An Assessment of the Seismic Vulnerability of Buildings in Accra

Carlien Bou-Chedid, B.Sc. (Hons), M.Sc., D.I.C., M.Gh.I.E.

CBC Consult, Accra, Ghana
carlienbc@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

A damage probability matrix is developed for buildings in Accra. The aim is to provide a tool for estimating future
seismic losses in the Accra Metropolitan Area that can be applied to existing building inventories. The matrix
categorises buildings according to their structural form, construction material and state of deterioration. The
vulnerability of each category is assessed from an account of the performance of similar building structures during
the Accra Earthquake of 22nd June 1939. Repair costs are estimated for the different levels of damage experienced.
The vulnerability assessment accounts for the variation in intensities that were observed as a result of the underlying
rock type. As an example of the possible use of this matrix, data acquired through building surveys, conducted for
calculating property rates, were used to estimate the likely level of damage for one area in the city.

KEY WORDS : Damage probability matrix, Damage factor, Seismic events, Seismic risk, Seismic vulnerability

INTRODUCTION
Earthquakes have been reported with increasing
frequency in the news recently. Major events in
Turkey and India in particular have highlighted how
great the loss of life and property can be when the
housing stock includes highly vulnerable buildings.
The vulnerability of buildings to earthquakes should
thus be seen as an important issue for countries that
are economically weak, as they are less likely to have
the resources required for a recovery should there be
a major disaster. Ghana is such a developing country
that is currently facing economic difficulties.
The results show that many buildings cannot be
relied upon to withstand the levels of seismic action
likely to be imposed, without excessive damage.
The results also provide a measure of the losses that
are likely to be incurred if Accra experiences another
earthquake of similar magnitude. The significant
degree of vulnerability highlights the need for an
introduction of guidelines for the design of buildings
in Accra. The assessment also provides a useful tool
for disaster preparedness and mitigation efforts.
ASSESSMENT OF SEISMIC VUNERABILITY

