PHOTOVOLTAIC CONCENTRATOR SYSTEMS FACING THE PROBLEMS OF
COMMERCIALIZATION
Gabriel Sala, Ignacio Anton
Instituto de Energía Solar
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
ABSTRACT
After 30 years of concentrator development and
practically no one industrial nor commercial activities the
PVC market seems ready to start and to grow fast due to
feed in tariff laws approved in several sunny countries, as
Spain and Italy.
The lack of official qualification normative should
not allow commercializing unproven technologies.
Responsible commercialization requires asking
manufacturers a set of minimum requisites before
contracting and installing new power plants.
In this paper an historical revision of PVC past
and lost opportunities is combined with a portrait of the
new clients and a description, as example ,of a PVC
power plant call for tenders including contracting
conditions.
INTRODUCTION: AN HISTORICAL REVISION
The development of PV concentrator technology
started effectively by 1976 at National Sandia Laboratories
with the construction of 1kW peak array, later called
Sandia I and Sandia II.[1]
This early work identified and tried to solve the
majority of problems linked to C-Systems and gave
enough satisfactory answers to many of them.
Fresnel lenses, two axis tracking, concentrator
silicon cells at 40X, analog closed loop tracking system
were the characteristics of such pioneering prototype.
Several imitations, in some cases with
components improvement, were soon carried out in
France, Italy and Spain with prototypes ranging 500W to
1kW.
Few PV companies paid attention to those
developments and still less tried to develop more efficient
cells to improve the economy of such systems.
A pre-industrial, but not yet commercial, effort
was carried out in 1981 by Martin Marietta with the version
III of Sandia Technology, who installed a 350 kWp
Demonstration plant in Saudi Arabia, called SOLERAS [2]
Six years later the project responsible wrote:”
“This PVPS has been operating very well in the
hot desert environment since its inception, however the
net permanent power is degraded by 20% due to 11 /
ceramic substrates solder joint delamination problem by
the daily thermal cycling and fatigue, short circuit
problems, and water penetration/condensation inside the
1-4244-0016-3/06/$20.00 ©2006 IEEE
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modules. The temperature of the cells was found
excessively higher than the original designed value, and
the heat sink assembly was not enough to cool down the
cells”.
(These are practically the same words that have
been used to explain results of more recent PVC
demonstrations; In spite those problems Soleras plant
longed 18 years in operation.
Although there was no market pressure, RD
Nasby at Sandia developed 20% efficient Si concentrator
cells in 1980 which allow increasing increase the
expectations of cost reduction of concentrators and PV in
general, because the majority of efficiency records came
from cells developed for concentrator applications.
So clear was the understanding that efficiency
was a key factor for this technology that R. Swanson and
his team at Stanford University, after the experiences of
RJ Schwartz, developed the best Si cell ever made to be
used at high concentration level.(>150X) [3]
The tremendous scientific and technical success
of the Stanford University group, did not receive the
expected attention from the market. The level of
concentration required good optics and fine tracking, but
the poor answer did not allow further developments or
demonstrations.
Although there were several C-Cells developed in
the world, with efficiencies ranging from 19,6% of UPM to
28% of Swanson, the production capacity was poor and
the main characteristics of concentrator cells during two
decades and half has been scarcity. The rare investors
that were called by PV concentration “marvels” were
discouraged when they discovered that C-cells were not
available or that the cost ratio with flat module cells was
larger than the concentrator gain.
An alternative to the idea of high concentration
that requires specialized cells and tracking, was the
concept of static concentration presented by Winston
(1975), [4]which was improved with the bifacial cell of
Luque (1976).[5]
Once bifacial cell was in production several
prototypes were developed by Isofoton and UPM, imitated
later by others. This was a product with no one of the
concentrator drawbacks: it was static, modular as a flat
panel, 12 volts nominal and able to collect and
concentrate diffuse radiation. But the commercialization
never started because the introduction of a new product
was uncertain and expensive: The investment required to
produce this product was really small, but the margin of
609
cost reduction was probably not sufficient to justify the
efforts. Bifacial cells are still an interesting product that
can operate in high latitudes, snowy regions or acting as
wall structures.
