its very
nature, a global system.
Capitalists will seek out new markets,
cheaper sources of raw material and
cheaper labor wherever they can be found.
The effect will be to spread the capitalist
mode of production throughout the globe:
106
“The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement

of all instruments of production, by the
immensely facilitated means of
communication, draws all, even the most
barbarian, nations into civilization. The
cheap prices of its commodities are the
heavy artillery with which it batters down all
Chinese walls, ..”
[The Communist Manifesto, 1848].
107
Regional resource
Natural
Technological
Human
Windfall
Imported
108
Regional Development
Regional development concerns the incidence of economic
growth.
It is ultimately the result of the location of economic
activities in response to differential regional attractions.
Shifts in the location pattern have direct repercussions on
income, employment and welfare.
Since spatial organisation is a function of activity and
interaction patterns, regional development is simply an
expression of these patterns.
Used in a relative context, comparing problem regions with
the prosperous regions, or with national context, on the
basis of a variety of socio-economic indicators. It can also
be used in an absolute context, the development within a
particular region.
109
Regional Analysis
Results of spatial and ecological analysis

are combined. Appropriate regional units are
identified through areal differentiation, and
then the flows and links between pairs of
regions are established
Study of spatial organization expressed as
pattern and process – accounting for spatial
variations
110
Levels of Planning
1. The National Level
2. Local Authority Level
3. The Sub-regional Level
111
Types of Planning
1. Physical and Economic Planning
2. Allocative and Innovative Planning
3. Multi and Single Objective Planning
4. Indicative and Imperative Planning
5. Strategic Planning
112
The need for Regional Planning
• Pressure for Government action
• Congested urban regions/areas
• Depressed industrial and rural regions
• Separate regional identities and political cultures
• Regional structure of administration and decision-
making
• Supportive device for national and local planning
• Growth and Growth management
• Economic imbalance
• Employment and Unemployment
113
Modes of Planning
What are modes of planning?
The operational state of planning or a planning
project or development project (national or local).
For example, lais·sez faire mode is a state in
which there is opposition to governmental
regulation of or interference in commerce beyond
the minimum necessary for a free-enterprise
system to operate according to its own economic
laws.
lais·sez faire - nnon-interference in the affairs of
others.
114
Summary of four modes of Planning
Mode Exploitative
Ameliorative problem Allocative trend
opportunity Normative goal-oriented
solving modifying
Action seeking
Planning Planning for the present by Planning towards a Planning with a Planning by creating a
modes reacting to past problems predicted future predicted future desired future
Decide on the future desired

Determine and make best Determine & make & allocate resources so that
Analysing problems, design of trends & allocate most of trends & trends are changed or
Planning
interventions, allocate resources in accordance allocate resources to created accordingly.
operations
resource accordingly with desires to promote or take advantage of Desired future may be
alter them what to come based on present, predicted
or new values
Unbalanced & modify

future by taking Extensive modification of
advantage of the future by aiming for what
Gently balance & modify
predicable ―could be‖. New predictions
Haphazard modification of future by avoiding
Result of happenings, avoiding by changing values or
future by reducing the future predictable problems & by
planning some problems & goals, matching outcomes
burden & squeal of present achieving a balanced
action exploiting others to desires, or avoiding &
problems progress to avoid creating
without major changing problems to ones
new problems
concern for easier to handle or to
emergence of new tolerate
problems
115
Regional development theory
• Hirschman, Myrdal and Perroux
Spatial implications of the development process bridging the gap
between economic and regional development models
Growth Pole Concept - Growth Points
Spread and Backwash Effect
Multiplier Effect
• John Friedman
–Centre Periphery Dominance
The urbany is seen as the centre while the rest of the region is
seen as the periphery
116
Regional Development Theories
• Growth Pole concept
• Regionalisation
– Homogeneous region
– Functional region
– Planning region
– Development region
• Core
• Upward transitional
• Resource frontiers
• Downward transitional
• Special problem area
117
The location of industry
Understanding of laws underlying regional internal structure is
essential if the planner is to predict the reaction of the region to
policies and pressures.
Interference in the existing patterns of activities within a region is
important in structuring economic opportunities and regional
development strategies have locational relativity
Forms basis for zoning and development planning
Location is concerned with spatial relationships and
interrelationships
Aim is to find the optimum location of and for industry
Thus location of industry reflects;
1. Policies, pressures (-ive) and regional structure
2. Economic opportunities and development patterns
118
Industry location – theory and practice
Location of industry is dependent on;
Source of input (land labour capital, entrepreneur)
Primary
Market for output Determinants
Central and local government policy(ies)
Quality and quantity of labour
Geographical location of site Specific
Determinants
Availability of necessary infrastructure
Theoretical approach – abstract from reality a general theory of
industrial location explaining the existing structure of industrial location
and changes in that structure (Smith, Ricardo, Thunen, Mills)
Empirical approach – listing of important factors (existing and potential)
that have been influential in industry location
119
Industry location – theory and practice
Type of industry (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary)
Variety of industry (textile, manufacturing and mining)
Approaches to determine optimum location
1. Least cost approach – explain location in
terms of the minimization of factor costs
2. Markets area analysis – emphasis on market
and demand factors
3. Profit maximization approach – logical
outcome of market and least cost approach
120
Least cost approach (Weber and Launhardt)
Industry will choose to locate where costs are least………...

