06 Thermal Rs

CHAPTER 8:
8
Thermal Infrared
Remote Sensing g
REFERENCE: Remote Sensing
of the Environment
John R. Jensen (2007)
Second Edition
Pearson Prentice Hall
1
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing
Thermal infrared energy is emitted from all objects
that have a temperature greater than absolute zero.
Therefore, all the features we encounter in the landscape on a

typical day (Sun, vegetation, soil, rocks, water, and even
people) emit thermal infrared electromagnetic radiation.
Humans eyes cannot detect differences in thermal infrared

energy because they are primarily sensitive to visible light
from 400 to 700 nm. Our eyes are not sensitive to the
reflective infrared (700 nm - 3.0 μm) or thermal infrared
energy (3.0 - 14 μm).
History of Thermal Infrared

Remote Sensing
• The astronomer Sir Frederick William Herschel (1738-1822)
discovered the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in
1800 described in his famous paper “Investigations of the Powers of
the Prismatic Colours to Heat and Illuminate Objects: with
Remarks.”
• In 1879, S. P. Langley began a research program to find a superior

radiation detector. One year later he invented the bolometer that was
p
able to obtain measurable temperature variations of 1/10,000 ˚C.
• In World War I, S. O. Hoffman could detect men at 120 m and

eventually aircraft.
• In the 1930s, Germany developed the Kiel system for discriminating

between bombers and night fighters.
2
Remote Sensing
• The single most important development in infrared technology
was the development of the detector element by nations at war
during World War II. Early infrared detectors were lead salt
photodetectors.
• Now we have very fast detectors consisting of mercury-doped

germanium (Ge:Hg), indium antimonide (InSb) and other
substances that are very responsive to infrared radiation. We also
have computers to rapidly process and display the thermal
radiometric measurements.
• In 1968, the government declassified thermal infrared remote

sensing systems that did not exceed a certain spatial resolution and
temperature sensitivity.

Remote Sensing
• The first declassified satellite remote sensor data were collected
by the U. S. Television IR Operational Satellite (TIROS) launched
in 1960. The coarse resolution thermal infrared data were ideal for
monitoring regional cloud patterns and frontal movement.
• NASA launched the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM)

on April 26, 1978 that obtained 600 x 600 m spatial resolution
thermal infrared data (10.5 - 12.6 μm) both day (1:30 pm) and
night (2:30 am)
am). This was one of the first scientifically oriented
(geology) thermal infrared systems.
• NASA’s Nimbus 7 launched on October 23, 1978 had a Coastal

Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) that included a thermal infrared
sensor for monitoring sea-surface temperature.
3
Remote Sensing
• In 1980, NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed the

th
thermal l infrared
i f d multispectral
lti t l scanner (TIMS) that
th t acquires
i
thermal infrared energy in six bands at wavelength intervals of
<1.0 μm.
• Successful studies using TIMS resulted in the development of the

15-channel Airborne Terrestrial Applications Sensor (ATLAS).
• Landsat Thematic Mapper 4 and 5 sensors were launched on July

16, 1982 and March 1, 1984, respectively, and collected 120 x 120 m
thermal infrared data (10.4 - 12.5 μm) along with two bands of
middle infrared data.

Remote Sensing
• Today, the NOAA Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES) collects thermal infrared
data at a spatial resolution of 8 x 8 km for weather
prediction. Full-disk images of the earth are obtained every
30 minutes both day and night by the thermal infrared
sensor.
• The NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR) collects thermal infrared local area coverage
(LAC) data at 1.1 x 1.1 km and global area coverage (GAC)
at 4 x 4 km. The routine collection of thermal infrared data
are a part of each person’s daily life as we watch the nightly
weather report.
4
Characteristics
high-density
magnetic
tape
of a Thermal
amplifier
modulated
light
source
Infrared
recorder dewar of
mirror scan liquid
mirror nitrogen
motor
detector
Airborne
optional
film
recorder focusing
hot
mirrors
calibration
lib i
Across--track
Across
source cold
source
total
β β angular
Scanner
field-of-
view
H radiant flux,Φ
within the
instantaneous-field-
of-view,β
Thermal Infrared Image of Effluent Entering

the Savannah River Swamp System
5
Kinetic Heat, Temperature,
Radiant Energy and Radiant Flux
• The energy of particles of matter in random motion is called
kinetic heat (also referred to as internal,
internal real,
real or true heat).
heat) All
objects having a temperature above absolute zero (0 ˚K; -273.16 ˚C;
and -459.69 ˚F) exhibit this random motion. When these particles
collide they change their energy state and emit electromagnetic
radiation.
• The amount of heat can be measured in calories (the amount of

heatt required
h i d tto raise
i the
th ttemperature
t off 1 g off water
t 1 ˚C).
˚C) WWe can
measure the true kinetic temperature (Tkin) or concentration of this
heat using a thermometer. We perform this in situ temperature
measurement when we are ill. We can also measure the true kinetic
internal temperature of soil or water by physically touching them
with a thermometer.

