Professional Documents
Culture Documents
com
Intro to CR Law
Intro to CR
• What is a copyright?
Sources of o Copyrights protect original works of authorship fixed in a tangible medium of expression
CR Law o Begins upon fixation of original expression
• Subject Matter
o Literary, dramatic, and musical works; pantomimes and choreography; pictorial, graphic and sculptural
works; audiovisual works; sound recordings; and architectural works
• Duration – life of the author + 70 years or 95 years form publication or 120 years from creation, whichever is
less
• Source of law – Constitution Article 1, §8, Clause 8
o The Congress shall have the power… to promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for
limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries
• Standard for infringement - Ownership of valid copyright and violation of an exclusive right (e.g. copying)
• Justifications for Copyright law
o Utilitarian Concept incentivize artists to create so as to enrich the public domain
o Create an incentive for artists to come up with new works by allowing them time to recuperate the money
invested in the work
However, this is not entirely true as a lot of artists would continue to create works regardless of
whether they get a copyright or not.
• How else could we protect works if not through copyright?
o Contract Law
Would create high transactional costs
The contract would only apply to those who agreed to it (privity of contract)
o Creative common licenses – sets forth rules as to how works can be used…artists can get attribution for the
work
o Right of attribution is a moral right and not part of the US copyright law system
1
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
Elements of §102(a) Copyright protection subsists. . . in original works of authorship fixed in a tangible medium of expression. .
Copyrightab Works of authorship include the following categories.
1. Literary works
le Subject
2. Musical works, including any accompanying words
Matter
3. Dramatic works, including any accompanying music
4. Pantomimes and choreographic works
5. Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works (remember useful article doctrine….he likes this for exam
questions)
6. Motion pictures and other audiovisual works;
7. Sound recordings
8. Architectural works (plans and buildings)
REQUIREMENTS:
1. Fixation
2. Originality
3. Formalities (most removed after Berne Convention)
Functional Approach §101 – A work is “fixed” in a tangible medium of expression when its embodiment in a
copy or phonorecord, by or under the authority of the author, is sufficiently permanent or stable to permit it to be
perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated for a period of more than transitory duration. A work
consisting of sounds, images, or both, that are being transmitted, is “fixed” for purposes of this title if a fixation of
the work is being made simultaneously with its transmission.
• All methods of fixation are either phonorecords or copies
• “Copies” are material objects, other than phonorecords, in which a work is fixed by any method now known
or later developed, and from which the work can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated,
either directly or with the aid of a machine or device 17 USC §101 (2000)
• “Phonorecords” are material objects in which sounds, other than those accompanying a motion picture
or other audiovisual work, are fixed by an method now known or later developed, and from which the
sounds can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine
or device. 17 USC §101 (2000)
• Distinction between the two - example book can be a printed record but it could also be a phonorecord if
someone reads and records it. A music video would be a copy.
• Authority If someone recorded a lecture without permission - it would not be copyrightable because the
author didn’t authorize, the person may be infringing… however, if it wasn’t fixed anywhere, there would be
no recourse
• Permanent/Transitory: writing in frost in a window? depending on the period it exists and can be
reproduce
• Tangible §102(a) Copyright protection subsists, in accordance with this title, in original works of authorship
fixed in any tangible medium of expression now known or later developed, from which they can be
perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, wither directly or with the aid of a machine or
device”
• Transmission: To “transmit” a performance or display is to communicate it by any device or process
2
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
whereby images or sounds are received beyond the place from which they are sent. 17 USC §101
o If you give a lecture, someone records it simultaneously the simultaneous recorder could be free -
because of the simultaneous requirement (?) Try to Assert a URUGUAY Claim
o Hypo: Broadcast performance with simultaneous recording by artist and audience member?
Courts haven’t addressed this IS IT AUTHORIZED?
• 1101 - Uruguay Round Agreement Act (1994) Limited Exception: Anti Bootlegging Provisions (violation
to have unauthorized recording) Unauthorized Fixation and Trafficking in sounds recordings and Music
Videos
o (a) Unauthorized Acts – Anyone who, without the consent of the performer or performers involved
–
o (1) fixes the sounds or sounds and images of a live musical performance in a copy or phonorecord,
or reproduces copies or phonorecords of such a performance from an unauthorized fixation,
o (2) transmits or otherwise communicates to the public the sounds or sounds and images of a live
musical performance, or
o (3) distributes or offers to distribute, sells or offers to sell, rents or offers to rent, or traffics in any
copy or phonorecord fixed as described in paragraph (1), regardless of whether the fixations occurred
in the United States, shall be subject to the remedies in sections 502 through 505, to the same extent as
an infringer of copyright.
To prevail in a claim of copyright infringement, P must prove ownership of a copyright and copying of
protectable expression beyond the scope of the license.