Neither the ideas of spectrum separation of 1980
at Varian, nor the European record of PV-EYE, reaching
29.7% with two cells (AsGa and Si) at levels near 800X in
1991 [6] pushed any realistic attempt to industrialize
concentrators
LOST OPPORTUNITIES
The permanent scarcity of concentrator solar
cells did not help the presence of new actors in the PVC
field. But, who were and still are these possible actors?
If we take into account that 70 to 80 % of system
cost are not attributed to solar cells is easy to understand
that companies of several sectors pushed to enter into PV
market to produce power plants buying the cells to others.
Conventional PV has not been imagined as
possible alternative or significant source of electricity for
developed countries till recently with the fast change of
energy scenarios and climatic change evidence.
The non professional PV market was assumed to
consist only of undeveloped countries applications,
houses yielding social prestige or satisfaction to ecological
feelings. And the commercial effort was pointed in such
directions. In this framework there was not room for “ugly”
trackers or big plants required by PVC`s.
In this scenario the private industrial efforts in
optics, cooling, tracking mechanism and tracking control
systems were practically negligible.
The most significant industrialization action was
undoubtedly carried out by ENTECH who installed several
hundreds of kW peak using there 20X curved Fresnel lens
technology.[7]
The last opportunity for classic Silicon cell
concentrators, this is, those arrays that tried to reduce the
system cost just decreasing the cells area of quasi-
conventional cells by a factor ranging from 2 to 100, was
linked to SATURN technology, an industrial result of the
outstanding progress of New South Wales University on
crystalline silicon cells.
Concentrator SATURN cells, (known as Laser
Grooved Buried Contact Cells) shows near uniform
voltage in its metal grid and low recombination surface
which allow reaching 18% efficiency at 30X and up to 20%
in small cells (1 cm 2) at 100 X. [8]
These cell were very convenient to be used in
Concentrator systems because their 1 sun version is
probably more expensive than conventional cells of
competitors per watt peak. But used as concentrator cells
sized 125X125 mm2, and designed for 30X could be paid
at 10 € each which should be very attractive to BP Solar.
The opportunity for this technology opened in
1995 with the EUCLIDES technology. It proved in the
Madrid prototype up to 14% power efficiency and 10%
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yearly energy conversion ratio at much lower cost than flat
plate power plant at these times.[9]
These cells were also used by Entech in their
lineal concentrators.
A 480 kWp EUCLIDES demonstration plant was
erected in Tenerife under the enthusiastic management of
BP Solar. Several problems associated to new receiver
manufacturing and some over estimation of concentrator
benefits pushed BP Solar to abandon instead of solving
the manufacturing defects. During the merging with
Amoco-Solarex concentrator plans were practically
abandoned, although they continue manufacturing short
series of Concentrator SATURN cells for R&D
projects.[10]
Finally, the fast growth of conventional market in
(1997-98) adsorbed all intellectual and material capacities
of BP Solar to increase conventional cell and module
production.
The great European investment on EUCLIDES
concentrator technology creates a wave of activities in this
field, many centered on the use of Saturn cells (ZSW) but
also others in Si spacecraft cells (ASE; LETI, Democritos)
and still others based on BPC cells.(Ferrara Univ.).
Also the groups and companies developing AsGA
and tandem and III-V cells in general become more active
on concentrator receivers, testing methods, optics and C-
systems (FhG-ISE, Isofoton, Ioffe) as results of subsidies
given to projects on this field. The set of funded projects
cover concentration levels from 2 to 1000X.
In several cases concentrator technology has
been confused with “over illumination of conventional
modules”, which is in general a poor exercise, because
over temperature and I2R loses consumes practically the
extra power generated and because the cells and module
materials are overheated reducing their life time.