• Fortunately for us, an object’s internal kinetic heat is also
gy ((often called external or apparent
converted to radiant energy pp
energy). The electromagnetic radiation exiting an object is called
radiant flux (Φ) and is measured in watts. The concentration of
the amount of radiant flux exiting (emitted from) an object is its
radiant temperature (Trad).
• There is usually a high positive correlation between the true

kinetic temperature of an object (Tkin
ki ) and the amount of radiant
flux radiated from the object (Trad). Therefore, we can utilize
radiometers placed some distance from the object to measure its
radiant temperature which hopefully correlates well with the
object’s true kinetic temperature. This is the basis of thermal
infrared remote sensing.
6
Unfortunately, the relationship is not perfect, with the

remote measurement of the radiant temperature always
being slightly less than the true kinetic temperature of the
object.
This is due to a thermal p p y called emissivity

property y.
Methods of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Pan
in contact
a. with burner
Conduction occurs when one body

(molecule or atom) transfers its
kinetic energy to another by colliding
with it. This is how a pan is heated on
a stove.
7
Convection
Pulse
of
warm
air
b. Terrain
In convection, the kinetic energy of

bodies is transferred from one place to
another by physically moving the bodies.
An example is the convectional heating of
air in the atmosphere in the early
afternoon.
Radiation
λ
Sun Earth
Electromagnetic
c. wave
The transfer of energy by electromagnetic

radiation is of primary interest to remote
sensing because it is the only form of
energy transfer that can take place in a
vacuum such as the region between the
Sun and the Earth.
8
Atmospheric Windows in the
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Thermal Radiation Laws

• A blackbody is a theoretical construct that absorbs all the
radiant energy striking it and radiates energy at the
maximum possible rate per unit area at each wavelength for
any given temperature.
• No objects in nature are true blackbodies, however, we

may think of the Sun as approximating a 6,000 ˚K
blackbody and the Earth as a 300 ˚K blackbody. If we
pointed a sensor at a blackbody we would be able to record
quantitative information about the total amount of radiant
energy in specific wavelengths exiting the object and the
dominant wavelength of the object. In order to do this, we
utilize two important physical laws:
the Stefan-Boltzmann law and Wein’s displacement law.
9
Stephen Boltzmann Law
The total spectral radiant flux exitance (Mb) measured in watts m2
leaving a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its
temperature (T).
The Stefan-Boltzmann law is expressed as:
Mb = σT4
where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant equaling 5.6697 x 10-8 W
m-2 K-4, and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin. The total radiant
exitance is the integration of all the area under the blackbody
radiation curve.
curve
The Sun produces more spectral radiant exitance (Mb) at 6,000 ˚K
than the Earth at 300 ˚K. As the temperature increases, the total
amount of radiant energy measured in watts per m2 (the area under
the curve) increases and the radiant energy peak shifts to shorter
wavelengths.
Stephen Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann
Law states that total
spectral radiant
exitance (Mb) leaving
a blackbody is
proportional to the
fourth power of its
temperature
p (
(T).
)
Mb = σT4
10
Wein’s Displacement Law
The relationship
Th l ti hi between
b t the
th ttrue ttemperature
t off a bl
blackbody
kb d
(T) in degrees Kelvin and its peak spectral exitance or
dominant wavelength (λmax) is described by the
Wein’s displacement law:
λmax = k = 2898 μm ˚K
T T
where k is a constant equaling 2898 μm ˚K.
Wien's Law tells us that objects of different temperature

emit spectra that peak at different wavelengths.
11
For example, the average temperature of the Earth is 300