Assumptions
Unit of study isolated country, homogenous in climate, concentration
of consumers,perfect competition
Natural resources are (ubiquitous) widely available
Labour is not ubiquitous (several fixed labour locations and fixed
labour mobility)
Industrial location factors

Transport and labour costs
General physical regional factors
Agglomerative or deglomerative factors
121
Least cost approach (Weber and Launhardt)
Transport cost directly proportional to distance
traveled and weight carried.
Least transport costs is that at which total weight
movement of assembling inputs and distributing
output is at a minimum.
Material index (optimum location is that which is
closer to the source of material or to the market)
WeightofLo calMateria lInputs

MaterialIn dex 
(WeightofFi nal Pr oducts )
122
Optimum location (re profitability to firm) in different
cost-price situation – assuming constant output
Profitability lies between A and B and O is the optimum point
loss
AC AC
Profit
AR
AR
a Location b
A O B Location A O B
AR – Average Cost
AC
AR – Average Revenue
AR
Location c
A O B 123
Locational Triangle
x
T = optimum location
Used in conjunction M1,M2 = material sources
with the material index MK
MK = market
x,y,z = weight of input and output
a,b,c = distances between location, inputs
a and market
WeightofLo calMateria lInputs
MaterialIn dex 
(WeightofFi nal Pr oducts )
T
b c
M1 M2
y z
When index is greater than one – the firm is material oriented
When index less than one – the firm is market oriented
124
Impact of labour costs on least cost transport location
L = cheap labour location
Isodapanes
T = least-cost transport location
$3
$2
T
$1
L
Labour cost oriented if savings in labour costs per unit of output are greater
than extra transport costs per unit involved.
Isodapanes show the least transport costs away from T as L is within the critical
$2 isodapane, the firm would, other things being equal, substitute between
transport costs and divert its location to a mew location at this point of reduced
labour costs. 125
Isodapane
Points of equal additional transport costs around the (Weberian)
minimum-total-transport-cost point. (Goodall, p.247)
While the isodapane is a theoretical tool, its theoretical function very
much agrees with real-world decision-making processes as sequential
processes, in that it assists in the iterative sorting of alternative
locations and the move from initial, hypothetical sub optima to eventual,
more general ("global") optima.
Cumulative causation
A self-reinforcing process during which impulses activate positive
feedback leading to further growth, decline or other kinds of change
with the same direction as the original impulse. Thus, agglomeration
effects, for example, may lead to further agglomeration and thereby to a
continuing increase in advantages (to some people or activities) and
disadvantages (to others).
126
Inter-Regional Analysis
The quality of the Regional data base is

a major influence on regional planning.
Adequate data is essential for initial
definition of regions and for subsequent
analysis and planning.
The existence of large gaps in regional
data base is an obstacle to realistic
planning
127
Regional database (Statistics)
Regional planning data Data sources
Population STATIN, PIOJ (www.http.statinja.com )
Housing STATIN, PIOJ. MOH, NHT, Private developers, NHDC
Education STATIN, PIOJ, MOE, PC
Health MOH, STATIN, PIOJ , PC, Clinics, Hospitals
Community support facilities STATIN, PIOJ, SDC, MOSWS, MOCD, MLG, NWA
Economic base STATIN, PIOJ, MFP, JamPro, NDFJ, PC

Environment NEPA, MOLE, ODPEM, JEF
Transportation NTA, JUTC, MOT, STATIN, PIOJ
Utilities OUR, MOPUT, STATIN, PIOJ
Physical resources NEPA, GD, JEF, UWA, FD
Employment and labour STATIN, PIOJ

Land use/function/flow NEPA, PC,
Security and law MONS, STATIN,
128
Overcoming problems of regional statistics
1. Data collection on a more disaggregated basis:
Relevant data from all agencies are disaggregated to a common
level of small and spatially regular units. Then they can be
further aggregated into whatever geographical units are
necessary
2. Regional accounts:
a comprehensive picture of regional economic
structure (annual etc. picture of monetary flow)
income = expenditure = output
economic interrelationships between the major sectors
of the economy – presented in a matrix format
129
Regional accounting
• Presents the economic interrelationship among the
different sectors in the region
• Valuable basis for regional policy and decision making
(Income, output, productivity)
• Decrease the need for political and sociological based
regional policy analysis and formulation
• Isolation of weaknesses and strengths in regional
economy (estimates of regional productivity by
industry/sector)
• Investment data shows which industry in which region
gives the best return for a given level of investment
130
Regional accounting – problems with it
• Regional accounting have heavy data requirement
(problem – since regions are not micro-nations
• Varying economic structure among regions, but for
efficient analysis standards are applied across the board
masking particular important aspects of a region
• Regions are open economies with numerous cross
boundary transactions but no trade barriers hence little
info on movements
• Place of employment and place of living may not be in
same region thus difficulty in tracking income and
expenditure for region accounting
131
Regional input-output tables
A method of describing the industrial
structure of an economy as well as
predicting changes in structure
A set of tables (matrix) in monetary format
prepared for an economy paying interest to
interrelationships between sectors in an
economy particularly on inter-industrial
linkages
132
Sectoral consideration in regional planning
Regional planning represents in part an attempt to
consider and evaluate in a systematic manner the
relationship and consequences of various possible
programmes or development policies in light of
three models;
1. Economic growth model
2. Re(distribution) model
3. Ecological model
These sectors represents the broad spectrum of

