Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553
DOI 10.1007/s10661-008-0650-6
Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate
statistical techniques: a case study of Behrimaz
Stream, Turkey
Memet Varol · Bülent Şen
Received: 10 April 2008 / Accepted: 5 November 2008 / Published online: 3 December 2008
© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Multivariate statistical techniques, such
as cluster analysis (CA), principal component
analysis, and factor analysis, were applied for the
evaluation of temporal/spatial variations and for
the interpretation of a water quality data set of
the Behrimaz Stream, obtained during 1 year of
monitoring of 20 parameters at four different sites.
Hierarchical CA grouped 12 months into two pe-
riods (the first and second periods) and classified
four monitoring sites into two groups (group A
and group B), i.e., relatively less polluted (LP)
and medium polluted (MP) sites, based on sim-
ilarities of water quality characteristics. Factor
analysis/principal component analysis, applied to
the data sets of the two different groups obtained
from cluster analysis, resulted in five latent factors
amounting to 88.32% and 88.93% of the total
variance in water quality data sets of LP and
MP areas, respectively. Varifactors obtained from
factor analysis indicate that the parameters re-
sponsible for water quality variations are mainly
M. Varol (B)
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,
Province Control Laboratory, 21010, Diyarbakir,
Turkey
e-mail: mvarol23@gmail.com
B. Şen
Faculty of Aquaculture, Department of Basic Aquatic
Sciences, Fýrat (Euphrates) University, Elazığ,
Turkey
related to discharge, temperature, and solu-
ble minerals (natural) and nutrients (nonpoint
sources: agricultural activities) in relatively less
polluted areas; and organic pollution (point
source: domestic wastewater) and nutrients (non-
point sources: agricultural activities and surface
runoff from villages) in medium polluted ar-
eas in the basin. Thus, this study illustrates the
utility of multivariate statistical techniques for
analysis and interpretation of data sets and, in
water quality assessment, identification of pol-
lution sources/factors and understanding tempo-
ral/spatial variations in water quality for effective
stream water quality management.
Keywords Behrimaz stream · Water quality ·
Multivariate techniques · Cluster analysis ·
Factor analysis · Principal component analysis
Introduction
Surface water quality is affected by both anthro-
pogenic activities and natural processes. Natural
processes influencing water quality include pre-
cipitation rate, weathering processes, and sedi-
ment transport, whereas anthropogenic activities
include urban development and expansion and
industrial and agricultural practices. These activ-
ities often result in the degradation of water qual-
ity, physical habitat, and biological integrity of
544
lotic system (Carpenter et al. 1998; Qadir et al.
2007). Increasing exploitation of water resources
in catchment is responsible for much of the pol-
lution load (Singh et al. 2005). On the other hand,
rivers and streams play a major role in assimilation
or carrying off the municipal and industrial waste-
water and run-off from agricultural land. The
municipal and industrial wastewater discharge
constitutes the constant polluting source, whereas
the surface run-off is a seasonal phenomenon,
largely affected by climate in the basin. (Vega
et al. 1998; Singh et al. 2004). Spatial and temporal
variability in water chemistry in rivers and streams
is directly related to different factors. Rivers and
streams are highly heterogeneous at different spa-
tial scales. The spatial heterogeneity within the
stream is due to local environmental conditions
(e.g., light, temperature, discharge, and water ve-
locity) that change through time and differences
in local channel form, while degree of temporal
variability of surface water chemistry varies as a
function of stream/river type and depends on the
chemical parameter of interest. This variation may
also be due to both hydrologic inputs which can
originate from precipitation, direct overland flow,
subsurface flow through shallow soils, drainage
from shallow and deep aquifers, and instream
processes which include dilution, metal release,
and adsorption from sediments as well as precipi-
tation (Qadir et al. 2007).
Growing population, increased economic ac-
tivity, and industrialization have resulted in an
increased water demand. In addition, rapid ur-
banization is changing patterns of consumption.