In summary it can be said that the main result of
this financing effort was to create a relatively large number
of researchers and specialists on PVC that will contribute
to the current rising industrialization and commercialization
CURRENT OPPORTUNITIES AND DRAWBACKS
By 2004 the run towards 40% efficient MJ solar
cells was already on. European R&D groups in Russia,
Germany and Spain, universities, institutes and
companies had clear a model of business based on tiny
III-V MJ cells operating in integrated concentrators
operating over 400X. [11]
The leading results in USA and Japan, that have
reached the world top efficiencies show the way to others.
These proven figures of efficiency are the first
milestone in the way to manufacturing and
commercialization of PVC systems in the short term.
Next landmark in the path to the new
concentration era is the maturity of MOCVD equipment
which has became the necessary and nearly sufficient tool
for III-V cell progress. All groups owning such equipment
will probably succeed developing MJ cells if they contract
experts on single junction III-V cells.
Ten years is probably the average time required
to reach about 35% efficiency in this field starting at single
junction III-V concentrator cells. If one starts at a higher
level of knowledge then this time is shorten.
Several new companies will probably buy the
cells, or license know how and buy MOCVD reactors. The
battle to contract specialist will start soon.
As usual in the short history of concentrators
optics is always less mature than semiconductor
converting devices. This fact suggest that surprises or
improvements are possible in the future because there are
unexplored alternatives, but one type of solution seems
the best prepared to dominate the market in early times:
“Tiny, millimeter range diameter MJ cells, under Fresnel
lenses with f-number ranging 1 to 1.5. The product
resulting is a compact or integrated concentrator
module as thin as the frame of conventional modules,
about 4-6 cm thick, which constitutes a convincing basis
for next PVC development and commercialization.
The old, but not yet large scale exploited Silicon
BPC solar cells, sized about 1 cm2, can play a great
transitory role in the PVC market development because
the product is ready and the cell fabrication and receiver
making is well proven and consequently is assumed
reliable. Amonix has licensed its technology to Guascor
Foton (Spain) and two companies, one in USA and other
in Spain are producing and selling 25kW, 2 axis tracking
arrays for power plants based on such BPC cells.
The large parabolic dishes of the Australian
company Solar Systems are equipped with these Si-BPC
cells in their focus area to produce about 25kW per
tracking dish.
The key opportunity for PVC is the feed-in tarifs
laws stated in Spain ,and more recently in Italy, the two
sunniest countries of the EU. Feed-in tariff opened the
“power plant grid-connected market”: the dreamed one by
concentrator makers in two decades.
Silicon feedstock shortage created by fast
market growth is also giving an unexpected opportunity to
concentrators to enter in the market. The challenge is to
do things well enough to remain in the market after the
silicon scarcity.
The envisaged crisis of several industrial
sectors, like the automobile one in first world countries, is
opening their interest on new business: PVC calls their
interest because a great part of the added value is not on
cells but in the elements that they can design and
manufacture in a very clever and competitive way.
They already own land, factory buildings, tools
and well skilled personnel. They are ready to invest and
enter the market if the traditional question, posed by all
new PVC investors, “who can sell me concentrator cells?
“where are the cells” is positively answered.
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The need of sun tracking of concentrators has
been traditionally argued as one weakness of these
systems because its failure cuts totally the energy
generation and requires maintenance. Against this
argument it can be said that trackers are not so complex:
they have just two motors or actuators turning very few
time and that the arrays just turn 180º per day. Control
system, based on direct sun position or astronomical
ephemeredes will be reliable as soon as they become
professionally made, not just designed and built by
research groups for a prototype or just a pilot line.
Evidence for this statement is that the control
boxes of EUCLIDES-Tenerife, that were build by Inspira,
have demonstrated to be reliable along last ten years.
It has been argued that PVC tracking allows
compensate the lost diffuse radiation, usually collected by
flat modules, due to normal light incidence on the collector
and by averaged higher intensity level operation of the
dc/ac inverter.