Originality Originality Definition Originality is a judicial interpretation of constitutional requirement (“author”) and it is more
than mere independent creation
Originality Requirements
• There has to be an independent creation by the author, meaning he cannot copy the work from someone
else, although he can copy works from the public domain
• There has to be a minimal degree of creativity
• No requirement of novelty - just has to be original (not copied)
• Independent creation by author
3
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
• The goal of copyright is to promote expression and if we start providing copyrights to elements of expression
you are limiting what others will be able to use to express themselves
• Typically not copyrightable: rhythm, words, short phrases, names, titles, slogans (37 CFR §202.1 - p78)
Summary of Originality
• Summary of originality with respect to the statutory phrase, copyright subsists in “original works of
authorship”:
o How does photography fit into “writing”?
o The subject of copyright: Congress can authorize copyright in all forms of writing “by which the
ideas of the mind of the author are given visible expression… so far as they are representatives of
original intellectual conceptions of the author”
• Selection and arrangement is the bare minimum for copyrightable work
• Fine art was a false definition - shouldn’t evaluate for that. The fact that it was copied shows that is was
valuable. An advertisement can be copyright without judgment of its aesthetic value Bleistein v. Donaldson
Lithography Co. (CB 62) 1903
Literary Works
Categories • §101 “literary works” are works, other than audiovisual works expressed in words, numbers of other verbal
of symbols or indicia, regardless of the nature of the material objects, such as books, periodicals, manuscripts,
phonorecords, film, tapes, disks, or chards, in which they are embodied…
Works • Includes computer programs, pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works
that are • Once there are mechanical utilitarian aspects, these aren’t considered part of the copyright
Eligible
for Architectural Works
Protecti Dramatic Works
on Music/Sounds - ‘Sound Recordings” are works that result from the fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other
sounds, but not including the sounds accompany a motion picture or other audiovisual work…
Modicum of Creativity
• di minimis Limitation
• Rhythm typically not protectable
• “Words and short phrases such as names, titles, and slogans are not copyrightable”
• __________ : Priceless. There are some things money can’t buy… for everything else there’s MasterCard -
you would get trademark protection
• If you grant protection to the building blocks of creativity, you defeat the purpose.
• Titles, words, not usually protected
Idea/Expres • 17 USC §102(b) In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea,
sion procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in
which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.
Dichotomy
• Limits the scope of cr protection to the expression of ideas and facts, and excludes the protection of the ideas
of facts themselves. The ideas and facts are part of the public domain
4
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
American Dental Association v. Delta Dental Plans Association 7th Cir 1997 (p86)
• Facts: P made taxonomy of dental procedures and D copied most of numbering system and descriptions
• Holding: Copyright upheld; classification involves creativity; facts do not supply their own organization
Coloring Book
• Copyrightable
• What if you color in the book? Derivative Copyright
Useful • Articles having an intrinsic utilitarian function that is not merely to portray the appearance of the article are
Article called useful articles.
• Is the work a pictorial, graphical, and sculptural work? Is so, is it a useful article?
Doctrine
• Physical Separability – ability to have the works physically separated (Mazer case) Although there are cases
where you could not literally separate the aspects, i.e. carving on a chair
• Conceptual Separability – more difficult than physical separability.
o If the design elements reflect a merger of aesthetic and functional considerations, the artistic
aspects of a work cannot be said to be conceptually separate from the utilitarian elements. If the
design elements can be identified as reflecting the designer’s artistic judgment exercised independently
of functional influences, conceptual separability exists (Bandir)
5
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
o We are basically looking at is the intent of the designer. If they know of the test they will
basically testify that they intended to design a work of art.
• Copyright Office’s test for useful articles is somewhat limited and different than what courts have done
• Compendium 2
Notes:
• Think of the mickey mouse phone. You can still remove the character and have the phone.
• Physical separability is a bit easier. What about the model of a car?
o We want to encourage different designs of cars and this may be a case where creativity will
happen on its own
o Who may object to providing protection to a real car?
Consumers
Insurance companies b/c the replacement parts be part of the copyrightable work and they
don’t want to incur additional costs
Carol Barnhart Inc. v. Economy Cover Corp 2d Cir 1985 (p218, L123)
• Facts: Human torso mannequin case
• Holding: No copyright; the features claimed to be aesthetic or artistic are inextricably intertwined with the
utilitarian feature, the display of the clothes; appears to be more like physical separability than conceptual
Brandir International Inc. v. Cascade Pacific Lumber 2d Cir 1985 (p221, L124)
• Fact: Bike rack case; designer first made a sculpture without thinking about utilitarian features. However,
he made significant changes in the measurements to make sure bikes would fit on top of or underneath the
rack
• Holding: No copyright b/c the form of the rack was significantly influenced by functional concerns. Here,
the designer had created the sculptures without any thought of utilitarian elements, however, changes were
made, which rendered the work uncopyrightable.
• TEST: adopted Denicola test: if design elements reflect a merger of
aesthetic and functional considerations, the artistic aspects of a work
cannot be conceptually separable from the utilitarian elements.
Derivative §103. Subject matter of copyright: Compilations and derivative works
• (a) The subject matter of copyright as specified by section 102 includes compilations and derivative works,
but protection for a work employing preexisting material in which copyright subsists does not extend to any
part of the work in which such material has been used unlawfully
• (b) The copyright in a compilation or derivative work extends only to the material contributed by the
author of such work, as distinguished from the preexisting material employed in the work, and does not imply
any exclusive right in the preexisting material. The copyright in such work is independent of, and does not
affect or enlarge the scope, duration, ownership, or subsistence or, any copyright protection in the preexisting
material
• Derivatives and compilations are not a distinct category of copyrightable work; they have to be based on
subject matter that is copyrightable
§101 – Derivatives
• A "derivative work" is a work based upon one or more preexisting works, such as a translation, musical
6
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
arrangement, dramatization, fictionalization, motion picture version, sound recording, art reproduction,
abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A
work consisting of editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, as a whole,
represent an original work of authorship, is a "derivative work".