consideration that are correlated and inter(intra)
related to ensure balanced regional growth.
133
Sectoral consideration for regional
planning
Population (size, distribution and
composition, projections)
Housing (Demand and Supply, type,
construction material, cost, location)
Education (cost, curriculum, facility
distribution, availability)
Health (facility distribution, availability, type,
quality, links to pop.)
134
Sectoral consideration for regional
planning
Other community facilities (recreational, civic and cultural
centres, community centres, skills training centres)
Economic base (basic and non-basic: agriculture,
industrial, commercial, technology, academic, cultural
tourism, mining, fishing)
Environment (physical, social and cultural – quality
composition, sensitive areas, stress, impacts, hazard
vulnerability)
Transportation (type, availability, cost, supporting
infrastructure, quality, distribution/red)
Utilities (waste management – generation, disposal,
collection and management, electrification, water,
communication)
135
Population
Broad characteristics of the region as compared
nationally/regionally: size, distribution, composition (sex,
age group)
Characteristics of the town in relation to region, as above
with particular attention to changing patterns in pre-school,
school age, work force, fertility, natural increase/decline,
dependency ratios
Projections – 1995, 2000, 2010, 2020 of above
characteristics
Reference:
Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics;
National Physical Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year
Development Plan 1990 – 1995
STATIN, PIOJ (collaborate on projections), available computer models
136
Housing
Broad characteristics of national and parish situations regarding perceived
needs
Analyse census data on housing units and households
Determine extent of overcrowding (density of persons in relation to units);
spatial location (use of maps etc.)
Analyse ground occupation (land per unit density): spatial location using maps
etc.
Determine need for relocation or increase in density
Analyse growth patterns in household, housing provision
Determine total need for new housing
Review ministry proposals
Draft strategy
Reference:
Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics; National Physical
Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year Development Plan 1990 – 1995
Ministry of Housing
137
Education
Locate all educational facilities and institutions within the parish and region
and analyse their service area
Compare planned and actual capacities in relation to policy standards
Asses location suitability, age and condition of buildings, play and
recreation facilities and other associated educational support facilities
Assess school population by category (basic, primary, secondary tertiary,
vocational training etc.)
Review Ministry proposals
Determine need for school places by category
Draft strategy
Reference:
Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics; National
Physical Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year Development Plan
1990 – 1995
Ministry of Education, Parish Councils
138
Health
Locate all health facilities and institutions within the parish and region
(hospitals, health care centres, clinics, nursing homes etc.) analyse
their service area and location
Assess location suitability and age and condition of buildings
Review service area in relation to stated policies and acceptable
standards
Determine need for upgrading and/or new facilities
Review Ministry proposals
Draft strategy
Reference:
Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics;
National Physical Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year
Development Plan 1990 – 1995
Ministry of Health, Parish Councils
139
Other Community Facilities
Community Centres, Playing fields, parks, churches, cemeteries, police
stations, post offices, fire stations, ambulance stations, other
emergency facilities
Locate all community facilities within the parish and analyse their
service area
Assess location suitability and age and condition of buildings
Review service areas in relation to stated policies and acceptable
standards
Determine needs for upgrading and/or new facilities
Review Ministry‘s proposal
Draft strategy
Reference:
1990 – 1995
Ministry of Social Welfare and Sports, Ministry of Community Development,
Parish Councils
140
Economic Base
"Information about an area's future population is incomplete
without a parallel understanding of the local economy that largely
shapes its future." (Klosterman, p. 113)
It is important to couple local population estimates or forecasts to
an in-depth knowledge of the local economy.
Whereas population projections function to estimate the number
of persons in an area, these projections do not provide any
insight into the most important factor in local growth and decline:
the local economy.
If the local economy is strong, population growth is usually brisk.
In times of economic trouble, though, an area often will
experience a loss in population- a direct result of a stagnant
economy.
141
Economic Base
Knowledge of the local economy usually results via analysis using a
variety of economic base analytical techniques.
The economic base technique "is the oldest, simplest and most widely
used technique for regional economic analysis.―
It is an analytical method that illustrates many fundamental techniques
used by local and regional planners, including areal comparisons, local
versus regional/national conditions, and standardizing values.
142
Economic Base
The Economic Sectors
The economic base technique is grounded in the assumption that the
local economy can be divided into two very general sectors:
1) a basic (or non-local) sector or
2) 2) a non-basic (or local) sector.
Basic Sector: This sector is made up of local businesses (firms) that
are entirely dependent upon external factors. For example, Boeing
builds and sells large airplanes to companies and countries located
throughout the world. Their business is dependent almost entirely upon
non-local firms. Boeing does not sell planes to families or households
locally, so their business is very much dependent upon exporting their
goods.
Manufacturing and local resource-oriented firms (like logging or mining)
are usually considered to be basic sector firms because their fortunes
depend largely upon non-local factors, they usually export their goods.
143
Economic Base
Non-basic Sector: The non-basic sector, in contrast, is composed of
those firms that depend largely upon local business conditions. For
example, a local grocery store sells its goods to local households,
businesses, and individuals. Its clientele is locally based and, therefore,
its products are consumed locally.
Almost all local services (like drycleaners, restaurants, and drug stores)
are identified as non-basic because they depend almost entirely on
local factors.
Economic Base Theory assumes that all local economic activities can
be identified as basic or non-basic.
Firms that sell to both local and an export market must, therefore, be
assigned to one of these sectors or some means of apportioning their
employment to each sector must be employed.
Means of assigning firms to basic and non-basic sectors will be
discussed in the various techniques outlined below.
144
Economic Base
Identification of all basic and non-basic economic activities in the region
Basic activities – export goods and services outside of the economic
confines of the region or which market their services to persons outside
the regional boundaries
Non-basic – provide goods and services for the community within the
regional economic confines (local production and market)
The economic base theory (cause and effect:
“An increase in the amount of basic activity within a region will increase
the flow of income within the region, increasing the demands for goods
and services within it and effecting a corresponding increase in volume
of non-basic activity. Alternatively an increase in basic activity would
lead to a fall in income coming into the region, and a decline in demand
for products of the non-basic sector”
Basic activity and multiplier effect:
Total employment in basic and non-basic activities
Total employment in basic activities
145
Interpreting the multiplier
A region of 500 000 persons in employment, 250 000 in basic and 250
000 in non-basic. That is a 1:1 basic:non-basic ratio, will have a
multiplier of;
250 000 + 250 000
250 000
=2
Consider an increase in employment of 20 000 in basic industry. An
extra 20 000 non-basic jobs will be created and total employment will
increase from 500 000 to 540 000;
T = ()
40 000 = 20 000 (2)
Where T = change in total employment
 = change in basic employment
 = employment multiplier
146
Economic Base
Priorities activities in terms of employment, contribution to region GDP etc
Overview of brad economic trends and outlook for nation/region/parish
Describe and analyse economic activities of the parish and the urban centres in
the region (manufacturing, tourism, agriculture, etc) size, employment, urban
areas use
Analyse labour force and employment
Assess needs and prospects
Review policies and pipelines projects
Draft strategy
Reference:
Censuses, Statistical yearbook of Jamaica, Demographic Statistics; National Physical
Development Plan 1978-1998, Jamaica Five Year Development Plan 1990 – 1995
Ministry of Finance and Planning, JamPro, Parish Councils and Councillors
147
Environment
Socio-cultural (values, mores, perceptions, habits)
Development and planning
Issues of Sustainability
Impact study and analysis
Identify and map;
Land use and land cover (forests, trees and woodlands)
Geology, climate, hydrography, rainfall, soils, topography
Sensitive areas
Areas of special interest
Natural and scientific interest
Sites and buildings of historic and/or architectural interest
Natural hazards and vulnerable areas (landslide, flooding, tidal surges,
tropical storms, earthquakes and etc.)
Reference: NEPA, NRCA, ODPEM, JET, National Physical Development Plan
148
Transportation
Rail
Survey existing facilities: capacity, use, needs, traffic
patterns etc.
Roads
Assess patterns of vehicle ownership and use, volume
counts of traffic, trip origin and destinations, purpose,
modal split
Projections over plan period
Waterway – ferry, barge boat etc..