˚K
K (80 ˚F).
F).
We compute the Earth’s dominant wavelength as:
λmax = 2898 μm ˚K
T
λmax = 2898 μm ˚K = 9.67 μm
300 ˚K
WHAT IS SUN’S DOMINANT WAVELENGTH?
• The dominant wavelength provides valuable information

about which p part of the thermal spectrum
p we might
g want to
sense in. For example, if we are looking for 800 ˚K forest
fires that have a dominant wavelength of approximately
3.62 μm then the most appropriate remote sensing system
might be a 3-5 μm thermal infrared detector.
• If we are interested in soil, water, and rock with ambient

temperatures on the earth’s surface of 300 ˚K and a
dominant wavelength of 9.66 μm, then a thermal infrared
detector operating in the 8 - 14 μm region might be most
appropriate.
12
Blackbody
Radiation
Curves for
Several
Objects
including the
Sun and Earth
Explain the hot spot? Live image reveals truth.
This can of suds is ice cold The curtain is lifted and the truth
straight out of the fridge. When revealed. The paint on the outside
scanned with an infrared camera of the can has been scratched off in
you would expect the entire image a small area. The bare aluminum
to be relatively even in has a different emissivity than the
temperature and to appear "cold" painted aluminum. The camera can
in relation to the background. Can only allow for one emissivity setting
you explain the apparent "hot" at one time so to the detector the
spot in the center of the can. bare aluminum "images" hotter than
Hint: it's not a fingerprint! the rest of the can.
13
Emissivity (ε
(ε)
The world is not composed of radiating blackbodies. Rather
it is composed of selectively radiating bodies such as rocks,
soil, and water that emit only a fraction of the energy
emitted from a blackbody at the same temperature.
Emissivity, ε, is the ratio between the radiant flux exiting a
real-world selective radiating body (Mr) and a blackbody at
the same temperature (Mb):
Radiant emittance of an object (Mr)

=
Radiant emittance of a blackbody at the same temperatur e (Mb)
Emissivity (ε
(ε)
• All selectively radiating bodies have emissivities ranging
from 0 to <1 that fluctuate depending
p g upon
p the wavelengths
g
of energy being considered. A graybody outputs a constant
emissivity that is less than one at all wavelengths.
• Some materials like distilled water have emissivities close

to one (0.99) over the wavelength interval from 8 - 14 μm.
Others such as polished aluminum (0.08) and stainless steel
(0.16) have very low emissivities.
14
ε
1 blackbody
Spectral emissivity
ectral Emissivity,
of a blackbody, a
Emissivity, ε
selective radiator
graybody, and a
0.5
hypothetical
ral
selective
l ti radiator
di t
Spe
Spectr
0.1 graybody
0.1 1 10 100
a. Wavelength,μm
Spectral radiant
t Exitance
108
Exitance
106 6,000 ÞK exitance distribution

--1 -1
um
m
of the blackbody,
Radiant E
blackbody
bl kb d
Spectral Radian
-2-2μm
6,000 ÞK
ε = 1.0
104 graybody
m
ε = 0.1
graybody, and
Wm
W
Spectral
102 6,000 ÞK
selective radiator hypothetical
100
0.1 1 10 100 selective radiator
b. Wavelength,μm
15
Two rocks lying next to one another on the ground could
have the same true kinetic temperature but have different
apparent temperatures when sensed by a thermal
radiometer simply because their emissivities are different.
The emissivity of an object may be influenced by a number
factors, including:
• color -- darker colored objects are usually better
absorbers and emitters (i.e. they have a higher emissivity)
than lighter colored objects which tend to reflect more of
the incident energy.
gy
• surface roughness -- the greater the surface roughness of
an object relative to the size of the incident wavelength, the
greater the surface area of the object and potential for
absorption and re-emission of energy.
• moisture content -- the more moisture an object contains,

the greater its ability to absorb energy and become a good
emitter. Wet soil particles have a high emissivity similar to
water.
• compaction
ti -- the
th ddegree off soil
il compaction
ti can effect
ff t
emissivity.
• field-of-view -- the emissivity of a single leaf measured with
a very high resolution thermal radiometer will have a
different emissivity than an entire tree crown viewed using a
coarse spatial resolution radiometer.
• wavelength -- the emissivity of an object is generally
considered to be wavelength dependent. For example, while
the emissivity of an object is often considered to be constant
throughout the 8 - 14 mm region, its emissivity in the 3 -5 mm
region may be different.
16
• viewing angle - the emissivity of an object can vary with
sensor viewing angle.
angle
We must take into account an object’s emissivity when we

use our remote radiant temperature measurement to
measure the object’s true kinetic temperature.
This is done by applying Kirchoff’s radiation law.
Kirchoff’s Radiation Law