But this comparative advantage is not currently
valid because many grid connected plants have mounted
their arrays on trackers, resulting that the current
competitor of a PVC power plant is a field made of flat
modules mounted on large tracking arrays that is able to
produce 25-to 30% more energy in sunny climates than
the static arrays.
In consequence the comparison of available
radiation of PVC and currently flat panel plant is
approximately the relation direct radiation/global normal
radiation.
If now we assume that this figure is 0.80 and that
optical efficiency of PVC ranges 80% then we can state
that we cast only 64% of available light on the
concentrator cell.
Assuming that conventional modules are 15%
efficient we must conclude that minimum efficiency
allowed to concentrator cells is 23,4 % in order to equal
the energy production of flat module arrays of same
collector area.
In summary, the efficiency of concentrator cells
must be at least 24% in order to be cost competitive with
flat panels. Although can be argued that concentrator BOS
can be cheaper in some cases, the commercial success
for lower efficiency will be a problem. In the long term with
equalized system BOS the challenge will be located in the
fields of cell efficiency, installation and maintenance costs.
REQUIREMENTS TO PVC
Standards and norms have been developed
and approved for conventional PV technology. It forced to
reach a minimum quality level that protected small
customers and final users and provided references and
quality labels to manufacturers and dealers.
In current PVC the situation is practically
reversed: there is no normative approved, the customers
are well acquainted of what they wish and prepare
contracts with good protections for their investments. But
currently there is not any standard or normative approved
for PVC that clarifies the rules of the game and certifies
the quality of the products. Such regulated frame work is
currently asked by PV companies and by clients.
The new customer of PVC is investing in the
range of 5 M€. He can in consequence spend time and
resources to prepare a safe contract to protect its money.
They know about performance ratio, kW.h/kWp and do not
pay too much attention to efficiency. He is interested just
in production.
Ion some cases customers are a little confused
about statistical radiation data and averaged expected
production with the actual production in a short time
period. Such misunderstanding causes reclamations,
according with contract clauses, when the actual radiation
is under the average. In order to avoid these problems the
manufacturers will install radiation recorders in order to
demonstrate that temporary lower production is linked to
lower radiation.
The most usual contract is turn key. The
selection of the inverter becomes a responsibility of the
plant seller who usually buys it to a third party.
The operation of inverters with concentrators is
limited. From one side they operate mostly at high power
level what is is positive. But from other side the variations
of direct light intensity on cells due to clouds or wind
induced tracking inaccuracies, etc. are fast and requires
the DC/DC maximum power point tracking to be also fast.
Several protections against inverter instabilities can made
its control system too slow, losing too much energy. These
characteristics should be checked by the plant seller
before reaching agreements with the inverter maker.
High efficiency of the inverter at low irradiance
levels is not a figure of merit in PVC applications because
the power level is usually high. The ability to track fast
and accurately the maximum power point becomes the
main requirement for PVC grid connected systems.
FACING THE INITIAL PROBLEMS OF PVC’s IN THE
MARKET
All problems will come from following facts:
a) The products are new, manufacturing is
starting and experience is small.
b) The customers are requiring guaranties of total
energy production.
In order to solve them in the transient period it is
important to write carefully the purchase and delivery
contracts and to state clear procedures to rate the
installed power with the simplest and most widely
accepted methods.
In order to guide the first steps of
commercialization I have simulated to become a customer
of concentrator plants that faces the writing of a call for
tenders
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COMERCIALIZATION OF PVC’s:
A CALL FOR TENDERS EXAMPLE
I am going to present as an example the draft of
a call for tenders that will be issued by the new “Instituto
de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos de Concentracion” of
Puertollano (Spain) that will install several MW of different
PVC technologies.
Plants ranging from 300 to 1500 kW will be
proposed for quotation. The companies will be required to
fulfill three groups of requisites that we refer here as A, B
and C.
Group A requisites have the objective to assure
reliability and good performance to components by
accelerate aging tests. This is a previous condition
required to sign a purchase contract because group A
requisites are the ones assuring a reasonable system
lifetime producing energy.
