Professional Documents
Culture Documents
into Performance? An
Examination of Commitment
and Cultural Values
The purpose of this study is to add new insights into the mechanism through
which job satisfaction relates to job performance. Affective commitment was
tested as a potential mediator between job satisfaction and job performance,
and traditionality was used as a potential moderator between job satisfaction
and affective commitment. A survey study was conducted on 292 employees
from seven companies in China. The study findings suggest that affective com-
mitment serves as one of the mechanisms through which job satisfaction influ-
ences job performance. Job satisfaction can strengthen people’s identification
with, involvement in, and emotional attachment to their organization which
in turn can foster better performance. The second major finding of this study
is that cultural values influence how well people translate job satisfaction into
affective commitment. People who are culturally more traditional tend to
transfer their satisfaction with their job into stronger commitment than peo-
ple lower in cultural traditionality. HRD implications are drawn.
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY, vol. 20, no. 3, Fall 2009 © Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) • DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.20022 331
332 Zhang, Zheng
(Bhuian & Abdul-Muhmin, 1997; Hellman & McMillan, 1994; Jamal &
Badawi, 1995; Yavas & Bodur, 1999) and could lead to better performance
(Allen & Meyer, 1996; Cohen, 1991; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Organ &
Ryan, 1995; Riketta, 2002). It could serve as a mediator between job satis-
faction and job performance, because the level of satisfaction affects the level
of organizational members’ commitment toward their organization, and as a
consequence commitment leads to the amount of effort organizational mem-
bers exert on their jobs and subsequently the level of their job performance.
No studies have been found to directly examine the potential mediating role
of affective commitment in transferring the influence of job satisfaction to
job performance.
Furthermore, culture influences attitude (Dorfman & Howell, 1988).
The literature shows that levels of satisfaction and commitment differ across
cultural groups (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Palich, Hom, & Griffeth,
1995; Sommer, Bae, & Luthans, 1996). However, how culture influences the
relationship of the two constructs has not been examined. Cultural values
can serve to shape how people react to their job and their organizations.
This study is situated in the Chinese context. China is undergoing significant
socio-cultural transformations that constitute an interesting ground for test-
ing how the divide of traditional and modern values plays its role in how
people perceive their job and how it affects their commitment to their orga-
nizations. This study investigated the potential moderating effect of
traditionality (Farh, Earley, & Lin, 1997) on the relationship between job
satisfaction and affective commitment.
Theoretical Background
The literature on the relationship between job satisfaction and job perfor-
mance provides the background for this study.
propose that positive affect and withdrawal behavior could mediate the influ-
ence of job satisfaction on job performance (Hulin, 1991; Isen & Baron, 1991).
We follow Ajzen and Fishbein’s proposition (1980) that attitude toward behav-
ior does not directly predict behavior, but must first be translated into behav-
ioral intention. Organizational commitment captures a behavioral intention to
stay with an organization, based on a feeling of obligation to the organization
(Allen & Meyer, 1990). It usually follows from an individual’s entering an orga-
nization and internalizing the norms in the organization (Allen & Meyer,
1990).
Allen and Meyer (1990) divide organizational commitment into three
dimensions: affective, normative, and continuance. Affective commitment
refers to the individual’s identification with, involvement in, and emotional
attachment to the organization. Normative commitment captures the sense of
obligation to the organization based on organizational members’ belief that
they ought to do so. Continuance commitment encompasses organizational
members’ recognition of the costs resulting from their leaving the organiza-
tion. Of the three dimensions of organizational commitment, affective com-
mitment has been the most frequently validated (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986;
Price & Mueller, 1981) and found to have the strongest correlations with
employee attitudes and work behavior (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Meyer, Stanley,
Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002; Riketta, 2002). Normative commitment is
generally regarded as influenced by perceptions of organizational expectations
and continuance commitment related to transferability of skills and costs of
leaving (Allen & Meyer, 1990). In our study, we intend to connect commit-
ment to satisfaction and performance, which capture work-related attitude
and behavior with which affective commitment seems to have closer relation-
ships than normative or continuance commitment. Furthermore, job satisfac-
tion is an affect and is one of the components of subjective well-being that
may be more relevant to affective commitment than the other two dimen-
sions, and so affective commitment is used.
A range of variables have been found to influence the level of affective
commitment, involving personal characteristics such as age, role-related
characteristics such as degree of autonomy, structural characteristics such as
organizational communication, and work experience characteristics such
as leadership (Cohen, 1992). Job satisfaction was found to be associated
with affective commitment (Bhuian & Abdul-Muhmin, 1997; Hellman &
McMillan, 1994; Jamal & Badawi, 1995; Yavas & Bodur, 1999). In particu-
lar, job satisfaction is seen as an antecedent to affective commitment because
the more satisfied people are with their job, the more identification they may
experience with their organization (Brown & Peterson, 1993; Mowday,
Porter, & Steers, 1982; Mueller, Boyer, Price, & Iveson, 1994). Organiza-
tional members’ orientation toward a specific job precedes orientation
toward the entire organization (Currivan, 1999). Moreover, job satisfaction
was even found to mediate the effect of various antecedents on commitment,
Supervisor-rated
Job satisfaction
performance
Affective
commitment
Traditionality
Method
A survey was conducted to collect data on the relevant variables.