This has caused a severe misuse of water re-
sources. Rivers, streams, and their tributaries
passing through the cities are receiving large
amount of contaminants released from industrial,
domestic/sewage, and agricultural effluents, which
has resulted in an increasing degradation of fresh-
water ecosystem mainly by eutrophication (Qadir
et al. 2007). Indiscriminate discharge of these ef-
fluents (either from industrial, municipal, or agri-
cultural activities) containing toxic substances into
aquatic environment creates problems of water
pollution rendering water no longer fit for drink-
ing, agriculture, and aquatic life (Fent 2004; Qadir
et al. 2007). Therefore, it is important to control
water pollution, monitor water quality in stream
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553
basin (Simeonov et al. 2003), and interpret tempo-
ral and spatial variations in water quality (Dixon
and Chiswell 1996; Singh et al. 2004). Spatio-
temporal monitoring of stream water quality has
been used as one of the most important tools
for water quality assessment (Singh et al. 2004;
Shrestha and Kazama 2007).
The application of different multivariate sta-
tistical techniques, such as cluster analysis (CA),
principal component analysis (PCA), and fac-
tor analysis (FA), helps in the interpretation of
complex data matrices to better understand the
water quality and ecological status of the stud-
ied systems, allows the identification of possible
factors/sources that influence water systems, and
offers a valuable tool for reliable management
of water resources as well as rapid solution to
pollution problems (Vega et al. 1998; Wunderlin
et al. 2001; Reghunath et al. 2002; Simeonova et al.
2003; Shrestha and Kazama 2007). Multivariate
statistical techniques have been applied to charac-
terize and evaluate surface and freshwater quality,
since they are useful in verifying temporal and
spatial variations caused by natural and anthro-
pogenic factors linked to seasonality (Helena et al.
2000; Singh et al. 2004, 2005; Shrestha and Kazama
2007; Qadir et al. 2007).
In the present study, data sets obtained during
1 year of monitoring program were subjected to
different multivariate statistical techniques to get
information about the similarities or dissimilar-
ities among the monitoring periods or sites, to
identify water quality variables responsible for
spatial and temporal variations in stream water
quality, as well as the influence of possible sources
(natural and anthropogenic) on the water quality
parameters of the Behrimaz Stream Basin.
Materials and methods
Study area
Behrimaz Stream, which is fed with springs arising
near Başkaynak Village in the western part of the
Behrimaz Plain, is in the South of Hazar Mountain
in Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey and has a
catchment area of 101 km2 (Özdemir 1995a). The
Behrimaz Stream is the largest tributary to the
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553
Lake Hazar, contributing approximately 70% of
the total freshwater flow to the lake (Şen et al.
2002). The stream, on which an irrigation dam was
built around Hatun Village, discharges into the
Lake Hazar from the Eastern shore (Fig. 1). The
land uses within the watershed of the Behrimaz
Stream are agriculture (86.6%), forest, and rural-
residential, but urbanization is becoming increas-
ingly important, especially in the areas adjacent
to the downstream region. Although the climate
of the area is terrestrial, the climate also shows
similarities to Mediterranean type (Günek and
Yiğit 1995; Yiğit and Çitçi 1995). More than 90%
of the annual rainfall usually occurs from Novem-
ber through May. The annual mean rainfall in the
period 1991–2003 was 616 mm. The annual mean
air temperature is 12–14◦ C. Summers in the area
are cooler and less dry than its surrounding areas;
winters are rainier and colder. The area is cov-
ered with red-brown soils. Colluvial and alluvial
soils are present at low regions in the watershed.
Lithosolic soils are in the areas where erosion is
very severe. In addition, stream bank erosion of-
ten occurs during peak flow periods. Afforestation
works have been continuing to prevent erosion in
these areas since 1968 (Yiğit and Çitçi 1995).
In the present study, four stations were selected
from the stream water quality monitoring net-
work. The first two stations were located in the
upstream region of the irrigation dam. The other
two stations were in the downstream region of the
irrigation dam.