In case the current draft IEC 62108-8D “Design
qualification and type approval for Concentration Modules
and Assemblies” was already approved by IEC, Group A
requirements will become simply to pass this norm.
But in the present situation we will ask to the
companies a certificate to have passed the following tests:
Reliability Tests (Group A Requisites)
i) Electrical Insulation test: dry and wet.
ii) Thermal cycling plus damp heat test
iii) Hail impact test
iv) Humidity freeze, water spray tests
v) By-pass diode thermal, hot spot test
vi) Off-axis damage tests
The procedures described in the mentioned IEC
62108 draft will the ones used in all these tests.
As the norm is not yet approved there is not any
ready nor officially credited laboratory to carry out all these
tests. In consequence we will share the tests according to
the equipment available in different credited centers in
Spain and Europe and will coordinate the pass/no pass
verification in one sunny site in order to carry out the ‘pre-
normalization before the end of 2006.
Reliability and performance of tracking systems
Tracking systems hardware can be separated
into two main elements Mechanic parts and electronic
control systems.
There are not yet standards nor drafts sufficiently
discussed to be used to qualify the design tracking
systems.
In order to accept one concentrator technology
we will ask that the structure and mechanical system
have passed the following performance tests in presence
of a credited laboratory staff:
Structure, mechanics and outdoor protection requisites for
trackers
i) Stow position reachable without power grid.
ii) Oscillating mechanical frequency
iii) Maximum backslash for 50% of maximum wind load
within 50% of specified acceptance angle. Mechanical
resonance.
iv) Deformation and sun pointing within acceptance
angle for maximum operating wind or equivalent load.
v) Pointing accuracy and wind within specification limits
vi) Adequate robustness, corrosion protection according
to constructive existing standards.
On the other side the
Electric and electronic control system
must pass the following requisites:
i) Electromagnetic compatibility
ii) Overall approval of circuit design including outdoor
performance
iii) Recovery of sun tracking and sun pointing after turn
off or main failure
iv) Pointing accuracy within specified acceptance angle
and maximum wind conditions.
v) Control of alarms: stow position at rated maximum
wind, overheating control (if included)
vi) Array maneuverIing in manual control mode.
vii) Remote monitoring check out (if included)
viii) Self alignment and pointing self maintenance (if
included)
Passing the requisites of group A should provide
a reasonable confidence on the system reliability. Taking
into account that PVC’s are new in the market the
requisites of Group A are mandatory to avoid any disaster
of negative consequences for the parts implied and for all
rising PVC industry.
A product not passing all requisites of group A
should not be purchased till design modification allows
positive qualification just for the test not passed.
Group B Requisites
Specifications and characteristics of Systems,
Modules and Assemblies
Systems and sub-system specifications are
commonly provided by the manufacturer but must be
certified by an assuring laboratory.
The confidence in these figures is significant
because they are used by customers to compare between
alternatives and to take purchasing decisions..
An example of Group B requested data follows:
i) Nominal power at STC-C
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ii) Geometric and effective concentration level
iii) Electrical parameters: IV curve, dV/dT, dV/dC, dP/dT,
R series, nominal power output.
iv) Acceptance angle, Transference function, Optical
mismatch (maximum)
v) Internal specific thermal resistance (cell to heat sink)
These parameters data are necessary to rate the
system power at standard test conditions for concentrators
.(STC-C) and to calculate the expected energy production.
We are proposing the STC-C for power system
rating as the power output under 850 W/m2, cell
temperature at 25ºC and AM1,5 direct spectrum with a
deviation within the characteristics of class A simulators.
This definition of Standard Test Conditions for
Concentrators allow customers to use the usual concepts
and values of Performance Ratio well known from flat
panel installations and also to compare the price of PVC
watt peak with the flat panel one.
THE PURCHASE CONTRACT
We will analyze contract conditions to be adopted
in a generic purchase of a PVC plant.