Entertainment Research Group v. Genesis Creative Group 9th Cir 1997 (p94)
• Facts: three dimensional inflatable costumes of cartoon characters
• Holding: No copyright. The Durham test grants copyright to a derivative work if the form of the underlying
work and the derivative work are sufficiently different this test CANNOT be applied when the underlying
work is still protected by copyright. The Durham test states that (1) the original aspects of the derivative
work must be more than trivial, (2) the original aspects of the derivative work must reflect the degree to
which it relies on preexisting material and must not in any way affect the scope of any copyright protection in
the preexisting material
• if you give a derivative copyright, will it interfere with the orginal owner’s ability to license?
7
Threshold Requirements for CR Protection
and all the telephone companies except Rural gave them permission to use their information so F copied.
• Holding: No copyright in white pages b/c it did not satisfy the minimum constitutional standards for
copyright protection (“selected, coordinated, or arranged” from §101). The selection was merely
alphabetical…there is no creativity, just “typical, garden variety” arrangement.
• Notes: Rejected copyrights for “sweat of the brow” products. In factual works, protection only extends to
parts of work original to author, not facts themselves.
Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co. 9th Cir 1970 (p106)
• Holding: the phrases (“I love you”, “I Miss you”, etc) were not copyrightable, but the cards were infringing
b/c the “total concept and feel” of the cards were the same. (There was no claim for copyright in artwork.)
8
Authorship
Who is an Author?
Sole Lindsay v. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel RMS Titanic SDNY 1999 (p111)
Ownership • Facts:∏ filmed and directed a British documentary film about the Titanic
• Holding: where a ∏ alleges that he exercised such a “high degree of control” over a film operation (lighting,
angles, etc) such that the final product duplicates his conceptions and visions of what the film should look
like, he may be said to be the author
o
•
Joint • §101 - A “joint work” is a work prepared by two or more authors with the intention that
Ownership their contributions be merged into inseparable or interdependent parts of a unitary
whole.
• Requirements:
o Two or more “authors” - each must contribute something independently
copyrightable
o intention to merge inseparable/interdependent parts of unitary whole (doesn’t have to
be simultaneous intention - e.g., music added to lyrics later)
• Joint Ownership- see §201(a) above
o Each co-owner has undivided ownership in entire work
o Can license or use whole work w/o consent of other joint owners EXCEPT: duty to
account for profits to joint owners and cannot grant exclusive license w/o consent of
all co-owners
1st requirement Erickson v. Trinity Theater Inc 7th Cir 1994 (p113)
• Facts: Erickson prepared three plays for theater, and after some time the theater stopped paying royalties on
performances; D argued it was co- author and co-owner b/c suggestions from Trinity actors were added
• Holding: No joint authorship b/c Trinity could not identify any copyrightable contribution made by its actors;
rejected Prof Nimmer’s de minimis test requires that only the combined product of joint efforts can be
copyrightable and upheld Prof Goldstein’s copyrightability test.
9
Authorship
motion picture or other audiovisual work, as a translation, as a supplementary work, as a compilation, as an
instructional text, as a test, as answer material for a test, or as an atlas, if the parties expressly agree in a
written instrument signed by them that the work shall be considered a work made for hire…
1909 Act
• Employee – presumption that the work prepared by employees within the scope of employment were works
made for hire
• Independent Contractor – presumption that commissioned works were made for hire
1976 Act
• §201(b) Works Made for Hire.— In the case of a work made for hire, the employer or other person for whom
the work was prepared is considered the author for purposes of this title, and, unless the parties have
expressly agreed otherwise in a written instrument signed by them, owns all of the rights comprised in the
copyright.
§105 - Subject matter of copyright: US Gov works
• no protection for US Gov works
• rationales: work is subsidized by taxes so don’t need copyright incentives, want to encourage public access
• consider Veek case (building codes); PubMed case (access one year after publication)
What is “SCOPE OF EMPLOYMENT? Avtec Systems, Inc. v. Peiffer 4th Cir 1994 (p127)
• Facts: Peiffer, who worked for computer company Avtec, developed computer software afterhours
• Holding: Not in scope of employment; employer couldn’t prove last two parts of Rest test below
o Restatement §228 - tripartite test:
Whether work was of type the employee was hired to perform
Whether creation occurred “substantially w/in the authorized time and space limits” of
job
Whether employee was “actuated, at least in part, by a purpose to serve” employer’s
purpose
10
Acquiring, Keeping, and Transferring the Rights of CR
Registration Registration
• Under the 1976 Act, registration is voluntary
• However, the copyright owner must register and deposit copies of the work before filing an infringement
action ( §411) and for statutory damages or attorneys’ fees ( §412)
o No jurisdiction in federal courts until application for copyright is filed with the copyright office
(except for foreign authors who can get jurisdiction in fed court without registration)
o If registration is denied, notice must be served on Register of Copyrights and Register may
intervene under §411
• Advantages
o Evidentiary benefits
o Jurisdiction
o Expanded remedial options (statutory damages, attorney fees)
Publication Publication
• Prior to the 1976 Act unpublished works were protected by state common law and publication of such works
destroyed the common law rights. An author could choose to come under federal law for protection, however
if upon publication he failed to comply with the formalities, both common law and federal law protection
were lost. If there was publication without proper notice, the author would lose protection (this is how the
general v. limited publication test came about)
What is a Publication: Estate of Martin Luther King Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc. 11th Cir 1999 (p144) -
• -Facts: summary judgment granted that held Dr. King’s speech in 1963 was a general publication
• -Holding: reversed; a performance, no matter how broad the audience, is NOT publication
General publication (rights divested) – When a work was made available to members of the public at large without
regard to their identity or what they intended to do with the work. Public performance or display is not said to be
considered a publication.