Reference:
Ministry of Transport and works, Parish Council, SATATIN, PIOJ
149
Utilities
Water, electricity, sewerage, garbage collection, drainage, telephone
Capacity of present instillations (vs. supply and demand)
Areas served (mapped – relate to population density and distribution)
Policies and standards (supply and demand)
Assess deficiencies (demand and supply)
Needs projections (capacities demands and actual availability)
Current programmes and projects
Draft strategy
Reference:
1990 – 1995
Ministry of Public Utilities and Transport etc
150
Regional: Resources, Development & Economy
Regional wealth (wealth of its citizens) tied to its natural
resources (inherent and intrinsic capital)
Region cannot alter its physical characteristics tied to its
location
Region cannot alter the value placed on its resources by
the market or fluctuations in value
Variations in regional wealth due in part to uneven
distribution of resources and the cyclical fluctuations of
resource exploitation (give example??)
151
HOWEVER - Region can have a profound influence on the

management of its resources
Regional government and governance institutions can
intervene in resource development process to affect and
improve their use or outcome
This is achieved through a general analytical description of
the resource-based regional economy – use the analysis to
construct a model of specific economy and then apply the
model to the substantive evaluation of alternative resource
development strategies
152
What is the relationship between the regional economy and resource
development projects?
When large scale resource development projects are imposed on a relatively
sparse regional economy, the local impacts, both economic and non-economic
can be severe. The regional economy is characterised by:
Slow and complex responses to adjustment to exogenous shocks,
Imperfect information and poor foresight,
Immobility of economic agents,
A lot of externalities,
These are some regional problems caused from resource development putting
strain on the regional economy
Aim of regional economic expenditure policy is to restrain spending during the
boom periods to reduce the systematic strain on the development cycle
153
The Regional Impact: framework for
Regional Policy Analysis
Three major areas of Regional Impact in
evaluating proposed resource development
projects:
1. Changes in the economic status of firms,
workers and households in the private sector
2. Impacts on the fiscal status of state and local
government; and
3. Impacts on the regional environment (natural
and built)
154
Changes in the economic status of firms, workers and households in the
private sector
Substantial increase in aggregate income, employment, sales and profit
Workers in-migration – expanded labour force driving up unemployment
New workers take disproportionate share of additional jobs over residents making
residents not better off that originally
Increase cost of living – residents may be worst off than in the absence of the
development project.
Impacts on the fiscal status of state and local government;