The southern part of Ghana experiences a moderate Methodology

level of seismic activity (1). Its seismicity is
characterised by several small events and the
occasional major event. The greatest concentration of
these seismic events has occurred in and around the
capital city, Accra. This is because Accra happens to
lie in a particularly vulnerable position at the junction
between two known seismotectonic sources: The
Akwapim source zone and the coastal boundary fault.
The last major event occurred on 22nd June 1939 at 7:20
p.m. GMT. Accra was struck by an earthquake with a
maximum intensity of IX on the Modified Mercalli
scale (Estimated Surface Wave Magnitude Ms = 6.3).
The epicentre was located some 40km Southeast of
Accra at an approximate depth of 13km (2).
This paper derives an estimate of the vulnerability of
various types of buildings from an account of the
performance of local building structures during this
earthquake.
The seismic vulnerability of buildings can be
assessed using a variety of methods. A categorisation
method was selected because it allows for a quick
assessment of the building stock from existing
building inventories. Buildings were grouped
according to the characteristics that are likely to
dominate their seismic behaviour. Expected losses
were thus assumed the same for buildings in each
category. Damage factors, defined as the ratio of the
cost of repair to the replacement value of the
building, were obtained for each structure under
different intensities. With knowledge of the
proportions of buildings that could reach predefined
damage states under each of these intensities, a
damage probability matrix was then defined.
Differences in the strength of base rock appear to
have contributed significantly to the variation in
intensities observed in Accra during the 1939
earthquake (2). Surface soil deposits are generally Definition of Damage States
shallow in Accra except in areas such as river valley
beds, where deep deposits of Alluvium can be found. The report of the 1939 earthquake gave descriptions
Table 1 shows the relationship between site geology of damage to buildings. Adobe and sandcrete block
and recorded Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) buildings experienced the most damage. Some
levels for 29 sites in Accra. The sites were located collapsed, others lost one or more of their walls and
within a few kilometres of each other. A site many experienced various degrees of cracking in
classification system suggested in reference (3) is their walls.
used.
Well-designed reinforced concrete buildings were
The results suggest that in the assessment of said to have experienced minimal damage. Damage
buildings for an earthquake with characteristics mainly consisted of shearing of infill block panels
similar to those of the 1939 Accra earthquake, along construction joints.
intensities could be assigned according to the relevant
subsoil condition. In poorly constructed reinforced concrete structures,
there were many failures in columns, which had
Classification Examples MMI either no reinforcement or a single piece of rusty
Rock Granites, Quartzites, VII reinforcement in the centre. Many instances were
Quartz-schists, Gneiss, found in which structural members separated from
Sandstones each other because reinforcement was not adequately
Weathered Alternating beds of sand- VIII tied together e.g. Lintel beams separated from
Rock/ Soft stone and shales Clay columns, secondary beams separated from main
Rock Shales, beams. Gable end walls were not a common feature
Deep Stiff Soil - - but most of those that were around collapsed.
Soft Soil Alluvium, Made up IX
ground, Unconsolidated Adobe buildings in poor condition also exhibited a
soils tendency to fail even at great distances from the
source.
Table 1: Site Soil / Intensity Relationship
Five damage states were defined to classify the
Categorisation of Buildings different degrees of damage according to their social
and financial implications (Table 3).
Three categories were defined to represent the basic
forms of construction commonly employed in Accra Damage Social and Financial Implications
today (Table 2). These categories also represent the State
main forms of construction for which information 0 - None No Damage
could be found on their behaviour during 1 - Minor Very little non-structural damage
earthquakes. involving very little loss and no
immediate need for repair.
Category Description 2 - Moderate Widespread non-structural damage.
Reinforced Structures consist of a reinforced Easily repairable. Repairs necessary.
Concrete concrete framework with infill walls Involving some cost. Inconvenient
of sandcrete block / brick. for occupants but building may still
Sandcrete Structures consist of blocks moulded be used.
from a cement/sand mix. Blocks are 3 - Severe Extensive non-structural damage and
set in a cement/sand mortar. some structural damage. Costly
Buildings are either tied at lintel or repairs involving rebuilding of parts