• Occurs when
11
Acquiring, Keeping, and Transferring the Rights of CR
o Publications were published such that the public had dominion and control
o Publication such as to permit unrestricted copying of the work by the general public
Limited publication (non-divesting) – Communicated the contents of a work to a select group and for limited
purpose, and without the right of diffusion, reproduction, distribution, or sale.
Duration • Duration
o Works created today: Life of author + 70 yrs. For corporation, 95 yrs from publication or 120 yrs
from creation, whichever is shorter.
• 1790 14 year term for works published with notice, running from registration extended for another 14
SEE UC years if renewal was timely filed
234!!! • 1831 Extended to initial term to 28 years
• 1909 Extended renewal term to 28 years
• 1976 Changed basic term of 56 years to life of author + 50 years
• 1998 Extended terms of all copyrights by 20 years and changed basic term for new works to life plus 70
• See §§ 301-305
Soleandjoint author:
28 –year term, 95yearsrenewal
•Lifeof theauthor +70
extendedto95years automatic
years
if renewal wastimely
filed
Anonymousand
pseudonymousworksand
worksmadefor hire:
•120 yearsfromcreation or
•95yearsfrompublication
(whicheverisshorter)
• Unpublished works (see §303)
o Taking away perpetual protection from the unpublished work
o Congress wanted to serve public by trying to encourage authors to publish their work
12
Acquiring, Keeping, and Transferring the Rights of CR
Unpublishedpriorto1/1/78 and not Unpublishedprior to1/1/78 and
publishedbefore12/31/2002 publishedbefore12/31/2002
Anonymousandpseudonymous Anonymousandpseudonymous
worksandworksmadeforhire: worksandworksmadefor hire:
•120 yearsfromcreation or •120 yearsfromcreation or
•95yearsfrompublication(which •95yearsfrompublication(which
everisshorter) ever isshorter)
BUTno earlier than 12/31/2002 BUTno earlier than 12/31/2047
Bright Line Rules
• Before 1923 – anything published before 1923 is in the public domain and nothing else is going to enter the
public domain until 2018
• After 1923 – could get statutory protection by publishing an unpublished work
• For the most part 1976 Act abolished common law copyright (except for unfixed work)….there is no case law
for this
• Everything prior to 1950 were works that were in their initial term at the time the 1976 went into effect…if
properly renewed the Act brought them into the longer protection
• For works after 1950 and before 1964 require the renewal. Automatic renewal applied to works after 1964
13
Acquiring, Keeping, and Transferring the Rights of CR
Transfer of a copyright
• §201(d)
o allows copyright owner to transfer less than the full ownership interest in the copyright
o provides that each of the exclusive rights set forth in §106 (i.e., reproduction, adaptation,
publication, performance, and display) may be infinitely subdivided and owned and enforced
separately
• §204(a) - “transfer of copyright ownership…is not valid unless…in writing and signed by the owner”
14
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
Damages
• Statutory if registered, actual damages (loss in sale, etc), injunctive relief (prevent the work from being
15
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
played, performed, etc)
Three Boys Music Corp. v. Michael Bolton 9th Cir 2000 (p315)
• Facts: Isley Brothers (P) alleged that Bolton copied a somewhat obscure song in making his own song
• Holding: Copying upheld; evidence indicates that there was substantial access of the work through
dissemination and testimony from D that he himself had listened to P’s works; subconscious copying can be
accepted (Learned Hand); strict liability so not consideration for intent!
o Striking Similarity – similarity for which there can be no other explanation other than copying
Could not have independently created or mere coincidence, there was no prior source
One thing to keep in mind is that two works may be strikingly similar b/c they are both
copies of a work in the public domain instead of each other.
Defenses Defenses
• Invalid copyright
• Independent creation
• Authorized by license
• Copied but excused under an exception (fair use, first sale, etc in §§ 107-122)
As defense attorney
• you can find the same composition of notes in other works and argue that this was scenes a faire.
• Could have copied from the public domain instead of the P’s work. (See STRIKING SIMILARITY in 3 Boys,
below)
• There was independent creation
• There was no access of the work b/c ∆ was isolated for X number of years
Innocent infringer
Any person who innocently infringes a copyright in reliance upon an authorized copy from which the copyright
notice has been omitted and which was publically distributed by the authority of the copyright owner incurs no
liability for actual or statutory damages for an infringing act committed before receiving actual notice that
registration of the work has been made if such person proves that he or she was mislead by the omission notice.
See §405(b).
First Sale Doctrine - Defense for Distribution right - see Distribution Right - Below
Fair Use
Parody - Satire
The §106(1) - exclusive right to reproduce the copyright work in copies or phonorecords (or authorize)
Reproductio The Substantially Similar Copy
• P must show that the ∆ copied protectable expression
n Right
• This is a question of fact
Elements of a claim for copyright infringement (Basically the 2nd circuits view)
1. Ownership of Copyright
16
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
2. Unauthorized exercise of a right under §106
a. Did the ∆ copy the P’s work?
i. Direct evidence (admission by deft, or documentary/testimonial evidence) or
ii. Circumstantial evidence consisting of
1. Access
2. Probative similarity summary judgment stops here
b. AND did the ∆ improperly appropriate the P’s work
§108 - exception
• that allows libraries to reproduce copies or phonorecords of a work or to distribute such copies if it is not for
commercial purposes, the library is open to the public, and a copyright notice is placed on the copy. Also
allows for the reproduction and distribution of unpublished works for the purpose of preservation of the work.