Fig. 1 Map of study area
and surface water quality
monitoring stations (1–4)
in the Behrimaz Stream
Basin
545
Monitored parameters and analysis methods
The data for four water quality monitoring sta-
tions, consisting of 20 water quality parameters,
were monitored over 1 year. Grab water samples
(2.5 l) were collected at monthly intervals from
sampling sites between January 2003 and Decem-
ber 2003. As the irrigation dam was closed from
July 2003 to October 2003, the samples were not
taken from stations 2 and 3 during these months.
The selected parameters included flow (Q), wa-
ter temperature (WT), pH, electrical conductiv-
ity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness
(TH), total alkalinity (TA), ammonium nitrogen
(NH4 -N), total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), organic
nitrogen (ON), nitrite nitrogen (NO2 -N), nitrate
nitrogen (NO3 -N), total phosphorus (TP), silica
(SiO2 ), sulfate (SO4 ), sodium (Na), potassium
(K), calcium (Ca), total suspended solids (TSS),
and total dissolved solids (TDS). All the water
quality parameters were expressed in milligram
per liter (mg l−1 ), except Q (l s−1 ), pH, EC
(μS cm−1 ), and WT (◦ C). Flow was calculated
from velocity profile measured by floating a buoy-
ant object along parallel longitudinal transects in
a 5-m length section of the stream with uniform
width. The results were corrected in accordance
with bed material. The sampling, preservation,
transportation, and analysis of the water samples
were performed according to standard methods
(APHA 1995). The analytical data quality was en-
sured through careful standardization, procedural
546 Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553

blank measurements, and spiked and duplicate due to wide differences in data dimensionality
samples. (Liu et al. 2003; Singh et al. 2004, 2005). Standard-
ization tends to increase the influence of variables
whose variance is small and reduce the influence
Data treatment and multivariate statistical of variables whose variance is large. Furthermore,
methods the standardization procedure eliminates the in-
fluence of different units of measurement and
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) statistics were renders the data dimensionless.
used to test the goodness-of-fit of the data to
lognormal distribution (Shrestha and Kazama
Cluster analysis
2007). According to the K-S test, all the vari-
ables were lognormally distributed with 95% or
Cluster analysis is a group of multivariate tech-
higher confidence. Similarly, to examine the suit-
niques whose primary purpose is to assemble ob-
ability of the data for principal component analy-
jects based on the characteristics they possess.
sis/factor analysis, Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO)
Cluster analysis classifies objects so that each ob-
and Bartlett’s Sphericity tests were performed
ject can be similar to the others in the cluster
(Shrestha and Kazama 2007). KMO is a measure
with respect to a predetermined selection crite-
of sampling adequacy that indicates the propor-
rion. The resulting clusters of objects should then
tion of variance which is common variance, i.e.,
exhibit high internal (within-cluster) homogeneity
which might be caused by underlying factors. High
and high external (between-cluster) heterogene-
value (close to 1) generally indicates that principal
ity. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering is the
component/factor analysis may be useful, as it is
most common approach, which provides intuitive
the case in this study: KMO = 0.675. Bartlett’s
similarity relationships between any one sample
test of sphericity indicates whether correlation
and the entire data set, and is typically illustrated
matrix is an identity matrix, which would indicate
by a dendrogram (tree diagram) (Singh et al.
that variables are unrelated. The significance level
2004; Shrestha and Kazama 2007). The dendro-
which is 0 in this study (less than 0.05) indicates
gram provides a visual summary of the cluster-
that there are significant relationships among
ing processes, presenting a picture of the groups
variables.
and their proximity, with a dramatic reduction in
In order to account for nonnormal distribu-
dimensionality of the original data. The Euclid-
tion of the measured water quality parameters,
ean distance usually gives the similarity between
the correlation structure between the variables
two samples, and a distance can be represented
was studied by using the Spearman R coefficient
by the difference between analytical values from
as a nonparametric measure of the correlation
the samples (Zhou et al. 2007). In this study,
between the variables, which is computed over
hierarchical agglomerative CA was performed on
ranked data (Wunderlin et al. 2001; Singh et al.