Remember that the terrain intercepts incident (incoming)
radiant flux (Φi).
) This incident energy interacts with
terrain materials. The amount of radiant flux reflected
from the surface (Φr), the amount of radiant flux absorbed
by the surface (Φα), and the amount of radiant flux
transmitted through the surface (Φτ) can be carefully
measured as we apply the principle of conservation of
energy and attempt to keep track of what happens to all the
incident energy. The general equation for the interaction of
spectral (λ) radiant flux with the terrain is:
1 = Φiλ = Φrλ + Φαλ + Φτλ
17
The Russian physicist Kirchhoff found that in the infrared
portion of the spectrum the spectral emissivity of an object
generally equals its spectral absorptance, i.e. αλ ~ ελ. This is
often phrased as:
“good absorbers are good emitters and
good reflectors are poor emitters”.
Also, most real-world materials are usually opaque to
thermal radiation meaningg that no radiant flux exits from
the other side of the terrain element. Therefore, we may
assume transmittance, τλ = 0. Substituting emissivity for
absorptance and removing transmittance from the
equation yields:
1 = rλ + ε λ

This simple relationship describes why objects appear as
they do on thermal infrared imagery. Because the terrain
does not lose anyy incident energy gy to transmittance, all of
the energy leaving the object must be accounted for by the
inverse relationship between reflectance (rλ) and emissivity
(ελ). If reflectivity increases then emissivity must decrease. If
emissivity increases then reflectivity must decrease. For
example, water absorbs almost all incident energy and
reflects very little. Therefore, water is a very good emitter
and has a high emissivity close to 1. Conversely, a sheet
metal roof reflects most of the incident energy, absorbs
very little, yielding an emissivity much less than 1.
Therefore, metal objects such as cars, aircraft, and metal
roofs almost always look very cold (dark) on thermal
infrared imagery.
18
The goal of thermal infrared remote sensing is to be able to
point a radiometer at an object and have the apparent
radiant temperature recorded (Trad) equal the true kinetic
temperature of the object (Tkin). Unfortunately, the radiant
flux from a real-world object
j at a ggiven temperature
p is not
the same as the radiant flux from a blackbody at the same
temperature largely due to the effects of emissivity.
Knowing the emissivity characteristics of an object makes
it possible to modify the Stefan-Boltzmann law (originally
applicable to blackbodies) so that it pertains to the total
spectral radiant flux of real-world materials (Mr):
Mr = ε σTkin 4
It takes into account the temperature of the object and its
emissivity to create a more accurate estimate of the radiant
flux exiting an object.

• Thermal infrared remote sensing systems generally
record the apparent radiant temperature, Trad of the terrain
rather than the true kinetic temperature,
p , Tkin. If we assume
that the incorporation of emissivity in the previous
equation has improved our measurement to the point that:
Mr = ε σ Tkin 4 and we assume that
Mb = σ Trad4 and
Mr = Mb then
then,
σ Trad4 = ε σ Tkin 4
Therefore, the radiant temperature of an object recorded
by a remote sensor is related to its true kinetic temperature
and emissivity by the following relationship: Trad = ε 1/4Tkin
19
Thermal Properties of Terrain
Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, the atmosphere, and human

tissue all have the ability to conduct heat directly through
them (thermal conductivity) onto another surface and to
store heat (thermal capacity). Some materials respond to
changes in temperature more rapidly or slowly than others
(thermal inertia).
Thermal Properties of Terrain

• Thermal capacity (c) is the ability of a material to store
heat. It is measured as the number of calories required to
raise a gram of material (e.g. water) 1 ˚C (cal g-1 ˚C-1).
Water has the highest thermal capacity (1.00). It stores heat
very well relative to all the other materials.
• Thermal conductivity (K) is the rate that heat will pass
through a material and is measured as the number of
calories that will p
pass through
g a 1-cm cube of material in 1
second when two opposite faces are maintained at 1 ˚C
difference in temperature (cal cm-1 sec-1 ˚C). The
conductivity of a material is variable due to soil moisture
and particle size. Many rocks and soils are extremely poor
conductors of heat.
20
Thermal Inertia
• Thermal inertia (P) is a measurement of the thermal
response of a material to temperature changes and is
measured in calories per square centimeter per second
square root per degree Celsius (cal cm-2 sec -1/2 ˚C-1).
Thermal inertia is computed using the equation:
P = (K x p x c)1/2
where K is thermal conductivity,y, p is densityy (g cm-3), and c
is thermal capacity. Density is the most important property
in this equation because thermal inertia generally increases
linearly with increasing material density.
Apparent Thermal Inertia