Can also reproduce published works solely to replace a damaged, deteriorating, or lost copy.
• These activities are limited as to not become substitutes in the market for copyrighted works
EXACT COPY
• Types of copying cases
o Piracy cases (e.g., D burns 5,000 unauthorized copies of cds)
o Privileged cases - where D engages in privilege conduct and infringement hinges on rules that
govern defenses afforded in copyright law (e.g., D alleges his conduct is excused by §107 for fair use)
o New third group has risen from technology changes
Example – copies that are made automatically (e.g. copies that are made in RAM when
you install software - MAI Systems v. Peak)
– Congress amended §117 to authorize third party service organizations to
maintain or repair any computer that lawfully contains and authorized copy of
the software BUT scope is limited
Ephemeral Copies (p363)
• Congress considers ephemeral copies to include copies or phonorecords of a work made for purposes of later
transmission by a broadcasting organization legally entitled to transmit the work
• §112(a) exempts a transmitting organization entitled to transmit a display or performance of the work to the
public from liability for making one copy or phonorecord
o Conditioned on the organization refraining from making any other copy and is limited to use of
the copy solely for the transmitting organization’s own transmission within the area
o THIS EXCEPTION DOES NOT APPLY TO MOTION PICTURES AND AUDIO VISUAL
WORKS
• §118 has an additional exception for a public broadcasting entity
Classic cases
Nichols v. Universal Pictures 2d Cir 1930 (p326, L414)
• -Facts: play with Jewish/Catholic; alleged substantial similarity of a Jewish/Catholic movie
• -Holding: No infringement; the common plot is like an idea, and the characters and expression are different
in each work (idea/expression dichotomy); characters can be protected, but the less developed they are the
less they can be copyrighted (think of a drunk, a prostitute…these are scenes a faire); abstraction test: the
court looked at the plot, then the subplot, the general characters, the specific character elements, and the
precise literal text
o Two part tests - must prove:
17
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
Copying from P (expert testimony okay)
“Illicit Copying” - If copying shown, then whether the copying amounted to an improper
appropriation (relates to ordinary lay hearer’s response; expert testimony is irrelevant)
Sid & Marty Krofft Television Production Inc. v. McDonald Corp. 9th Cir 1977 (p333, L422)
• -Facts: HR Pufnstuf vs McDonaldland TV commercials
• -Holding: Infringement upheld; the intrinsic test is the appropriate test to use b/c ∆’s do not dispute they
copied the idea. The facts show that the ∆’s work captured the total concept and feel of P’s work, so a
finding of infringement was not clearly erroneous
o Extrinsic Test – tests for similarity of ideas and does not depends on the responses of the trier of
fact. Can look at criteria such as the type of artwork, the materials used, the subject matter, setting,
etc. Also, analytic dissection and expert testimony are appropriate and this is a question that can be
decided as a matter of law
o Intrinsic Test – tests for similarity in expression and depends on a reasonable person. Here,
expert testimony and analytic dissection are irrelevant.
Contemporary Cases
• Summary judgment - A court may determine non-infringement as a matter of law on a motion for summary
judgment when the evidence is so overwhelming that a court would be justified in ordering a directed verdict
at trial, it is proper to grant summary judgment
Computer Associate International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc. 2d Cir 1992 (p345, L417)
• -Facts: At issue is D’s software which was developed by simply telling programmers the functional
requirements; P argued software was same “structure” even if no direct copying of program code
• -Holding: No infringement; in abstraction-filtration-comparison test, comparison part looks for substantial
similarity; in this case, a comparison of the two works after filtration revealed that virtually no line of code
was identical in the works, that a few of the lists and macros were similar, but the rest were either in the
public domain or dictated by functional concerns.
18
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
works
o Comparison of the Literary Works
On summary judgment, only the extrinsic test matters for comparison of literary works.
If the Cavaliers show issues fact under the extrinsic test, then the inquiry of the intrinsic
test is left to the jury
Basic plots and ideas are not protected under copyright law. Also, here the sky, the
setting, etc are all scenes-a-faire and the mood, pace, and dialog of the stories is different
There is no issue of fact on whether the literary works are substantially similar under an
extrinsic test
o Comparison of the Individual Art Works
The court looked at the moon light in the back cover
– The concept of the built-in light is not copyrightable, but the choice of where to
place the light, the smiling face of the moon, the encircled star “on” button, etc
is. - differences do not support SJ for D
The illustration of the stars relaxing on clouds
– The facial features and curves of the stars are different, but there are striking similarities
in the arrangements of the clouds, the dress of the stars, etc to survive the question of SJ
The illustration of the stars being polished
– Not enough similarities to go to jury
Swirsky v. Carey 9th Cir 2004 (p354)
• -Facts: P alleged that D’s song infringed P’s song; summary judgment was granted for D based on P’s expert
testimony relating to the substantial similarity of the songs
• -Holding: Reversed SJ; extrinsic test for similarity of ideas and expressions is measured by external, objective
criteria; here expert’s methodology was not inherently unsound, court cannot compare pitch sequences and
disregard other elements of compositions, and scenes a faire analysis did not consider the different fields of
music and different time signatures.