Samples and Procedures. Respondents in the present study are employ-
ees and their supervisors from seven companies in manufacturing industries
in mainland China. Four hundred employee questionnaires and an equal num-
ber (400) of supervisor evaluation forms were distributed to those companies.
The research assistants from the research team and the coordinators from each
human resources department in the companies were trained to administer and
monitor the data collection process. The coordinators from the department of
human resources of those companies provided the list of employees and their
immediate supervisors. The research assistants and the coordinators distrib-
uted and collected the questionnaires. The respondents were asked to volun-
tarily fill out a questionnaire in which several measures were included.
Respondents were assured that their answers would not be connected back to
their names and only the researchers had access to the original dataset. Mean-
while, their immediate supervisors were asked to voluntarily evaluate their
subordinates’ job performance with an evaluation form. A total of 328
employee questionnaires were returned (return rate 82%) and 292 supervisor
evaluation forms were collected (return rate 73%). Finally, 292 supervisor-sub-
ordinate dyads and their completed data remained in the dataset for further
analyses.
Of the 292 employee respondents, about half were male (52.1%) and
44.5% were single. Respondents reported an average age of 30.13 years
(SD ⫽ 7.45) and an average organizational tenure of 4.85 years. About one-
fourth of the respondents have a senior high school diploma or under
(25.9%), 30.6% took some college coursework (two-year), and 34.5% had a
university degree. Among all the respondents, 23.2% were from state-own
companies, 62.2% from private or cooperative enterprises, and 14.6% from
foreign-owned companies, joint ventures, or other types of companies. The
respondents’ occupational background included marketing/sales (23.8%),
technician/engineering/information system (7.3%), manufacturing/operation
(6.4%), management/administration (14.9%), research/development (4.3%),
personnel/training/finance (13.1%), logistics/services (14.3), and others
(2.1%). Respondent positions included 5.8% senior-level management,
24.7% middle-level managers, 24.1% junior managers, 16.8% staffs or clerks,
and 15.9% workers.
Measures. All the measures used in the present study were originally
designed and developed in English except for the traditionality scale and the
performance scale. The English measures were translated into Chinese and
applied in studies conducted in China by other researchers before. In the cur-
rent research, the Chinese versions of all the measures were employed directly.
Job Satisfaction. We used a scale consisting of six items, on a 5-point
scale, to measure employees’ satisfaction with their jobs, supervisors, peer
relations, income, and development and promotion. Developed by Tsui,
Egan and O’Reilly (1992), the scale was used in previous studies by scholars
in both American (Wesolowski & Mossholder, 1997) and Chinese contexts
(Li, Tian, & Shi, 2006), with acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s
alpha of .83 in Li et al., 2006). Sample items are “I am satisfied with the job I
am doing” and “I am satisfied with the opportunities of promotion and
development in this company.”
Affective Commitment. We used a measure of affective commitment by
Chen and Francesco (2003) in the Chinese context. The measure was also
used by other scholars in Singapore (Lee, Lee, & Lum, 2008) and Greece
(Markovits, Davis, & van Dick, 2007). It contains six items, on a 7-point
scale, with acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha of .80 in Chen &
Francesco, 2003). Sample items are “I would be very happy to spend the rest
of my career with this organization” and “I do not feel like ‘part of the family’
at my organization” (reverse-scored).
Results
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations. Table 1 presents the means, stan-
dard deviations, and correlations among the study variables and control vari-
ables. Job satisfaction was found to have a significantly positive relationship
with both performance (r ⫽ 0.28, p ⬍ .01) and affective commitment
(r ⫽ 0.38, p ⬍ .01). Affective commitment was also positively correlated to
performance (r ⫽ 0.29, p ⬍ .01). Traditionality was positively correlated with
both job satisfaction (r ⫽ 0.27, p ⬍ .01) and affective commitment (r ⫽ .16,
p ⬍ .01).The correlation between job satisfaction and affective commitment is
moderate (r ⫽ 0.38, p ⬍ .01).
To rule out the potential common method bias problem caused by using
self-report scales on job satisfaction, traditionality, and affective commitment,
we used the statistical remedial approach recommended by Podsakoff and
Organ (1986). These scales were entered into an exploratory factor analysis.
Podsakoff and Organ (1986) set the criteria that if (1) a single factor emerges
from the factor analysis, or (2) one factor accounts for the majority of the
covariance in these variables, this indicates a substantial amount of common
method bias. The unrotated factor solutions in our analysis showed that
three factors emerged, accounting for 45% of the variance of all variables
and there was no single factor that accounted for the majority of the covari-
ance. According to Podsakoff and Organ (1986), common method bias was
not present with the data collected in the current study.