• It would be wonderful if we could remotely sense each of the
aforementioned variables and then simply compute thermal inertia.
Unfortunately, this is not the case because conductivity, density, and
thermal capacity must all be measured in situ. Nevertheless, it is possible
to remotely sense and compute an apparent thermal inertia measurement
per pixel in the following manner. A thermal infrared image is acquired
over the identical terrain in the nighttime and in the early afternoon. The
two images are geometrically and radiometrically registered to one
another and the change in temperature, ∆T for a specific pixel is
determined by subtracting the nighttime apparent temperature from the
daytime apparent temperature. The apparent thermal inertia (ATI) per
pixel is:
ATI = 1 - A
∆T
with A being the albedo (reflectance) measured in a visible band of the
spectrum for the pixel of interest.
21
Thermal Infrared
Data Collection
Thermal infrared remote sensor data may be collected by:

• across-track thermal scanners, and
• push-broom linear and area array charge-coupled
device (CCD) detectors.
Thermal Infrared
Multispectral Scanners
• Daedalus DS-1260,
DS 1260 DS
DS-1268,
1268 and Airborne Multispectral
Scanner
• These scanners provide most of the useful high spatial and
spectral resolution thermal infrared data for monitoring the
environment. The DS-1260 records data in 10 bands
including a thermal-infrared channel (8.5 to 13.5 µm). The
DS 1268 incorporates
DS-1268 i the
h thematic
h i mapper middle-infrared
iddl i f d
bands (1.55 - 1.75 µm and 2.08 - 2.35 µm). The AMS contains
a hot-target, thermal-infrared detector (3.0 to 5.5 µm) in
addition to the standard thermal-infrared detector (8.5 to
12.5 µm).
22
Thermal Infrared
Multispectral Scanners
• The diameter of the circular ground area viewed by the

sensor, D, is a function of the instantaneous-field-of-view, β, of
the scanner measured in milliradians (mrad) and the altitude
of the scanner above ground level, H, where:
D=Hxβ
For example, if the IFOV of the scanner is 2.5 mrad, the
ground size of the pixel in meters is a product of the IFOV
(0.0025) and the altitude above ground level (AGL) in meters.
IFOVs range from 0.5 to 5 milliradians
Characteristics
high-density
magnetic
tape
of a Thermal
amplifier
modulated
light
source
Infrared
recorder dewar of
mirror scan liquid
mirror nitrogen
motor
detector
Airborne
optional
film
recorder focusing
hot
mirrors
calibration
lib i
Across--track
Across
source cold
source
total
β β angular
Scanner
field-of-
view
H radiant flux,Φ
within the
instantaneous-field-
of-view,β
23
Ground Resolution Cell Size Along a
Single Across-
Across-Track Scan
Thermal Infrared Detectors
Thermal infrared detectors are usually composed of:

• In:Sb (indium antimonide) with a peak sensitivity
near 5µm;
• Gd:Hg (mercury-doped germanium) with a peak
sensitivity near 10 µm, or
• Hg:Cd:Te (mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensitive
over the range from 8 - 14 µm.
The detectors are cooled to low temperatures (-196 ˚C; -243
˚C; 73 ˚K) using liquid helium or liquid nitrogen. Cooling the
detectors insures that the radiant energy (photons) recorded
by the detectors comes from the terrain and not from the
ambient temperature of objects within the scanner itself.
24
1012
In:Sb
(Indium Peak Sensitivity of
1011
Antimonide)
Indium-Antimonide
and Mercury-doped
Germanium Thermal
Relative Response
1010 InfraredDetectors
Ge:Hg
(Mercury-doped
Germanium)
109
108
1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 20
Wavelength,μm
Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing

There is an inverse relationship between having high spatial
resolution and high radiometric resolution when collecting
thermal infrared data
data.
• The larger the radiometer instantaneous-field-of-view, β, the longer the
dwell time that an individual detector can view the terrain within the
IFOV during a single sweep of the mirror. A larger IFOV provides good
radiometric resolution which is the ability to discriminate between very
small differences in radiant energy exiting the terrain element. In fact,
the radiant energy signal measured may well be much stronger than any
noise
i introduced
i t d d fromf the
th sensor system
t components.t WhWhen thi
this ttakes
k
place we say that we have a good signal to noise ratio. Of course, the
larger the IFOV, the poorer the ability to resolve fine spatial detail.
Selecting a smaller IFOV will increase the spatial resolution. But, the
sensor will dwell a shorter time on each terrain element during a sweep
of the mirror, resulting in poorer radiometric resolution and perhaps a
poorer signal to noise ratio.
25
Inverse--Square Law
Inverse
Halving the distance of a remote sensing detector from a