Complex assessment of costs and benefits
Increase in economic activity and population will add to demands for government
services
Expansion in economic activity will add to local government revenue
Will additional revenue be sufficient to finance increased demand for services
155
Impacts on the regional environment (natural and built)
Immediate impact as well as indirect on population and economy will affect
the environment
Reduction in air quality close to productive activities
New housing due to increasing housing demands have implications for land
use and land conversions
Water supply will be affected
Land reclamation – affect future land use and needs
Development may have to slowed down, stopped or reduced or altered
in scale, if these (3) impacts are adverse or sufficiently negative
Alternatively it may be possible to mitigate adverse impacts or
compensate adversely affected groups or individuals
156
Four critical elements in the process by which
development projects affect the regional economy;
1.Determination of direct impacts
• Construction activity – purchase of capital equipment –
expansion of resource industry
2.Regional multiplier effects (direct increase in regional
income fig. 1.5)
3.Population impacts
4.Fiscal responses to resource development
157
Figure 1.3
Impact on other
regions
Commerce /trade
Financial sector Impact on other
Transportation
Regional impact process Linkages regions
Investment in regional Demand for support

productive resource Direct impact on service sector
production Total impact on
development industries production
• Extraction employment and
Inner-regional Multiplier process employment and
• Agro-production income in region incomes
industrial
• Processing
linkages
• Industrial manufacturing
Migration and natural

Increase of population increase
revenue
Fiscal impact Population

Public services Increase of impacts
State investment public services
158
Resource Development and the Regional
Economy Figure 1.4
An Overview of the Regional Impact Process
Inter-regional Industrial
Consumer goods and services
Impact
Inter-
Inter-regional
regional
relations
relations
Resource Inter-industry Direct Impact on Multiplier Process (Inter- Total Impact on

Development relations Production, regional) Production,
Project Employment and Employment and
Income Income
Migration
Fiscal and
response Natural
Increase
Fiscal Impacts Population Impacts
159
Direct Impact on
Regional Income
The Regional Figure 1.5
Impact: framework
for Regional Policy The Regional Multiplier Process
Analysis Consumption
Expenditures
Consumer Consumer
Goods Services
External
Suppliers
Demand for Regional -Trade

Supply Industries -Finance
-Services
-Transportation
-Communications
Regional Inter- -Public Utilities
industry Relations
(Input – Output)
Regional
Manufacturing
Output
Induced Impacts on Induced Impacts on

the Regional the Regional Income
Employment 160
Total impact on Total impact on Figure 1.6
Regional Employment Regional Income
Population (initial)
Demand for Labour
. Age
. Race Population impacts
. Sex
. Participation rates The Regional
. Occupation Impact: framework
. Unemployment for Regional Policy
Analysis
Migration into Region Supply of labour
Natural increase
Population (End of Period)

. Age
. Race
. Sex
. Participation Rates
. Occupations
. Unemployment
161
Fiscal Responses to Resource Development – Fiscal Impact (Fig.
1.7)
The demand fro government services increases sharply in a region
undergoing rapid resource development
Social and socio-physical infrastructure comes under increasing strain
Central and local government increase budget to meet population
increase in changes in demand from the population
Revenue to local government increases from gains in employment,
income, profits and resource investment projects through taxes etc..
Resource ownership and tax structure of local government influence
taxes and gains to local government
162
Fiscal Responses to Resource Development – Fiscal Impact 9Fig.
1.7)
Differences in timing in revenue and expenditures may cause problems
Demands for general government services
Borrowing to close fiscal gaps (returns from investment may take long
to be realized)
It takes time to replace and upgrade some socio-physical facilities such
as schools, health centres etc..
Benefits may be gained at one level of government while increased
demands for government services is experiences throughout the entire
government services – needed well designed system of revenue
sharing.
Central and local government may respond to forces and changes in
different ways also creating gaps
163
Fiscal impacts of resource development Figure 1.7
Resource Total impact on Population Impacts

Development Production,
Population growth
Project Employment
and Income School enrollment
Unemployment
Elderly
Revenue available to Demand for Government

Regional Government Services and Facilities
Fiscal Impacts
Fiscal Response
Taxes
Operating Expenditures
Capital Investments
Revenue Sharing
Borrowing
Accumulation of Surplus
164
A few names to know:
Patrick Geddes Albert Speer