Hypothesis Testing. Hypothesis 1 was examined by using a hierarchical
regression analysis. In the first regression analysis for mediation effect (model 1),
we entered age, education, tenure, and position as control variables, and then
entered job satisfaction as the independent variable (main effect). The dependent
variable was affective commitment. In model 2, we followed the same procedure
to enter variables as in model 1. The third step for model 2 was to enter job
satisfaction and affective commitment together to test the mediating effect.
Controls
Age 0.18* 0.15*
Education 0.11 0.13
Tenure ⫺0.05 0.08
Position 0.11 0.02
⌬R2 0.06* 0.07**
Direct effect
Job satisfaction 0.36** 0.29**
⌬R2 0.11** 0.07**
Mediating effects
Job satisfaction 0.20**
Affective commitment 0.21**
⌬R2 0.04**
Overall R2 0.41 0.42
Overall model F 8.67 7.44**
Note: Dependent variable: model 1 – affective commitment, model 2 – supervisor-rated performance
* indicates that coefficient is significant at .05 level.
** indicates that coefficient is significant at .01 level.
Step 1: Controls
Age 0.07
Education ⫺0.02
Tenure 0.13
Position 0.09
⌬R2 0.05
⌬F 2.68*
Step 2: Main effects
Job Satisfaction 0.30**
Traditionality 0.18*
⌬R2 0.15
⌬F 12.23**
Step 3: Moderating effects
Job Satisfaction ⫻ Traditionality 0.22*
⌬R2 0.03
⌬F 4.61**
* indicates that coefficient is significant at .05 level.
** indicates that coefficient is significant at .01 level.
job satisfaction and traditionality, we centered the variables used in the inter-
action term (job satisfaction and traditionality; Aiken & West, 1991). The
interaction term was entered; the significance test of the beta coefficient of
this term and the variance of dependent variable explained by this term are
reported in Table 4. As predicted (Hypothesis 2), the interaction term was
significant (b ⫽ .22, p ⬍ .05), which means that traditionality positively
moderated the effect of job satisfaction on affective commitment. Higher tra-
ditionality can strengthen the relationship between job satisfaction and affec-
tive commitment. The interaction term of job satisfaction and traditionality
accounted for 3% of the variances in affective commitment (⌬R2 ⫽ .03,
⌬F ⫽ 4.61, p ⬍ .01). This means that the interaction term of job satisfaction
and traditionality explained more variance in affective commitment than
when the interaction was not considered, confirming that the moderation
effect exists. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was fully supported.
Discussion
The purpose of this study is to shed light on the connection between job sat-
isfaction and job performance. We identified a potential mediator and a
Third, HRD professionals need to realize that the effect of job satisfac-
tion on organizational commitment can depend on people’s cultural values.
The implication of our findings is that when designing HRD strategies to
enhance commitment level and ultimately performance, factors of cultural
values need to be taken into consideration. Our findings caution HRD pro-
fessionals against relying solely on across-the-board solutions to enhance
organizational members’ attitude toward their job and the organization. HRD
practices need to be culturally sensitive. In the Chinese context, with people
who are more traditional, increasing their job satisfaction can enhance their
commitment more effectively than with people who are less traditional. With
the latter, it is advisable to consider factors other than job satisfaction to
enhance their commitment level such as reducing role ambiguity and role
conflict (Fisher & Gitelson, 1983). HRD professionals need to deepen their
understanding of cultural values in their workplace and devise HRD prac-
tices that are culturally sensitive to serve to motivate employee groups with
different cultural values.
Limitations and Recommendations. This is a cross-sectional study, and so
it cannot yield evidence of the causal link from job satisfaction to job perfor-
mance. A longitudinal design could help address this limitation. A follow-up
study could be conducted at a later time to examine the potential influence of
job satisfaction on job performance over time.
Second, the cultural context was limited to the Chinese culture. The
variability of traditionality may be smaller where the study is conducted in a
cross-national context. The use of traditionality in a multicultural environ-
ment may help expand the applicability of traditionality. Future studies could
examine the moderating role of traditionality in a multicultural context.
Third, we used affective commitment, which only represents one
dimension of commitment. Future studies could consider using normative
commitment to explore how it plays a role similar to or different from that of
affective commitment in the satisfaction-performance connection.
In summary, our study has followed the calls of multiple researchers to
shed more light on the relationship between job satisfaction and job perfor-
mance. We have taken an initial step to use affective commitment as a poten-
tial mediator and traditionality as a potential moderator in explaining the
variability of the relationship. Future studies need to be conducted to generate
evidence of the direction of the relationship between satisfaction and perfor-
mance, to explore traditionality in a multicultural context, and use multiple
dimensions of commitment.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China grant no. 70572011, awarded to Jin Zhang.
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Jin Zhang is an associate professor at the School of Economics and Management, Tsinghua
University.