Marobie FL v. National Association of Fire Equipment Distributors ND Ill. 1997 (p360) EXACT COPY
• -Facts: P developed software clip art. NAFED obtained copies from unknown source and posted on webpage.
• -Holding: Granted SJ for P b/c as a matter of law, innocent infringer defense may only be raised when
infringer relied on an authorized copy that omitted the © notice; here the reproduction right took place
when the clip art was downloaded to a server or unto a computer.
The §106(3) - exclusive right to distribute copies or phonorecords to the public by sale, transfer, rental, lease, or lending
Distribution (or authorize); see §101 “publication” - includes offer to distribute.
• Even single copy can suffice!
Right
• Often goes with reproduction right (unauthorized copy) but flexibility to sue distributer rather than copier.
Marobie FL v. National Association of Fire Equipment Distributors ND Ill. 1997 (p360, immediately above)
• -Holding: The placing of files on the web violate the exclusive right to publically distribute clip art
Hotaling v. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 4th Cir 1997 (p365, L318n146)
• -Facts: D obtained authorized copy of P’s microfiched genealogy for main library and made copies for branch
libraries; after complaint from P, D destroyed copies but a paper copy was found by P and main library
retained an unauthorized copy allegedly b/c it had inadvertently destroyed original copy.
• -Holding: Reversed SJ for D in part; AN OFFER TO DISTRIBUTE IS SAME AS DISTRIBUTING; library
added work to its collection, listed the work in the index or catalog system, and made the work available to
the borrowing or browsing public.
The First §109(a) . . . the owner of a particular copy or phonorecord lawfully made under this title, or any person authorized
Sale by such owner, is entitled, without the authority of the copyright owner, to sell or otherwise dispose of the
Doctrine possession of that copy or phonorecord . . .
Notes:
• Affects only right to distribute, no other rights under §106.
• Does not apply where there is no privity of contract or where you are not the owner, but for example you are
a licensee (think of the software context)
Why is the first sale doctrine important?
• Alienation of property
• From a commercial standpoint, it gives way to new businesses (bookstores, amazon.com, ebay, etc)
• Avoid waste
Limits on the First Sale Doctrine (p371)
• The first sale doctrine does not apply to rental of sound recordings and computer programs (L323)
19
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
o §109(b) – provides that owners of phonorecords could not for the purposes of direct or indirect
commercial advantage, dispose of, or authorize the disposal of the phonorecord by rental, lease, or
lending. This section also encompasses rental of computer software
o The statute however, does not prohibit rental, lease, or lending of phonorecords or computer
programs by nonprofit libraries
• The policy behind this is the ease of copying and distribution of these works due to technological
advancements and the economic impact of such copying (not very costly to reproduce)
• Video games and books on tape DO come under the first sale doctrine
Bobb-Merrill Company v. Straus US 1908 (p369, L319n153) - First Sale Doctrine - codified in §109(a)
• -Facts: Bobb-Merrill placed a notice on novel Castaway that it could not be sold for less $1; P sold books to
wholesaler who sold book to D; D sold book for less than $1
• -Holding: there is no right to impose such notice as to limit the price at which the book will be sold to those
with whom there is no privity of contract
Required Form Lewis Galoob Toys v. Nintendo of America 9th Cir 1992 (p401, L301)
-Facts: Game Genie allows the player to alter features of a video game by blocking a value
and replacing it with a new value; does not alter the date that is stored in the game cartridge
and its effects are temporary
-Holding: No derivative work in this case b/c game itself was not recast, transformed, or
adapted and did not incorporate any portion of the copyrighted work; Game Genie serves
only to enhanced but a derivative work must incorporate the protected work into some
concrete or permanent form - BUT SEE MICROSTAR, below.
Required Form Micro Star v. FormGen Inc 9th Cir 1998 (p403, L301)
• -Facts: user-created levels on Duke Nukem video game were downloaded and sold on CD by D; levels where
MAP files with did not contain any of the copyrighted art images but were instructions about where to place
et art pulled from source library
• -Holding: Infringement b/c audiovisual displays from MAP files constituted derivative works (analogy to
sheet music); a derivative work must exist in a concrete or permanent form and must substantially incorporate
protected material from the preexisting work (this is a transition point….this is not really said in the
GALOOB case and appears to do away with incorporation requirement)
Public • §106(4) – exclusive right, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes,
Performanc and motion pictures and other audiovisual works, to perform work publically (or authorize)
• §106(5) – exclusive right, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic, works, pantomimes,
e and
and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, including the individual images of a motion picture or other
Display audiovisual work, to display the work publically (or authorize)
Rights • §106(6) - exclusive right, in the case of sound recording, to perform the work publically by means of digital
audio transmission (or authorize) - NOTE: no right to public “display”
• §101
o To “perform” a work means to recite, render, play, dance, or act it, either directly or by means of
any device or process or, in the case of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, to show its images
in any sequence or to make the sounds accompanying it audible
o To “display” a work means to show a copy of it, either directly or by means of a film, slide,
21
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
television image, or any other device or process or, in the case of a motion picture or other audiovisual
work, to show individual images non-sequentially
o “Publicly” means (1) to perform or display it at a place open to the public or at any place where a
substantial number of persons outside a normal circle of the family and its social acquaintances is
gathered, or (2) to transmit or otherwise communicate a performance or display of the work to a place
specified by clause (1) or to the public, by means of any device or process, whether the members of the
public are capable of receiving the performance or display receive it in the same place or in separate
places and at the same time or at different times
• Limitations: (includes all of §107-§122 but main limitations below)
o §107 - fair use
o §109(c) allows someone who owns a copy of the copyright work to publically display the work to
viewers present at the place where the copy is located.