the normalized data set by means of the Ward’s
2004; Shrestha and Kazama 2007; Zhou et al.
method, using Euclidean distances as a measure
2007). In the present study, the temporal varia-
of similarity.
tions of the stream water quality parameters were
first evaluated through season parameter corre-
lation matrix, using the Spearman nonparametric Principal component analysis/factor analysis
correlation coefficient (Spearman’s R). The water
quality parameters were grouped into different PCA is designed to transform the original vari-
periods based on temporal CA, and each period ables into new, uncorrelated variables (axes),
was assigned a numerical value. called the principal components, which are linear
Cluster analysis and FA/PCA were applied on combinations of the original variables. The new
experimental data standardized through z-scale axes lie along the directions of maximum variance.
transformation in order to avoid misclassification PCA provides an objective way of finding indices
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553
of this type so that the variation in the data can be
accounted for as concisely as possible (Sarbu and
Pop 2005). PC provides information on the most
meaningful parameters, which describes a whole
data set affording data reduction with minimum
loss of original information (Helena et al. 2000;
Shrestha and Kazama 2007).
FA follows PCA. The main purpose of FA is
to reduce the contribution of less significant vari-
ables to simplify even more of the data structure
coming from PCA. PC is a linear combination of
observable water quality variables, whereas vari-
factors (VF) can include unobservable, hypothet-
ical, latent variables (Vega et al. 1998; Helena
et al. 2000). PCA of the normalized variables was
performed to extract significant PCs and to further
reduce the contribution of variables with minor
significance; these PCs were subjected to varimax
rotation (raw) generating VFs (Brumelis et al.
2000; Singh et al. 2004, 2005; Love et al. 2004;
Shrestha and Kazama 2007).
Results and discussion
The basic statistics of the 1-year data set on stream
water quality are summarized in Table 1.
Temporal similarity and period grouping
Temporal CA generated a dendrogram (Fig. 2),
grouping the 12 months into two clusters at
(Dlink /Dmax )× 100 < 30, and the difference be-
tween the clusters was significant. Cluster 1 (the
first period) included January, April, May, No-
vember, December, February, March, and June,
approximately corresponding to the wet season
in Turkey (December to May). Cluster 2 (the
second period) included the remaining months
(July, August, September, and October), closely
corresponding to the dry season (June to Novem-
ber). However, if 12 months had been empiri-
cally divided into spring (March to May), summer
(June to August), autumn (September to Novem-
ber), and winter (December to February), or into
dry/wet seasons, a mistake in grouping could have
been made. In fact, Fig. 2 shows that the temporal
547
patterns to water quality were not purely consis-
tent with the four seasons or the dry/wet seasons.
Spatial similarity and site grouping
Spatial CA rendered a dendrogram (Fig. 3), where
all the four sampling sites on the stream were
grouped into two statistically significant clusters
at (Dlink /Dmax )× 100 < 60. Group A consisted of
stations 1 and 2. Group B consisted of stations 3
and 4. The group classifications varied with signif-
icance level because the sites in these groups had
similar characteristic features and natural back-
grounds that were affected by similar sources.
Group A (stations 1 and 2) corresponds to rela-
tively less polluted (LP) sites. In group A, stations
are situated at upstream sites of the stream. These
stations receive pollution from nonpoint sources,
i.e., mostly from agricultural activities. Group B
(stations 3 and 4) corresponds to relatively mod-
erate pollution (MP) sites. In group B, stations
are situated at downstream sites of the stream.
These stations receive pollution from point and
nonpoint sources, i.e., agricultural and livestock
farms, domestic wastewater, and surface runoff
from villages.
Hierarchical CA provided a useful classification
of the surface watercourses in the study area,
which could be used to design an optimal fu-
ture spatial monitoring network with lower cost
(Simeonov et al. 2003; Singh et al. 2004). Accord-
ing to the above results, the frequency of monitor-
ing sites might be decreased, and the monitoring
periods could only be selected from the first and
second periods; also, the number of monitoring
sites could also be reduced and chosen only from
groups A and B.