Daniel Burnham Jane Jacobs
Le Corbusier
Rexford Tugwell
Jane Addams
Benton MacKaye
Ebenezer Howard James Rouse
Baron Haussmann Robert Moses
Frank Lloyd Wright Clarence Stein
Frederick Law Olmsted
Abraham Levitt (Levittown) Lewis Mumford
165
MOVEMENTS AND PROTOTYPES
Exposition in Chicago)
Radiant City (Le Corbusier)
RPA of America Regionalism
Garden City (Ebenezer Howard
Modernism and Postmodernism
Bioregionalism (ecoregionalism)
Broadacres (Frank Lloyd Wright)
Neo-traditional housing communities
City Beautiful Movement (1893 Columbian)
166
The roots of modernism lie much deeper in history
than the middle of the 19th century.
For historians (but not art historians) the modern
period actually begins with the Renaissance. A
discussion of modernism might easily begin in the
Renaissance period when we first encounter
secular humanism, the notion that man (not God)
is the measure of all things, a worldly civic
consciousness, and "utopian" visions of a more
perfect society, beginning with Sir Thomas More's
Utopia in 1516.
167
As an art historical term, "modern" refers to a
period dating from roughly the 1860s through the
1970s.
The 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, saw
the intellectual maturation of the humanist belief in
reason as the supreme guiding principle in the
affairs of humankind.
Through reason the mind achieved enlightenment,
and for the enlightened mind, freed from the
restraints of superstition and ignorance, a whole
new exciting world opened up
168
Modernism:
The deliberate departure from tradition and the use of
innovative forms of expression that distinguish many
styles in the arts and literature of the 20th century.
Postmodernism:
Of or relating to art, architecture, or literature that reacts
against earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing
traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying
modernist styles or practices to extremes
For some it means anti-modern; for others it means the
revision of modernist premises.
169
Deconstructive postmodernism:
The seemingly anti-modern stance involves a basic rejection of the
tenets of Modernism; that is to say, a rejection of the doctrine of the
supremacy of reason, the notion of truth, the belief in the perfectibility of
man, and the idea that we could create a better, if not perfect, society.
This view has been termed deconstructive postmodernism.
An alternative understanding, which seeks to revise the premises of
Modernism, has been termed constructive postmodernism.
Deconstructive postmodernism seeks to overcome the modern
worldview, and the assumptions that sustain it, through what appears to
be an anti-worldview. It "deconstructs" the ideas and values of
Modernism to reveal what composes them and shows that such
modernist ideas as "equality" and "liberty" are not "natural" to
humankind or "true" to human nature but are ideals, intellectual
constructions.
170
Spread-Backwash Process
Proximity to a rapidly growing metropolitan area (core) insures prosperity
for nearby rural communities (periphery), or so conventional wisdom
suggests.
Unfortunately for proximate rural areas, the core-periphery relationship is
not always beneficial. Economic development in the core impacts the
surrounding region through complex processes. These processes include
intra-regional flows of: private capital, private and public expenditures for
goods and services, information and technology, residents and commuters,
and political influence and public investments.
Each process both benefits and harms the peripheral region, and the net
effect differs among communities.
If the processes result in an increase in the absolute level of development
in the periphery, the resulting impact is spread effect.
A decline in the absolute level of economic activity in the periphery in
conjunction with core expansion is evidence of a backwash effect.
171
The net effect of the spread-backwash processes varies among economic
regions (and within a specific economic area).
For any particular region, the net spread-backwash effect depends on:
– size and growth rate of the core,
– industrial structure of the core,
– distance of peripheral area from the core,
– existing spatial distribution of development,
– location and economic functions of small urban places in the
periphery,
– location of transportation and communication networks, and
– the distribution of socio-political power.
A consistency across economic areas, however, is that the net impact on the
periphery (spread or backwash) decays with distance from the urban center.
172
Spread effects are the positive benefits in terms of new
ideas and technology which spread from core countries to benefit
periphery countries.
Some would point to the Green Revolution technology (improved
seeds, irrigation, herbicides, pesticides, etc.) as a positive spread effect
since this technology, developed in core countries, has spread to many
periphery countries, allowing them to expand food production to feed
growing populations.
Some LDCs have even become largely self-sufficient in food
production.
Backwash effects are those which tend to drain physical and human
resources from the periphery to benefit the core and to the detriment of
the periphery.
173
Trickle down effect
What is "Tricklenomics"?
Tricklenomics is not a defined word, but from context it is
clearly intended to be an economic system where there is
no significant barrier to the accumulation of wealth by
individuals.
Trickle Down Economics (TDE). From the old story that "if
the horse has better hay to eat, the birds will eat better" (it
being understood that birds eat manure). Reaganomics (to
imply one example). If the rich do well, benefits will "trickle
down" to the rest.
Lower taxes on high income or capital gains will benefit
most of the population, etc
174
Trickle down effect
Trickle down theory
An economic theory stating that investing money in
companies and giving them tax breaks is the best way to
stimulate the economy.
Proponents of this theory believe that when the
government helps companies, they will produce more,
thereby hiring more people and giving raises. The people,
in turn, will have more money to spend in the economy.
An economic theory which advocates letting businesses
flourish, since their profits will ultimately trickle down to
lower-income individuals and the rest of the economy.
A theory of economic development that claims higher
standards of living for the poor will develop gradually and
not at the overt expense of the more affluent.
175
Trickle down effect
Trickle-down theory, also known as trickle down economics, was a term
used by detractors and advocates alike for some of the policies of Ronald
Reagan.
See Reaganomics . It is the view that to benefit the wealthy, is to benefit the
middle classes and even the poor. The benefit trickles down.
It is central to Supply Side Economics and it was a highly politically charged
issue during the Reagan Administration. Supply Side Economics was
implemented, and the economy did improve. However, there is debate over
what caused these improvements.
Paul Volcker , the then Fed Chief, had already begun implementing far less
controversial monetary policies to solve the problem of stagflation and many
have said it was his monetary policies which caused the economic turn around.
David Stockman , Reagan's Economic Advisor later characterized supply side
economics and trickle down economics as rhetoric
176
Multiplier effect
The Multiplier effect is a basic economic concept,

which refers to changes in the level of activity that
brings further changes in the level of other
activities throughout the economy.
When an injection of expenditure into an economy
leads to an increase in national income more than
the original injection, this is the multiplier effect.
In other words, the multiplier effect is the effect
from continuous respending of incomes.
177
Multiplier effect
There are different types of multipliers, such as the sales or