Purchase contract with guaranty of yearly energy
production (Group C conditions)
This is one way to fix the PVC plant price. This
method is frequently agreed for flat module technology
because performance ratio, loses, failure rate, and global
radiation in a site are well known as result of past
experiences.
But direct radiation data are very scarce and
must be calculated from data of horizontal global radiation,
which results in errors in the order of 12%. In addition to
these errors in the average direct radiation there is still few
experience modeling concentrator production. [See a
contribution to this conference in Poster session I. Area 3)
We will not use this kind of contract. We prefer
require the manufactures to be conscious of the problems
of its systems as soon as possible in order to correct them
before massive fabrication.
The next option, that is the one we will try to
adopt in PVC acquisitions is based both on power rating
and production rating (=energy conversion efficiency).
Purchase contract with economic counterpart based
on actual A.C. rated peak power. (Group C)
In this modality the buyer will pay per peak power
measured in A.C. at each grid connected inverter output.
Test conditions are corrected to STC-C. The price is
previously agreed as € per watt peak at STC-C.
In case the rated power at STC-C deviate more
than 20% of nominal power specified in Group B the
system will be rejected.
The rating of the system can and should be
carried out in two steps.
 In the First Step the system is rated in DC, not
connected to grid. This initial rating is convenient to
manufacturer because frequently the grid is not ready for
connection and partial payments can be agreed when
system is already able to operate in DC. Also the
correction to STC-C must be carried out in DC operation,
because they are function of cell properties, operating
temperature and optical characteristics.
This DC rating test at the field requires more than
2
700 W/m direct radiation. The cell temperature can be
monitored by Voc measurement or in case the function
Voc versus temperature and concentration level,
Voc(T,C), was not available is measured the temperature
of the heat sink plate closest to the cells. In the second
case the temperature is calculated using the smallest
specific internal resistance measured in all systems
participating in the call for tenders.
The dust present on the array will be accounted
for in the calculation of rated power.
The correction formulas to STC-C will be similar
to those used in flat modules including the effects of
concentration on the voltage and will be agreed and
specified in the contract.
Second Step consist to rate the system in AC
on the inverter output once the PVC has been connected
to grid. The actual AC power measured is corrected to
STC-C in proportion to the to correction adopted in DC.
Dust in collectors will be accounted for if the system is not
cleaned before rating.
Payment will be carried out according to
measured AC rated power at STC-C.
Guaranties requested in PVC contracts.
A significant pending payment (about 15 to 20%)
will be executes three months after the grid connection
except if:
i) Rated AC power has decreased more than 5%
at STC-C.
ii) The tracking pointing within acceptance angel
has failed less than 5 hours per array and trimester.
iii) The time of inverter failure injecting power to
2 th
grid is less than 2% of sunny hours, with B >150 W/m .
iv) Performance ratio is lower than 0.65.
The system must be guarantied for several
years.: In case the system efficiency, measured as AC
output power injected to grid per square meter of collector
degrades more than 6 % in periods of three years the
seller must compensate the loses installing free new
arrays which power output should be equal to the power
lost over the fixed 6% every three years.
CONCLUSION
This is a special moment for PVC technology,
because many positive factors have joined to promote the
launching of industrial and commercial activity. Several
companies are in the market and others have announced
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their presence soon with high efficiency products that can
impact PV field in next years.
More than 1MW has been already sold in Spain.
These pioneering industrial and commercial activities must
be helped as much as possible in order to avoid any
significant problem in their beginnings. The best guaranty
for technical success is to qualify the system components
before deployment and to test the field performance of
new products as soon as possible.
The Institute of PVC systems of Puertollano will
help in this process guiding as much as possible the
companies and customers to reach reasonable
agreements that allow both to make business and to
improve as fast as possible their products.
The early purchase contracts must include this
vision and in consequence must require qualification
certificates although the international norms are not yet
approved.
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th
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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by the European
commission through the funding of project IDEOCONTE
(ENKS-CT-2002-00617)
This work is partially supported by Project
NUMANCIA, funded by Comunidad Autonoma de Madrid.