Temporal variations in water quality
Temporal variation in water quality parameters
(Table 1) were evaluated by using a period–
parameter correlation matrix, which showed that
most analyzed parameters were significantly cor-
related ( p < 0.05) with period, except pH, NO2 -
N, NO3 -N, TP, SiO2 , and SO4 . Among these,
K, Na, and flow exhibited the highest correlation
coefficients (Spearman’s R = 0.69, 0.69, and
 548

Table 1 Mean, standard deviation, and maximum and minimum values of water quality parameters at different locations of the Behrimaz Stream
Variable Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4
Mean SD Max Min Mean SD Max Min Mean SD Max Min Mean SD Max Min
Q 1,054.166 1,135.704 3,153 36 1,049.583 1,143.146 3,108 41 1,496.25 1,084.132 3,044 356 1,404 1,051.366 2,952 348
T 12.141 8.541 25.5 2.3 13.383 10.794 32.6 2.4 8.8375 8.227 25.8 2.3 8.8 8.265 25.2 2.4
pH 8.083 0.345 8.6 7.5 8.091 0.257 8.6 7.7 8.162 0.266 8.4 7.7 8.062 0.219 8.3 7.7
EC 225.833 20.652 260 190 233.333 30.550 300 190 210 17.728 230 180 227.5 19.086 250 200
DO 9.383 0.627 10.8 8.4 9.078 0.801 10.4 7.8 9.837 1.674 11.6 6.5 9.775 2.342 11.8 4.6
TH 168.083 21.296 194 136 173.5 24.126 204 138 164.25 20.005 195 139 175.75 22.205 222 150
TA 163 26.690 192 126 172.083 34.171 224 128 159.25 26.980 190 128 166.25 31.684 204 130
NH4 -N 1.415 0.839 2.38 0.18 1.656 1.022 3.39 0.17 1.276 1.102 3.35 0.16 1.188 1.004 3.01 0.16
TKN 2.563 1.295 4.51 0.42 2.818 1.410 5.44 0.48 2.501 1.408 5.32 0.65 2.338 1.428 5.16 0.52
ON 1.147 0.590 2.2 0.24 1.161 0.505 2.05 0.31 1.2 0.480 1.97 0.49 1.15 0.521 2.15 0.36
NO2 -N 0.0182 0.0029 0.0233 0.0134 0.0196 0.0037 0.0244 0.0130 0.0219 0.0031 0.0266 0.0157 0.0229 0.0040 0.0313 0.0173
NO3 -N 1.217 0.426 1.977 0.312 1.261 0.438 2.080 0.374 1.396 0.593 2.365 0.463 1.363 0.590 2.238 0.445
TP 0.179 0.047 0.266 0.130 0.181 0.049 0.317 0.135 0.196 0.045 0.283 0.145 0.182 0.040 0.267 0.147
SiO2 1.120 0.123 1.328 0.827 1.167 0.148 1.404 0.851 1.123 0.131 1.361 0.975 1.079 0.143 1.318 0.831
SO4 21.991 1.379 24.8 19.8 23.391 1.648 25.8 20.4 24.037 2.019 27 21.2 24.725 2.575 30.4 22.4
Na 13.745 3.208 18.9 9.14 14.471 4.181 20.9 9.27 12.076 2.035 14.6 9.14 11.871 1.186 13.2 9.67
K 1.023 0.393 1.6 0.34 1.105 0.456 1.8 0.34 0.826 0.257 1.09 0.36 0.847 0.246 1.05 0.37
Ca 36.426 7.573 46 24.1 40.42 10.120 56.4 24.7 36.317 6.644 45.04 27.1 38.19 5.853 46.92 30.4
TSS 374.833 457.873 1,413 28 443.583 564.018 1,828 34 605.125 510.111 1,395 76 726.375 681.601 2,060 108
TDS 117.166 11.582 134 96 123.833 11.975 141 103 112.5 12.682 140 96 125.5 12.950 148 114
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553 549

Fig. 2 Dendrogram
showing clustering of
monitoring periods
Jan.