transaction multiplier, the output multiplier the employment
multiplier, government revenue multiplier and the import
multiplier.
The multiplier indicates how many times that the injection
of original spending circulates through a local economy. As
a result of respending, it benefits the local people. Accordin
to "Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts",
"tourists expenditures in a destination creates new incomes
and outputs in the region which, in turn, produce further
expenditures and incomes
178
Multiplier effect
The income multiplier considers three levels of impact created by the change in
tourist expenditure, which includes direct spending, indirect spending and induces
spending. Let us look at the illustration in the following Example . Impacts of
Tourism (Tourism multiplier for Jamaica = 1.27)
Direct impact:
A tourist stays in a hotel and eats at the food establishment there. The tourist
pays for the hotel accommodation, food and beverages. (This is the tourist‘s
initial spending in a hotel, which creates direct revenue to the hotel).
Indirect impact:
Upon receipt of the tourist dollars, the process of respending begins. The hotel
makes pay-ments to its employees, suppliers, and so on. (This is the indirect
effect of the tourist‘s initial expenditure, which creates additional income and
employment for the local economy).
Induced impact:
The employees receive incomes and consume on goods and services. The
supplier replenishes its stock makes payments of wages to their employees etc.
(This is induced effect of the tourist‘s initial expenditure, which creates further
economic activities.
179
Objections of a Development Project
(Sunday Gleaner, July 10, 20005. Pg. G6)
• Granting planning and development permission prior to;
– Granting of an environmental permit
– Public hearing for the review of the EIA
– Expiration of the 30 days period allowed for public comments to be entertained
on the proposed development after the public hearing
– Finalization of the recommendations of the Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Branch of NEPA and the Technical Review Committee of the NRCA
– Prior to the development application submitted to the relevant Local Authority or
KSAC
– Prior to approval by the Local Authority or KSAC
• Where it can be substantially proven and shown that there is (was) a

general failure of NEPA to ;
– Monitor results (as above)
– Ensure protection of environment and compliance with the environmental and
planning laws of Jamaica (TCP), Existing Development Orders, Zoning
Regulations and Laws
180
Central Questions:
What is a region? How do regional communities differ from either local or
national communities?
What are the arguments for and against greater planning and coordination at
the regional scale?
How does the regional approach differ for land use planning, transportation
planning, resource management, and economic development?
Which is more effective: single-use regional plans or integrated approaches?
How does the rise of semi-autonomous public authorities, such as port
authorities, act as a model of regional planning?
How do regional authorities relate to local and state agencies?
Who are the largest boosters and opponents of regional management?
Are some planning issues (e.g., transportation, water resources) better suited
for regional-level coordination than others (e.g., welfare policy, housing)?
How well can regional planning integrate economic and environmental
concerns?
181
• The History and Politics of Regional Planning (MODULE 1)
• Jan 31 - Feb 9: Case Study: Chicago -- Regional Network
Formation and the City as Catalyst for Regional Development
(MODULE 2)
• Case study: New York -- Regionalism as the Complex
Overlapping of Jurisdictions and Institutions (MODULE 3)
•
Case study: Los Angeles -- the Suburban Metropolis (MODULE 4)
• Ecoregions: regional planning as a tool of environmental planning,
habitat preservation and sustainability (MODULE 5)
• Global-regions; International Cases of Regional Planning
(MODULE 6)
•
182
Millennium Development Goals
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Target: Halve the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day and those
who suffer from hunger.
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Target: Ensure that all boys and girls complete primary school.
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Target: Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education preferably by
2005, and at all levels by 2015.
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Target: Reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five
Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health