point source quadruples the infrared energy received by that
detector. The inverse-square law states that:
“the intensity of radiation emitted from a point source varies
as the inverse square of the distance between source and
receiver.”
Thus, we can obtain a more intense, strong thermal infrared
signal if we can get the remote sensor detector as close to the
ground as practical.
Inverse-square Law
D2 The intensity of
thermal
radiation
remote
detectors
emitted from a
D1
2d 1 cm2 point
i t source, S,
S
varies as the
d
inverse square of
the distance, d,
between the
Blackbody Point Source, S
source and
remote detector
receiver, D1 or
D2
26
Consideration
Most thermal infrared remote sensing investigations try to
maintain good radiometric and spatial resolution by:
• selecting a fairly large IFOV such as 2.5 mrad, and
• flying at a relatively low altitude to obtain smaller pixel
sizes.
Unfortunately, at lower altitudes, the high spatial resolution
may be outweighed by the fact that more flight lines are
required to cover the area compared to more efficient
coverage at higher altitudes with larger pixels. The pixel size
and the geographic size of the survey are considered,
objectives are weighed, and a compromise is reached.
Multiple flight lines of aircraft MSS data are difficult to
mosaic.
Geometric Correction of Across-

Across-Track
Thermal Infrared Scanner Data
Thermal infrared scanningg systems

y (actually
( y all scanningg
systems) introduce numerous types of geometric error that
must be understood because they impact a) the quality of the
imagery for visual or digital image processing and analysis,
and b) the creation of planimetric maps from the thermal
infrared data. The most important considerations are:
• ground swath width;
• spatial resolution cell size;
• tangential scale distortion, and
• one-dimensional relief displacement.
27
Perspective Geometry of a Vertical Aerial
Photograph
and Across
Across--track One
One--dimensional Relief
Displacement
and Tangential Scale Distortion
Daytime
Optical
and
Nighttime
Thermal
Infrared
Imagery
of New
York City
Aerial Thermal
Photograph Infrared
28
Radiometric Calibration of
Thermal Scanner Data
To use the thermal infrared remote sensor data for practical

purposes such as temperature mapping, it is necessary to
calibrate the brightness values stored on the digital tape to
temperature values. This radiometric calibration may be
performed using:
• internal blackbody source referencing, or
• external empirical referencing based on in situ data

collection.
External Empirical Referencing

of Thermal Infrared Imagery
100 100
Remotee Sensing Brightness Value, BVij
Raadiometrically Uncalibrated
80 80
60 60
40 40
Linear Non-linear: 2nd Order Polynomial

BV ij = 0.6586x + 56.173 BV ij = -0.0148x 2 + 2.1157x + 26.303
20 20
R 2 = 0.8631 R 2 = 0.9895
a. 0 b. 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
In situ True Kinetic Temperature Measurement, T kin In situ True Kinetic Temperature Measurement, T kin
29
Push-broom Linear and Area Array
Push-
Charge--coupled device (CCD) Detectors
Charge
It is possible to make both linear and area arrays that are sensitive to mid- and
thermal infrared radiation. Linear and area arrays allow improved thermal
infrared remote sensing to take place because:
• the solid-state microelectronic detectors are smaller in size (e.g. 20 x 20 mm) and
weight, require less power to operate, have fewer moving parts, and are more
reliable;
• each detector in the array can view the ground resolution element for a longer
time (i.e. it is as longer dwell time), allowing more photons of energy from within
the IFOV to be recorded byy the individual detector resulting g in improved
p
radiometric resolution (the ability to resolve smaller temperature differences);
• each detector element in the linear or area array is fixed relative to all other
elements therefore the geometry of the thermal infrared image is much improved
relative to that produced by an across-track scanning system; and
• some linear and area thermal detectors do not even require the cooling
apparatus.
Forward--Looking Infrared (FLIR)

Forward
Systems
• For decades, the military organizations throughout the world

have funded the development of FLIR type systems that look
obliquely ahead of the aircraft and acquire high-quality thermal
infrared imagery, especially at night.
• FLIR systems collect the infrared energy based on the same

principles
i i l as an across-track
t k scanner previously
i l discussed,
di d
except that the mirror points forward about 45˚ and projects
terrain energy during a single sweep of the mirror onto a linear
array of thermal infrared detectors.
30
Forward
Looking
Infrared
(FLIR)
Examples
Diurnal Temperature Cycle