Apr.
May
Nov.
Dec. the first period

Feb.
Mar.
Jun.
Jul.
Aug. the second period
Sep.
Oct.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
(Dlink/Dmax)*100

−0.69, respectively), followed by Ca (R = 0.60), quality. Wide seasonal variations in temperature

EC (R = 0.59), TSS (R = −0.57), TH (R = 0.52), and stream discharge can be attributed to high
TA (R = 0.52), and TKN (R = 0.51). The season- seasonality in various water quality parameters.
correlated parameter can be taken as representing Nonsignificant correlation of pH, NO2 -N, NO3 -N,
the major source of temporal variations in water TP, SiO2 , and SO4 with season indicates the con-

Fig. 3 Dendrogram
showing clustering of
monitoring sites on the
Behrimaz Stream
Station 1
Group A

Station 2

Station 3
Group B

Station 4

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
(Dlink/Dmax)*100
550 Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553

Table 2 Loadings of experimental variables (20) on significant principal components for group A sites and group B sites
VF1 VF2 VF3 VF4 VF5
Group A sites
Q −0.832 0.191 −0.102 −0.087 −0.273
WT 0.568 0.318 −0.575 0.209 0.070
pH 0.379 0.823 −0.263 −0.048 −0.001
EC 0.339 −0.026 0.032 0.016 0.915
DO −0.518 −0.448 0.242 0.531 0.016
TH 0.827 0.221 −0.208 0.267 0.317
TA 0.595 0.526 −0.077 0.160 0.538
NH4 -N 0.494 −0.061 −0.178 0.777 0.264
TKN 0.605 0.046 −0.260 0.691 0.237
ON 0.649 0.219 −0.339 0.377 0.134
NO2 -N −0.323 0.359 0.763 0.170 0.221
NO3 -N −0.108 0.943 0.042 0.213 0.074
TP −0.064 0.841 0.307 −0.117 −0.047
SiO2 0.239 −0.033 0.928 −0.085 0.087
SO4 0.135 0.160 0.147 0.861 −0.101
Na 0.734 0.103 0.288 −0.034 0.512
K 0.838 −0.131 0.022 0.102 0.432
Ca 0.876 0.132 0.064 0.290 0.133
TSS −0.648 0.476 0.217 −0.240 0.077
TDS 0.192 0.059 0.146 0.119 0.912
Eigenvalue 8.48 3.36 2.70 1.95 1.14
% Total variance 42.42 16.80 13.54 9.79 5.74
Cumulative % variance 42.42 59.23 72.78 82.58 88.32
Group B sites
Q −0.286 0.101 −0.917 −0.151 −0.003
WT 0.944 0.044 −0.061 0.003 0.144
pH 0.570 0.008 −0.088 −0.583 −0.014
EC 0.252 −0.130 0.203 0.914 −0.001
DO −0.959 0.062 0.023 0.001 −0.157
TH 0.901 0.009 0.317 0.138 0.022
TA 0.747 0.478 0.192 0.203 0.014
NH4 -N 0.511 −0.283 0.213 0.122 0.733
TKN 0.682 −0.205 0.194 0.036 0.639
ON 0.860 0.032 0.132 −0.099 0.283
NO2 -N −0.249 0.851 −0.108 −0.252 0.048
NO3 -N 0.404 0.757 −0.391 −0.032 0.235
TP 0.283 0.872 0.067 −0.140 −0.097
SiO2 −0.319 0.489 0.578 −0.146 −0.048
SO4 0.122 0.098 −0.028 0.075 0.956
Na −0.050 0.793 0.412 0.288 −0.070
K 0.156 −0.011 0.879 −0.137 0.234
Ca 0.703 0.059 0.430 −0.167 0.453
TSS −0.142 0.748 −0.228 0.394 −0.245
TDS −0.138 0.177 −0.407 0.798 0.246
Eigenvalue 7.30 3.97 2.62 2.33 1.55
% Total variance 36.52 19.86 13.12 11.65 7.75
Cumulative % variance 36.52 56.39 69.52 81.17 88.93
Bold and italic values indicate strong and moderate loadings, respectively
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553
tribution of anthropogenic sources in the catch-
ment areas.