Target: Reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio.
183
Millennium Development Goals
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Target: Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Target: Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major
diseases.
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Target: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country
policies and programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources
Target: Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access
to safe drinking water
Target: Achieve significant improvement in lives of at least 100 million slum
dwellers, by 2020
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development
184
Energy for Planning
Increase in severity and frequency of disasters and
natural hazards
The shift in focus on investment in infrastructure
and support systems as the engines of growth and
development over other traditional systems such
as education and socio-cultural components
Increasing encroachment of human settlement on
natural lands and systems and the need to
manage this movement.
185
Central questions of Planning
Planners have traditionally been able to define
themselves professionally and politically based on
where they draw the line between proper
government activities and private
interests. However, this may be increasingly
complicated in an era of blurred public-private
boundaries , of public-private partnerships, of
quasi-private public authorities (such as port
authorities), and of non-profits (the "third sector").
In addition, planning graduates increasing work in
all three sectors, rather than just for local
government.
186
Central questions of Planning
Explain how the relationship of planners to
the public-private boundaries has changed
in recent years.
What political, economic and/or cultural
factors have shaped this changing
relationship? Finally, how does this change
the planning profession's view of the "public
interest?"
187
Scholars have used the term "modernism"
as a unifying concept to describe what has
happened to U.S. cities in the past 100
years.
Is modernism a useful category to
understand 20th Century American
urbanization? Explain why or why not, and
what alternative explanations offer, such as
"capitalism" or "industrialization." Be sure to
precisely define and distinguish terms.
188
Examine how the concept of "nature" has been used in the
20th Century intellectual history of planning theory.
How has the concept of nature been defined and used in
various approaches to planning theory (e.g., city beautiful,
Geddes, Howard, Mumford, comprehensive planning,
postmodernist planning, etc.)?
If necessary, distinguish between the terms "nature,"
"environment," "wilderness," "open space," etc. Imagine
that you are teaching a doctoral planning seminar on
"Planning Theory and the Idea of Nature," and this essay is
the introductory lecture that demonstrates to what extent
nature has been either an implicit leitmotif -- or unknown
concept -- in 20th Century planning theory.
189
Sustainable development has emerged as a popular concept in recent years,
yet it arguably remains under-theorized, especially in the context of urban and
regional planning.
In this essay you are to situate sustainable development within the larger
context of theories and strategies in planning and urban theory.
Can you identify strains of sustainable development thinking throughout the
intellectual history of planning (e.g., city beautiful, Geddes, Howard, Mumford,
RPAA, TVA, Pinchot and conservationism, bioregionalism, comprehensive
planning)?
Imagine that you are teaching a doctoral planning seminar on "Planning Theory
and the Idea of Sustainability," and this essay is the introductory lecture that
demonstrates to what extent sustainable development has been either an
implicit leitmotif -- or unknown concept -- in 20th Century planning theory.
According to Saskia Sassen, "economic globalization, accompanied by the
emergence of a global culture, had profoundly altered the social, economic,
and political reality of ... regions and ... cities."
Discuss the relationship between global forces and local factors in shaping the
contemporary city. You may focus on cities in either the developed or less
developed world.
190
Can planning theory, now or in the past, be said to
have a dominant paradigm?
a) Trace the history of planning theory from the
beginning of the century in terms of what paradigms
were widely adopted.
b) Relate these paradigms to the socio-political context
in which planning was operating.
c) During the time when comprehensive rationality (or
the rational model) was particularly influential, is it
accurate to say that it constituted a dominant
paradigm?
d) What is the current situation?
191
A number of theorists describe a break in the
development of cities, regions, and culture during
the 1970s.
– What are the different ways in which they have
characterized this change?
– Do you agree that such a break has taken place?
– If so, what do you see as the underlying dynamic
leading to this transformation and what are the
qualities that differentiate the present period from the
one preceding it?
– If you disagree with the argument that there has been
a sharp change, what are the reasons for your
disagreement?
192
The economic man
According to Njoh (1999), the notion of space manipulation intimates
deliberate action or choice, which in turn invokes the nation of
rationalistic behaviour.
The concept of rationalistic behaviour and the economic man is
embedded in economic theory, where the economic man possesses
three distinct characteristics namely,
1. Perfect knowledge,
2. Optimizing behaviour and
3. Profit maximization
The concept of the economic man possessing perfect knowledge is
embedded in his ability to make ―good‖ decisions by his possession of
a perfect and accurate mental picture of his environment.
In this picture he has the ability to assign economic value to his
environment and has a perfect mental image of his reality and costs
associated with that reality.
193
Rural Development
Rural development has become one of the major outcomes
identified among various assistance/interventon programmes of
either the individual developing countries, or of multilateral
institutions and donors.
A clear understanding of rural development dynamics is
necessary for it to prosper.
In addition, the inadequate indicators of rural development
became a constraint in development planning, for an information
gap in one of its facets will cripple a program that should rather
be integrated.
Thus, any contribution towards the understanding of rural
development is valuable
Asian Development Bank Institute, 1998-2007
194

Regional Planning Class Slides 10 To 11-Revised

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Development Planning Methods:

Regional Development Planning

Lecturer: earl bailey M.Sc. Etc….

Faculty of the Built Environment

United States – Doctrine came first and continued to

Doctrine combines = normative + substantive +

A historical perspective contains at least five

The last two decades of the twentieth century, by contrast, witnessed

What planners do and how they think about the

• Economic (levels of economic prosperity through the

• Allocative (coordination, resolution of conflict

• Innovative (planning for the efficient functioning of

• Single objective planning (goal is

• Indicative (general guidelines

The Planning concern/issue vary but tend to be

The planning period, the time horizon of 'the

The type and level of planning;

the identification of the problem or opportunities or betterment;

the formulation of general goals and more specific and

The projection of the future situation., (continuity – thus sustainability)

The generation and evaluation of alternative courses of action;

The production of a preferred plan, which in its generic form may

Wherever these modes of thought are applied,

Substantive planning theory

Path-dependent and path-shaping

Single feature Multiple feature

Changes in regionness is essential for the core-

Recognised and agreed coorporation in cultural,

2. SOCIO-CULTURAL - Fair distribution of

3. ENVIRONMENTAL- Minimalisation of the

SPATIAL AND ASPATIAL

design vs. social science: (i.e., should the

2. Preconditions for Take Off

Marxist Stage Theory

“The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement

Results of spatial and ecological analysis

Decide on the future desired

Unbalanced & modify

Industry will choose to locate where costs are least………...

Industrial location factors

WeightofLo calMateria lInputs

The quality of the Regional data base is

Economic base STATIN, PIOJ, MFP, JamPro, NDFJ, PC

Employment and labour STATIN, PIOJ

These sectors represents the broad spectrum of

Waterway – ferry, barge boat etc..

HOWEVER - Region can have a profound influence on the

Impacts on the fiscal status of state and local government;

Investment in regional Demand for support

Migration and natural

Fiscal impact Population

Resource Inter-industry Direct Impact on Multiplier Process (Inter- Total Impact on

Fiscal Impacts Population Impacts

Demand for Regional -Trade

Induced Impacts on Induced Impacts on

Population (End of Period)

Resource Total impact on Population Impacts

Revenue available to Demand for Government

Patrick Geddes Albert Speer

The Multiplier effect is a basic economic concept,

There are different types of multipliers, such as the sales or

• Where it can be substantially proven and shown that there is (was) a