eaves level with a tie beam or left of the building. Requires evacuation
with individual lintels. of some rooms.
Adobe Walls are moulded from lateritic or 4 – Very Building unsafe or completely
alluvial soils. Occasionally sun dried Severe destroyed. Cannot be repaired.
blocks moulded from the soils set in Requires complete demolition.
a mortar of mud are used.
Table 3: Description of Damage State
Table 2: Description of Categories
Derivation of Damage Factors
Damage factors have been obtained by a number of
organisations using different methods. The American
Applied Technology Council ATC-13, 1985 scheme
derived for structures in California, collated the
views of experts on the amount of damage that would
be done to each structure in the event of an
earthquake. Statistical data of actual repair costs after
a damaging earthquake have also been used to derive
Damage Factors. In other schemes, information has
been derived from the dynamic analysis of models.
The derivation of appropriate damage factors for
buildings in Accra however posed a challenge for the
following reasons:
 There is no comprehensive data on repair costs
for an earthquake in Ghana.
 The long period of relative calm has also meant
that there are no experts within Ghana, whose
experiences may be tapped for an estimate of the
likely cost of repairs in the event of an
earthquake.
 Many of the buildings in Accra are non-
engineered low-rise buildings that do not lend
themselves very well to structural analysis.
Schemes derived for use in other countries can only
be applied with extreme caution. This is because
construction methods, materials and costs invariably
differ from country to country. It was thus necessary
to find some way of overcoming these problems in
order to select appropriate damage factors.
Estimates of the likely cost of repair for each damage
state were made for damage states 2 and 3. A number
of building cost survey experts were also consulted
for their opinions. Works considered included:
For Damage State 2
 Chiselling of cracks in walls
 Filling cracks with lateritic or cement / sand
mortar
 Re-plastering
 Repainting
 Clearing of debris
 Repair of roof - Re-roofing
For Damage State 3
 Chiselling of cracks in walls
 Filling cracks with lateritic or cement / sand
mortar
 Replacing block work in some walls
 Re-plastering large sections
 Clearing of debris
 Repair of roof - Re-roofing repair of cracks in
foundations
In calculating replacement costs for adobe buildings,
consideration was given to the fact that it was highly
unlikely that Adobe buildings that were significantly
damaged would be repaired. An examination of some
inventories for buildings in Accra showed that the
ages of adobe buildings ranged between 10yrs and
40yrs in 1986. Adobe is now only rarely used in the
construction of buildings in Accra. Thus, only minor
damage to adobe buildings was likely to be repaired.
Values obtained were found to be close to a range of
values derived by Rojahan in his work on
“Techniques for the Rapid Assessment of Seismic
Vulnerability” (4). Some modification had to be
made however. The range of factors for two damage
states, 2-Slight, and 3-Light had to be combined to
represent the damage state 1-Minor used in this
study. Data available for this study was insufficient
to justify further refinement of the category.
Rojahan’s final damage state, 7-Destroyed, which
gave a factor of 100%, was also omitted in the
current analysis as it was found unnecessary for the
range of intensities considered. Repair costs were
determined as a percentage of replacement cost for
each damage state.
Quantification of Damage Descriptions
Descriptions of damage are given in qualitative terms
in reports of the 1939 earthquake (2). These were
translated into quantitative terms in order to put the
information into a more readily useful form. In this
exercise, some guidance was obtained from the few
instances in which actual percentages were given for
the number of buildings that reached a particular
damage state. Qualitative descriptions were
translated as shown in Table 4.
Description Proportion of Buildings Damaged
of Damage Percentage Range Central Value
Almost All 70% -100% 85%
Several 40% - 70% 55%
Many 10% - 40% 25%
Few Less than 10% 5%
Nil 0% 0%
Table 4: Quantification of Damage Descriptions
 Building Type Damage State Damage Factor Central Damage Proportion of Buildings
Range Factor reaching each damage
% % state Modified Mercalli
Intensity
VI VII VIII IX
Adobe 0 - None 0 0 15 0 0 0
1 - Minor 0 - 10 5 55 50 15 5
2 - Moderate 10 - 40 25 25 25 25 15
3 - Severe 40 - 100 70 5 25 55 55
4 – Very 100 100 - - 5 25
Severe
Sandcrete Block 0 - None 0 0 15 0 0 0
1 - Minor 0 - 10 5 55 50 15 5
2 - Moderate 10 - 30 20 25 25 25 15
3 - Severe 30 - 60 45 5 25 55 55
4 – Very 60 - 100 80 - - 5 25
Severe
Reinforced 0 - None 0 0 95 90 50 20
Concrete 1 - Minor 0 - 10 5 5 10 25 25
2 - Moderate 10 - 30 20 - - 25 55
3 - Severe 30 - 60 45 - - - -
4 – Very 60 - 100 80 - - - -
Severe