Data structure determination and source
identification
Principal component analysis/factor analysis was
performed on the normalized data sets (20
variables) separately for the two different regions,
viz., groups A and B, as delineated by CA tech-
niques, to compare the compositional pattern be-
tween analyzed water samples and identify the
factors influencing each one. The input data ma-
trices (variables × cases) for PCA/FA were [20
× 24] for group A and [20 × 16] for group B.
PCA of the two data sets yielded five PCs for the
groups A and B sites with Eigenvalues >1, ex-
plaining 88.32% and 88.93% of the total variance
in respective water quality data sets. An Eigen-
value gives a measure of the significance of the
factor: the factors with the highest Eigenvalues are
the most significant. Eigenvalues of 1.0 or greater
are considered significant (Shrestha and Kazama
2007).
The Scree plot was used to identify the number
of PCs to be retained in order to comprehend the
underlying data structure (Vega et al. 1998). In the
present study, the Scree plot (figure not shown)
showed a pronounced change of slope after the
fifth Eigenvalue. Equal numbers of VFs were ob-
tained for two sites through FA performed on the
PCs. Corresponding VFs, variable loadings, and
the variance explained are presented in Table 2.
Liu et al. (2003) classified the factor loadings as
“strong,” “moderate,” and “weak,” corresponding
to absolute loading values of >0.75, 0.75–0.50, and
0.50–0.30, respectively.
For the data set pertaining to group A sites,
among five VFs, VF1, explaining 42.42% of total
variance, has strong positive loadings (>0.70) on
calcium, potassium, total hardness, and sodium
and strong negative loading on discharge. Thus,
this factor contains hydro-geochemical variables
(Ca, K, TH, and Na) originating, at a first glance,
from mineralization of the geological compo-
nents of soils. The contribution of Ca, Na, and
K to this factor can be considered a result of
cation-exchange processes at soil–water interface
(Guo and Wang 2004) and dissolution of calcium-
551
bearing minerals, which are found in the region
(Özdemir 1995b). Discharge contributes nega-
tively to this factor, which can be explained by
considering that dilution processes of dissolved
minerals increase with discharge. VF2 (16.80% of
the total variance) has strong positive loadings
on nitrate nitrogen, total phosphorus, and pH
and moderate strong positive loadings on total
alkalinity. This factor represents the contribution
of nonpoint pollution and the physiochemistry of
the stream. Nonpoint sources of total phospho-
rus comprise soil erosion and water runoff from
croplands. Nitrate nitrogen source is due to nu-
merous sources, such as geologic deposits, natural
organic matter decomposition, and agricultural
runoff (Madramootoo et al. 1997).
VF3 (13.54% of the total variance) has strong
positive loadings on silica and nitrite nitrogen.
This factor indicates that nitrite nitrogen source
is from domestic and agricultural wastes, whereas
silica is from bed rock materials. VF4 (9.79% of
the total variance) has strong positive loadings
on sulfate and ammonium nitrogen. This factor
represents the contribution of nonpoint pollution
from agricultural areas. In these areas, farmers use
ammonium sulfate fertilizers, and the stream re-
ceives ammonium and sulphate via surface runoff
and irrigation waters. VF5, explaining the lowest
variance (5.74%), has strong positive loadings on
total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity.
This factor can be interpreted as the physiochem-
ical source of variability.