of Typical Materials
• The diurnal cycle encompasses 24 hours. Beginning at sunrise, the earth
begins intercepting mainly short wavelength energy (0.4 - 0.7 μm) from
the Sun
Sun. From about 6:00 am to 8:00 pm pm, the terrain intercepts the
incoming short wavelength energy and reflects much of it back into the
atmosphere where we can use optical remote sensors to measure the
reflected energy. However, some of the incident short wavelength energy
is absorbed by the terrain and then re-radiated back into the atmosphere
as thermal infrared long wavelength radiation (3 - 14 μm). The outgoing
longwave radiation reaches its highest value during the day when the
surface temperature is highest. This peak usually lags two to four hours
after the midday peak of incoming shortwave radiation, owing to the time
taken to heat the soil. The contribution of reflected short wavelength
energy and emitted long wavelength energy causes an energy surplus to
take place during the day. Both incoming and outgoing shortwave
radiation become zero after sunset (except for light from the moon and
stars), but outgoing longwave radiation continues all night.
31
Peak Period of
Daily Outgoing
Longwave
Radiation and
the Diurnal
Radiant
Temperature of
Soils and Rocks,
Vegetation,
Water, Moist Soil
and Metal
Objects
Nighttime Thermal Infrared

Imagery of an Airport
32
L-BAND ANTENNA
NOAA 12/14
NOAA 15/16
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR)
Band (μm)
Wavelength (μ
1 0.58--0.68
0.58
2 0.72--1.10
0.72
3 3.55--3.93
3.55
4 10.5-
10.5-11.5
5 11.5--12.5
11.5
Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
33
TEMPORAL COVERAGE OF AVHRR
Satellite Launch Ascending Descending
Number Date Node Node Service Dates
TIROS-N 10/13/1978 1500 300 10/19/78 - 01/30/80
NOAA-6 6/27/1979 1930 730 06/27/79 - 11/16/86
NOAA-7 6/23/1981 1430 230 08/24/81 - 02/01/85
NOAA-8 3/28/1983 1930 730 05/03/83 - 10/31/85
NOAA-9 12/12/1984 1420 220 02/25/85 - 11/07/98

NOAA-10 9/17/1986 1930 730 11/17/86 - 09/16/91 (still on standby)
NOAA-12 5/14/1991 1930 730 09/16/91 - 12/14/98

NOAA-14 12/30/1994 1340 140 12/30/94 - Present
NOAA-15 5/13/1998 1930 730 05/13/98 - Present
NOAA-16 9/21/2000 1340 140 Present
34
LAKE SUPERIOR
MCSST Algorithm
Daytime Pass:
SST (oC) = a*T4

a T4 + b*(T4-T5)
b (T4 T5) + c
Nighttime Pass:
SST (oC) = a*T4 +b*(T3-T5) + c
Where,
T3 = Brightness Temperature at Channel 3

a b,
a, b c = Weighting Coefficients
Reference: McClain, E.P., W.G. Pichel, and C.C. Walton. (1985)

Comparative performance of AVHRR-Based Multichannel Sea
Surface Temperature, Journal of Geophysical Research.
90(11):11587-11601
35
A New Set of MCSST Equations for NOAA-9/AVHRR
SHOICHI KIZU1 and FUTOKI SAKAIDA2

1Department of Geophysics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-77, Japan
2Ocean Mechanical Engineering Chair, Kobe University of Mercantile Marine,
5 1 1, Fukae
5-1-1, Fukae-Minami-machi,
Minami machi, Higashi
Higashi-Nada-ku,
Nada ku, Kobe 658, Japan
(Received 24 July 1995; in revised form 26 October 1995; accepted 27 October 1995)
A new set of multi-channel sea surface temperature (MCSST) equations for the
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on NOAA-9 is derived
from regression analyses between two-channel brightness temperatures and in situ
SST obtained from moored buoys around Japan. Two equations are derived: one
for daytime and the other for nighttime. They are linear split window type and both
the equations contain a term dependent on satellite zenith angle, which has not
been accounted for in the previous daytime split window equations for NOAA-9.
It is shown that the new set of equation can give SSTs in much better precision than
those without the zenith-angle-dependent terms. It is also found that the split
window equation for NOAA-9 provided by the National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration/National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information
Service (NOAA/NESDIS) considerably underestimates the daytime SSTs;
sometimes nighttime SSTs are even higher than daytime SSTs. This is because the
zenith angle effect to the radiation deficit is neglected in the daytime equation by
NOAA/NESDIS. By using the new MCSST equations, it is expected that the quality
of satellite MCSST would be much improved, at least in regional applications
around Japan, for the period of NOAA-9’s operation.
Journal of Oceanography
Vol. 52, pp. 235 to 249. 1996
36
Sea Surface Temperature
ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection

