Aerodynamic drag is the retarding force that acts on moving aerodynamic body in the direction

of the freestream flow.[1] From the body's perspective (near-field approach), the drag comes from
forces due to pressure distributions over the body surface, symbolized Dpr, and forces due to
skin friction, which is a result of viscosity, denoted Df. Alternatively, calculated from the
flowfield perspective (far-field approach), the drag force comes from three natural phenomena:
shock waves, vortex sheet and viscosity.

Introduction
The pressure distribution over the body surface exerts normal forces which, summed and
projected into the freestream direction, represent the drag force due to pressure Dpr. The nature
of these normal forces combines shock wave effects, vortex system generation effects and wake
viscous mechanisms all together.

When the viscosity effect over the pressure distribution is considered separately, the remaining
drag force is called pressure (or form) drag. In the absence of viscosity, the pressure forces on
the vehicle cancel each other and, hence, the drag is zero. Pressure drag is the dominant
component in the case of vehicles with regions of separated flow, in which the pressure recovery
is fairly ineffective.

The friction drag force, which is a tangential force on the aircraft surface, depends substantially
on boundary layer configuration and viscosity. The calculated friction drag Df utilizes the x-
projection of the viscous stress tensor evaluated on each discretized body surface.

The sum of friction drag and pressure (form) drag is called viscous drag. This drag component
takes into account the influence of viscosity. In a thermodynamic perspective, viscous effects
represent irreversible phenomena and, therefore, they create entropy. The calculated viscous drag
Dv use entropy changes to accurately predict the drag force.
When the airplane produces lift, another drag component comes in. Induced drag, symbolized
Di, comes about due to a modification on the pressure distribution due to the trailing vortex
system that accompanies the lift production. Induced drag tends to be the most important
component for airplanes during take-off or landing flight. Other drag component, namely wave
drag, Dw, comes about from shock waves in transonic and supersonic flight speeds. The shock
waves induce changes in the boundary layer and pressure distribution over the body surface. It is
worth noting that not only viscous effects but also shock waves induce irreversible phenomena
and, as a consequence, they can be measured through entropy changes along the domain as well.
The figure below is a summary of the various aspects previously discussed.
Theoretical aspects of far-field/near-field balance

Surfaces described in the integral equation.

The drag force calculation can be performed using the integral of force balance in the freestream
direction as

which surrounds the body represents the union of two unconnected surfaces,

where SA is the airplane surface, SD is the outlet surface and represents both the lateral and
inlet surfaces. In general, the far-field control volume is located in the boundaries of the domain
(V) and its choice is user-defined. In Subsection \ref{sGF}, further considerations concerning to
the correct selection of the far-field boundary are given, allowing for desired flow characteristics.
Equation (\ref{ta1}) can be decomposed into two surface integrals, yielding

The right-hand side integral in Eq.\ (\ref{ta2}) represents the reaction forces of the airplane. The
left-hand side integral in Eq.\ (\ref{ta2}) represents the total force exerted by the fluid.
Mathematically, these two integrals are equivalent. However, the numerical integration of these
terms will hardly lead to the same result, because the solution is approximated. In the
terminology of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), when the integration is performed using
the left-hand side integral in Eq.\ (\ref{ta2}), the near-field method is employed. On the other
hand, when the integration of the right-hand side in Eq. (\ref{ta2}) is computed, the far-field
method is considered.

The drag force balance is assured mathematically by Eq.\ (\ref{ta2}), that is, the resultant drag
force evaluated using the near-field approach must be equal to the drag force extracted by the
far-field approach. The correct drag breakdown considered in this work is