Does NOT apply to cases where the person has obtained possession of the copy from the
copyright owner through rental, lease, loan, or otherwise, without acquiring ownership of
it - §109(d)
o §110 - Exemptions of certain performances and displays (L334)
(1) - Education (face-to-face) and (2) - Distance learning
(3) - Religious service and (4) - Certain non-profit performances
(5)(A) - Homestyle exception: transmission of a single receiving apparatus is ok unless
you directly charge for viewing the transmission or if you further transmit the
transmission to the public
(5)(B) - Business exception: transmission ok but cannot charge admission or retransmit,
have to meet certain area limitations or limit number of speaker/tv size; conflict with
foreign systems!
(6) - Agricultural and Horticultural Fairs
(7) - Retail sales of sheet music and phonorecords
(8) - Transmission of non-dramatic literary works for Handicapped
(9) - Transmission of dramatic works for Handicapped
(10) - Veterans and Fraternal Organizations
(11) - Allows individuals to skip objectionable content in
authorized movies (ClearPlay technology)
o Limitations on music/sound recordings - § 114 and §115 (below)
o §111 - Compulsory License for cable retransmission;
o §119 - Compulsory License of satellite retransmission
Public Performance Columbia Pictures v. Redd Horne Inc. 3d Cir 1984 (p428, L332)
• -Facts: D operated video store with in-store viewing rooms
• -Holding: Public performance found b/c store was public so size/composition of audience was irrelevant (if
place is not public, then size/composition is determinative); no 1st sale defense b/c D retain dominion and
control of the tapes (not the same as renting or leasing the work after purchasing it)
Public Display Ringgold v BET 2d Cir 1997 (note p432) -
• -Facts: Poster displaying work used in background scene on a TV program
• -Holding: No dispute as to “copying” so focus on deminimis use and fair use; poster was a focal point in
scene
22
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
o No general public performance right for sound recordings.
If the performance is by means of digital audio transmission (e.g. webcasting), then
authorization for the sound recording is necessary - §106(6).
There are no CROs for sound recordings, so you would have to get permission from the
copyright owner if one of the exceptions does not apply to your public performance
• Example: Cover band in restaurant
o Restaurant needs license for musical work under §115 (can get blanket license from CRO)
De miminis for sampling Newton v. Diamond 9th Cir 2004 (p450, L419n52) -
• -Facts: Beasty Boys obtained a license to sample the sound recording but not musical work of P’s song
• -Holding: No infringement b/c sampling was de minimis (use is de minimis only if the average audience
would not recognize the appropriation); court filtered out elements of sound recording to determine what was
unique to the performance (most of what was unique was captured in sound recording).
Fragmented Similarity -
• when D copies a portion of P’s work exactly (or nearly) without appropriating the work’s overall
essence/structure. When the degree of similarity is high the question is whether the copying goes to
trivial/substantial elements. Measure substantiality by quantitative + qualitative analysis
No de minimis in sampling, case criticized Bridgeport Music v. Dimension Films 6th Cir 2005 (p455) -
• -Facts: D sampled George Clinton work in song for movie. Appears to have had license to musical work and
23
Statutory Rights of Copyright Holders (Chapter 5/6)
an oral synchronization license but no other license to the sound recording.
• -Holding: Reversed SJ for D; no deminimis in sampling cases b/c sound recordings have less rights than other
works so you should protect it more strongly; did suggest that court should consider §107 defense on remand.
24
Fair Use
Limiting Doctrines
• Authorizes users of copyrighted works to copy, distribute, or publically display or perform portions of works
Summary and sometimes even entire works without incurring liability for infringing the cr owner’s exclusive rights
§107 – Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair Use (codified Folsom v Marsch CCD Mass 1841 (p527))
Fair Use • The fair use of a copyrighted work… for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching,
scholarship, or research is not an infringement of copyright. In determining whether the use made of a work
in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include:
See o (1) Purpose and character of the work, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is
Comput for nonprofit educational purposes
er o (2) The nature of the copyrighted work
Outline o (3) The amount and substantiality of the portions used in relation to the copyrighted work as a
too whole, and
o (4) The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work
Purpose and character of using the expression of another (Purpose of what was copied - in SW an intermediate
step might not be bad)
• focus on D and his use
• was use transformative or does the new work merely supersedes the objects of the original?
• was use socially productive?
• was use commercial or non-profit?
• did D act in good faith? was original obtained lawfully?
Nature of original
• examine characteristics of work use
• was work predominately creative or factual?
• was it published or not?
• was it freely available for use by public?
25
Fair Use
to license pre-publication excerpts to Time. Before the Time article published, an unidentified source
brought a copy of the manuscript to the Nation which published an article about the memoirs. Time refused
to pay.