Table 5: Damage Probability Matrix for Buildings in Accra

The Damage Probability Matrix
A Damage Probability Matrix was set up from
information given in reports of the 1939 Accra
earthquake (2) for three categories of building and
earthquake intensities ranging from VI –IX on the
Modified Mercalli Scale (Table 5).
It is suggested that buildings in poor condition should
be treated by increasing their vulnerability level. Thus
a poorly constructed or deteriorating sandcrete block
building could be classified as being as vulnerable as
an adobe building and a reinforced concrete building
as being as vulnerable as a sandcrete block building.
Information on buildings within an area of Accra was
obtained from property record sheets prepared by the
Land Valuation Board for the evaluation of property
rates. The area selected is classified as Division 4 of
the Ayawaso Sub Metro. The assessment covered
blocks one to seven. The most notable building in the
area is the Accra Girls Secondary School. This was
not covered by the inventory.
The record sheets gave an indication of the number of
storeys, building use, quality of finishes, condition,
replacement cost, floor area and general shape in plan
of the building. Most buildings were inspected in
1982. Some records were updated in 1986 and 1997.

The probability of a building being in a particular
damage state under a given intensity can be obtained
by multiplying the relevant central damage factor
with the corresponding percentage probability of
damage. Thus under an intensity of VIII, one can
expect an average of 4% or between 3% and 5% (ie
60% x 5% - 100% x 5%)of the sandcrete block
buildings (ie 80% x 5%) to reach a very severe
damage state..
Application of Matrix to an Area in Accra
Buildings were classified according to materials used
in walls and the quality of their finishes. No
distinction was made between reinforced concrete
buildings and sandcrete block buildings that remained
unconfined by reinforced concrete elements.
In general, older buildings (Currently 25 years and
above) with the lowest class of finishes would tend to
have been constructed without beams and columns. If
this criterion was applied, approximately half the
buildings with sandcrete block walls would be
classified as reinforced concrete framed structures.
This seems consistent with a 1996 survey of buildings
in Accra (5). Fifty percent of the buildings in the sandcrete block or Adobe buildings in Accra could be
inventory with sandcrete block walls are thus destroyed even during what may be considered by
assessed as reinforced concrete buildings. world standards to be a mild earthquake. This result
suggests a need for a program to retrofit or replace
Two hundred and nine (209) buildings were assessed such buildings as well as the need for an introduction
from the inventories. Three of them were 3-storey of new regulations for the construction of buildings in
buildings and six were 2-storey buildings. The rest Accra.
were 1-storey buildings. A summary of information
obtained is given in Table 6. CONCLUSION
Wall Material Wall Condition Number
Sandcrete block Good 152 This study has shown the possibility of assessing the
Cracked 23 vulnerability of buildings in Accra, under different
Adobe Good 24 levels of intensity, for an earthquake with
Cracked 10 characteristics that are similar to the 1939 Accra
Earthquake. The study has shown that intensity levels
Table 6: Summary of Inventory Contents may be assigned according to the geology of the area.
Results of a seismic vulnerability assessment of an
A map of the geology of the Accra area indicates that area of Accra, indicates a need for the introduction of
it is underlain by quartzite shale and phyllite (6). The guidelines for the construction of buildings in Accra .
site was classified as rock. An intensity of VII was
thus assumed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Sandcrete block walled buildings with cracks in their
walls were assessed as having the vulnerability levels
of adobe buildings. Upper limits of probability were
employed to assess adobe buildings in similar
condition.
The Author wishes to acknowledge Mr B.O. Dormon
of the Land Valuation Board, Accra and his staff for
making available property evaluation sheets for the
vulnerability assessment and for their assistance in
interpreting their contents.

REFERENCES
Building Type Condition No Damage
State
1. Ambraseys,N.N., and Adams,R.D., 1986, The
2 3
Seismicity of West Africa, Annales Geophysicae,
Reinforced Good 76 0 0
4, B, 6, 679-702.
Concrete
Sandcrete Good 76 4 9 2. Junner,N.R, Bates,D.A., Tillotson,E. and
block Deakin,C.S., 1941, The Accra Earthquake of 22nd
Sandcrete Cracked 23 1 4 June, 1939, Bull. Geol. Surv. Gold Coast, No. 13
block
Adobe Good 24 2 4
Adobe Cracked 10 1 3 3. Rodríguez-Marek,A., Bray,J.D., Abrahamson,N.,
Total Numbers 209 8 20 1999, Task 3: Characterisation of Site Response -
Percentage Values 3.8% 9.5% General Site Categories, PEER Report 1999/03

Table 7: Summary of Results of Assessment

Discussion of Results
The results in Table 7 show that in the area assessed,
8 buildings or 3.8% of the buildings will probably
experience a moderate level of damage and 20
buildings or 9.5% of the buildings will require
demolition. The area considered represents less than
0.5% of the built up area of Accra. It was also
assessed under low intensity conditions. In spite of
this, the results indicate that many un-reinforced
4. The European Macroseismic Scale 1998, EMS-
98, Online Internet October 2001, Available
http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb5/pb53/projekt/
ems/guide/AssInt/AssInt.htm#1.8
5. Bou-Chedid,C.D., 1993, Structural Failures
Within the City of Accra, Third International
Conference on Structural Engineering Analysis
and Modelling (SEAM3), Vol 1, 605-625.
6. Harris,N., 1964, Geology of Accra Area,
Geological Survey Department, Map No
CG/343F