Radiometer) ) is an imaging
g g instrument that is flying
y g on Terra,, a satellite
launched in December 1999 as part of NASA's Earth Observing System
(EOS). ASTER is a cooperative effort between NASA and Japan's Ministry
of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and the Earth Remote Sensing
Data Analysis Center (ERSDAC). ASTER will be used to obtain detailed
maps of land surface temperature, emissivity, reflectance and elevation.
The EOS platforms are part of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise, whose
goal is to obtain a better understanding of the interactions between the
biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere.
37
The current eruption of Mt. Etna
started on July 17, 2001and has
continued to the present (august
3, 2001). This ASTER image was
acquired on Sunday, July 29 and
shows advancing lava flows on
the southern flank of Mt. Etna
above the town of Nicolosi,
which is potentially threatened if
the eruption increases in
magnitude. Also visible are
glowing
g o g su
summitt ccraters
ate s abo
abovee
the main lava flows, and a small
fissure eruption. The bright puffy
clouds were formed from water
vapor released during the
eruption. The image covers an
area of 24 x 30 km.
On April 3, 2000 ASTER

captured this image of the
erupting Mt. Usu volcano in
Hokkaido, Japan. This false
color infrared image,
covering an area of 18 km
(13 miles) by 22 km (15
), of Mt Usu volcano is
miles),
dominated by Lake Toya, an
ancient volcanic caldera.
38
On April 5 ASTER captured
this night time thermal
infrared image of Mt. Usu.
Hot thermal anomalies,
appearing as bright spots,
are seen on the west flank
of Usu, site of the
eruptions.
e upt o s Additional
dd t o a hotot
spots appear at the
summit, and at a vent on
the east flank.
LEFT: A January 6, 2002 ASTER nighttime thermal infrared image of Chiliques

volcano in Chile shows a hot spot in the summit crater and several others along the
upper flanks of the edifice, indicating new volcanic activity.
RIGHT: The daytime image was acquired on November 19, 2000 and was created by
displaying ASTER bands 1,2 and 3 in blue, green and red. The nighttime image was
acquired January 6, 2002, and is a color-coded display of a single thermal infrared
band. The hottest areas are white, and colder areas are darker shades of red.
39

06 Thermal Rs

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

06 Thermal Rs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 8:

Therefore, all the features we encounter in the landscape on a

Humans eyes cannot detect differences in thermal infrared

History of Thermal Infrared

• In 1879, S. P. Langley began a research program to find a superior

• In World War I, S. O. Hoffman could detect men at 120 m and

• In the 1930s, Germany developed the Kiel system for discriminating

• Now we have very fast detectors consisting of mercury-doped

• In 1968, the government declassified thermal infrared remote

History of Thermal Infrared

• NASA launched the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM)

• NASA’s Nimbus 7 launched on October 23, 1978 had a Coastal

• In 1980, NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed the

• Successful studies using TIMS resulted in the development of the

• Landsat Thematic Mapper 4 and 5 sensors were launched on July

History of Thermal Infrared

• The NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

Thermal Infrared Image of Effluent Entering

• The amount of heat can be measured in calories (the amount of

Kinetic Heat, Temperature,

• There is usually a high positive correlation between the true

Unfortunately, the relationship is not perfect, with the

This is due to a thermal p p y called emissivity

Methods of Heat Transfer

Conduction occurs when one body

In convection, the kinetic energy of

Methods of Heat Transfer

The transfer of energy by electromagnetic

Thermal Radiation Laws

• No objects in nature are true blackbodies, however, we

the Stefan-Boltzmann law and Wein’s displacement law.

Stephen Boltzmann Law

Wein’s Displacement Law

Wien's Law tells us that objects of different temperature

For example, the average temperature of the Earth is 300

WHAT IS SUN’S DOMINANT WAVELENGTH?

Wein’s Displacement Law

• The dominant wavelength provides valuable information

• If we are interested in soil, water, and rock with ambient

Explain the hot spot? Live image reveals truth.

Radiant emittance of an object (Mr)

• Some materials like distilled water have emissivities close

106 6,000 ÞK exitance distribution

• moisture content -- the more moisture an object contains,

We must take into account an object’s emissivity when we

Kirchoff’s Radiation Law

Kirchoff’s Radiation Law

Kirchoff’s Radiation Law

Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, the atmosphere, and human

Thermal Properties of Terrain

Apparent Thermal Inertia

Thermal infrared remote sensor data may be collected by:

• The diameter of the circular ground area viewed by the

Thermal Infrared Detectors

Thermal infrared detectors are usually composed of:

Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing

Halving the distance of a remote sensing detector from a

Geometric Correction of Across-

Thermal infrared scanningg systems

To use the thermal infrared remote sensor data for practical

• internal blackbody source referencing, or

• external empirical referencing based on in situ data

SST (oC) = aT4 +b(T3-T5) + c