• -Holding: Not fair use b/c not “news” (it was more than news). Publication of an author’s expression before
he has authorized its dissemination seriously infringes the author’s right to decide when and whether to make
the work public. The court also refused to extend fair use to create a public figure exception to copyright b/c
this would serve as a disincentive to write.
o Purpose of the Use – the Nation went beyond simply reporting information and sought to exploit
the headline value of its infringement. Here the publication had the intended purpose of supplanting
the copyright holder’s commercially valuable right of first publication
Even though this was “news reporting”, here the court put a lot of emphasis on the fact
that this was obtained under less than acceptable circumstances.
Also, the Nation was deriving a commercial benefit from this (they were not a non-profit
entity). There was a value to this, one that Time paid for
o Nature of the Copyrighted work – the Nation used descriptions that went right to the author’s
expression. Also, the fact that a work is unpublished is a critical element of its nature
Dichotomy of published versus unpublished works
There is a first amendment right, but it includes the right to speak and not to speak
The court looks at whether the work was factual or fictional.
This is more like a continuum….we are usually not going to deal with pure facts as these
are uncopyrightable to begin with.
In this case the work was factual but Nation also took Ford’s expression
o Amount and Substantiality of the Portion Used – the Nation took 300 words of 200,000, but it was
essentially the heart of the book. The passages quoted were the most powerful in those chapters
o Effects on the Market – there is certainly the tangible monetary effect of Time canceling the
contract with H&P and refusing to pay.
Parody
• Whether the parodist has appropriated a greater amount of the original work than is necessary to recall or
conjure up the object of his satire
• The essence of the parody focuses upon the characters’ wholesome personalities (and not their appearance)
o The ∆ desire to make the best parody is balanced against the © owner in his original expression
o In the absence of special need for accuracy, images cannot be copied in their entirety; parodist can
only take what is necessary to place the image firmly in the audience’s mind and those elements that
are to be parodied.
Satire - can stand on its own two feet so requires more justification for the act of borrowing than parody
26
Fair Use
Here 2 Live Crew copied the first line and then sharply departed from the lyrics, it added
a scraper, introduced other sounds, etc
o Effects on the Market – not enough evidence as of now…this was left to be resolved on remand
Copyright law does not protect a © owner b/c a criticism resulted in less demand for the
work
27
Fair Use
Sale of Additional Journal Subscriptions – only slight favor for P in a few
lost subscriptions
Licensing revenues – there was a workable market for institutional
users to obtain licensing fees for the right to produce their own copies
Reasonable and customary markets that are created need to be taken
into account
– Creation of any market does not equate to a loss of fair use.
Princeton University Press v. Michigan Document Services 6th Cir 1996 (p591)
• -Facts: Commercial copyshop reproduced copyrighted works w/o paying royalties
• -Holding: Not fair use
o Purpose of the Use – mechanical transformation of copying excerpts of books is not creative
o Nature of the Copyrighted work – P’s works are creative
o Amount and Substantiality of the Portion Used – D copied between 5 – 30%
o Effects on the Market –
The copyright holder has the burden of proofing market effect if the use is
noncommercial. On the other hand if the use is commercial, the user has the burden
(citing Sony v Universal)
Here there was a market for selling the permission to reproduce works.
o The court also referred to the Classroom Guidelines which allow for copies of works for classroom
use provided certain conditions are met.
28
Technological Protections
Technological Protections
• Digital technologies enable instantaneous, mass distribution of perfect copies. Cr industries have sound
Technologic additional protection for their works though technological protection measure (encryption) and expanded
al legal rights
Protecti
ons
Prohibited Devices:
• Devices are banned if they:
o are primarily designed or produced for the purpose of circumventing OR
o having only limited commercially significant purpose or use other than circumventing OR
o are knowingly marketed for use in circumventing
Savings Clauses:
• Nothing affects rights, remedies, limitations, or defenses to infringement, including FAIR USE
• Nothing enlarges or diminishes vicarious or contributory infringement
• Nothing requires that devices be designed to respond to a particular technological measure
• Exception: Macrovision
• Limitations:
o Noninfringing use (conduct only)
o Library browsing (conduct only)
o Law enforcement, intelligence, etc
o Reverse engineering (decompilation)
o Encryption research (access protection only)
o Smut (access protection only)
o Privacy (conduct only)
o Security Testing (access protection only)
o §1201(a)(1) rule making every 3 yrs to review if this subsection has had any present or likely
adverse effects on noninfringing uses
Universal City Studios Inc v. Reimerdes SDNY 2000 (p609)
• -Facts: D posted DeCSS to allow circumvention of CSS protection system on DVDs and “linked” to other
sites
• -Holding: DeCSS is “technology” and is designed primarily to circumvent CSS so it violates §1201(a)(2)(B)
and Ds intent in creating it is irrelevant; not under §1207(f) for reverse engineering b/c someone else did that
and even if they did, it was not “solely” to achieve interoperability with Linux; fair use does not apply b/c Ds
are note sued for infringement but are sued for providing technology to circumvent control access technology
under §1201(a)(2); linking to other sites is equivalent to transferring DeCSS.
29
Infringement Lawsuit (Chapter 10)
Infringement Lawsuit
Definition
Direct • §501(a) Anyone who violates any of the exclusive rights of the copyright owner as provided by sections 106
Infringe through 122 or of the author as provided in section 106A(a), or who imports copies or phonorecords into the
US in violation of section 602, is an infringer…
ment
Strict Liability -
• does not require intent or any particular state of mind (although willfulness is relevant to the award of
statutory damages) but see Netcom below.
See
Comput
er
Cases
31