For the data set representing the group B sites,
among total five significant VFs, VF1, explaining
about 36.52% of total variance, has strong positive
loadings on water temperature, total hardness,
organic nitrogen, total alkalinity, and calcium and
strong negative loadings on dissolved oxygen. This
factor represents the seasonal effect of temper-
ature, organic pollution from domestic wastes,
and stream bed material. The inverse relationship
between temperature and dissolved oxygen is a
natural process because warmer water becomes
saturated more easily with oxygen, and it can
hold less dissolved oxygen. Negative relationship
between organic nitrogen and dissolved oxygen
can be explained such that high levels of dis-
solved organic matter consume large amounts of
oxygen (Singh et al. 2004). Total alkalinity and
552 Environ Monit Assess (2009) 159:543–553

total hardness are linked with common sources Simeonov et al. 2003; Singh et al. 2004; Shrestha
of natural processes of dissolution of soil con- and Kazama 2007).
stituents, mainly calcium carbonates. Lithograph
composition indicates that parent rock material
Conclusions
of this region contain high levels of Ca (Özdemir
1995b). VF2 (19.86% of the total variance) has
In this case study, different multivariate statistical
strong positive loadings on total phosphorus,
methods were used to assess temporal and spatial
nitrite nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, sodium, and
variations in surface water quality of the Behri-
suspended solids. This factor represents the point
maz Stream. Hierarchical cluster analysis grouped
pollution, nonpoint pollution, and erosion effect.
12 months into two periods (the first and second
While point pollution is from domestic wastewa-
periods) and classified four sampling sites into two
ter, nonpoint pollution is from agricultural and
groups (A and B) based on the similarity of water
livestock farms. The erosion effect occurs during
quality characteristics. The temporal and spatial
cultivation of soil and rainfall events from upland
similarities and groupings could facilitate the de-
areas. It may be noted that predominant soils in
sign of an optimal future monitoring strategy that
the lower Behrimaz Stream Basin are lithosolic
could decrease monitoring frequency, the number
soils, which are prone to erosion particularly when
of sampling stations, and the corresponding costs.
coupled with cultivated fields, moderate to steep
The factor analysis/principle component analysis
slopes, and intense precipitation. One of the main
helped extract and identify the factors/sources re-
sources of total phosphorus in runoff is soils with
sponsible for variations in stream water quality at
high phosphorus levels. Fertilization and manure
two different sampling sites. However, FA/PCA
spreading can contribute to high levels of soil
did not result in a significant data reduction as
phosphorus. Suspended particles tend to have ad-
it points to 14 parameters (70% of original 20)
sorbed phosphorus. VF3 (13.12% of total vari-
required to explain 88% of the data variability of
ance) has strong positive loadings on potassium.
group A sites and 17 parameters (85% of original
This factor represents agricultural runoff from
20) required to explain 89% of the data variability
potassium fertilizers. VF4, explaining 11.65% of
of group B sites. Varifactors obtained from factor
the total variance, has strong positive loadings on
analysis indicate that the parameters responsible
total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity.
for water quality variations are mainly related
This factor can be interpreted as the physiochem-
to discharge, temperature, and soluble minerals
ical source of variability. VF5 (7.75% of the total
(natural) and nutrients (nonpoint sources: agri-
variance) has strong positive loadings on sulfate
cultural activities) in relatively LP areas and
and ammonium nitrogen. This factor represents
organic pollution (point source: domestic waste-
the contribution of nonpoint pollution from agri-
water) and nutrients (nonpoint sources: agricul-
cultural runoff. In these areas, the ammonium
tural activities) in MP areas in the basin. Thus,
sulfate fertilizers are used commonly.
this study illustrates the utility of multivariate sta-
In this case study, FA did not result in much
tistical techniques for analysis and interpretation
data reduction, as we still need 14 parameters
of complex data sets and, in water quality assess-
(about 70% of the 20 parameters) to explain 88%
ment, identification of pollution sources/factors
of the data variance of group A sites and 17
and understanding temporal/spatial variations in
parameters (about 85% of the 20 parameters)
water quality for effective stream water quality
to explain 89% of the data variance of group B
management.
sites (Table 2). However, FA served as a means
to identify those parameters, which have greatest
contribution to temporal variation in the stream
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