Johari window

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An empty Johari window, with the "Rooms" arranged clockwise, starting with Room 1 at
the top left

A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham in 1969 in the United States, used to help people better understand their
interpersonal communication and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help groups
and corporate settings as a heuristic exercise.

When performing the exercise, the subject is given a list of 56 adjectives and picks five
or six that they feel describe their own personality. Peers of the subject are then given the
same list, and each pick five or six adjectives that describe the subject. These adjectives
are then mapped onto a grid.[1]

Charles Handy calls this concept the Johari House with four rooms. Room 1 is the part of
ourselves that we see and others see. Room 2 is the aspect that others see but we are not
aware of. Room 3 is the most mysterious room in that the unconscious or subconscious
part of us is seen by neither ourselves nor others. Room 4 is our private space, which we
know but keep from others.

The concept is clearly related to the ideas propounded in the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator programme, which in turn derive from theories about the personality first
explored by the pioneering psychologist Carl Jung.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Quadrants
• 2 Motivational equivalent
 • 3 Appropriation of name
• 4 References

• 5 External links

[edit] Quadrants
Adjectives that are selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed into the
Open quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of which both they and
their peers are aware.

Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are placed into
the Hidden quadrant, representing information about the participant of which their peers
are unaware. It is then up to the participant whether or not to disclose this information.

Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are placed into
the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which the participant is not
aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and how to inform the individual
about these "blind spots".

Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers remain in the
Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives which were not
recognized by anyone participating. This may be because they do not apply, or because
there is collective ignorance of the existence of said trait.

Johari adjectives: A Johari Window consists of the following 56 adjectives used as

possible descriptions of the participant. In alphabetical order they are:

• patient
• sensible
• able • powerful
• dependabl • sentiment
• accepti • proud
e • intelligent al
ng • quiet
• dignified • introverted • shy
• adaptab • reflectiv
• energetic • kind • silly
le e
• extroverte • knowledgea • smart
• bold • relaxed
d ble • spontaneo
• brave • religious
• friendly • logical us
• calm • responsi
• giving • loving • sympathet
• caring ve
• happy • mature ic
• cheerful • searchin
• helpful • modest • tense
• clever g
• idealistic • nervous • trustworth
• comple • self-
• independe • observant y
x assertive
nt • warm
• organized • wise
• confide • self-
• ingenious
nt consciou
• witty
s
[edit] Motivational equivalent
The concept of meta-emotions categorized by basic emotions offers the possibility of a
meta-emotional window as a motivational counterpart to the meta-cognitive Johari
window.

[edit] Appropriation of name

• In September 2008, New York indie band Carlon released an LP titled Johari
Window on Rope-a-Dope Records.

• A second season episode of the TV show Fringe was titled "Johari Window",
airing on January 14, 2010.

An empty Johari window, with the "Rooms" arranged clockwise, starting with Room 1 at
the top left

A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham in 1969 in the United States, used to help people better understand their
interpersonal communication and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help groups
and corporate settings as a heuristic exercise.

When performing the exercise, the subject is given a list of 56 adjectives and picks five
or six that they feel describe their own personality. Peers of the subject are then given the
same list, and each pick five or six adjectives that describe the subject. These adjectives
are then mapped onto a grid.[1]

Charles Handy calls this concept the Johari House with four rooms. Room 1 is the part of
ourselves that we see and others see. Room 2 is the aspect that others see but we are not
aware of. Room 3 is the most mysterious room in that the unconscious or subconscious
part of us is seen by neither ourselves nor others. Room 4 is our private space, which we
know but keep from others.

The concept is clearly related to the ideas propounded in the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator programme, which in turn derive from theories about the personality first
explored by the pioneering psychologist Carl Jung.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Quadrants
• 2 Motivational equivalent
 • 3 Appropriation of name
• 4 References

• 5 External links

[edit] Quadrants
Adjectives that are selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed into the
Open quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of which both they and
their peers are aware.

Adjectives selected only by the participant, but not by any of their peers, are placed into
the Hidden quadrant, representing information about the participant of which their peers
are unaware. It is then up to the participant whether or not to disclose this information.

Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are placed into
the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which the participant is not
aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and how to inform the individual
about these "blind spots".

Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers remain in the
Unknown quadrant, representing the participant's behaviors or motives which were not
recognized by anyone participating. This may be because they do not apply, or because
there is collective ignorance of the existence of said trait.

Johari adjectives: A Johari Window consists of the following 56 adjectives used as

possible descriptions of the participant. In alphabetical order they are:

• patient
• sensible
• able • powerful
• dependabl • sentiment
• accepti • proud
e • intelligent al
ng • quiet
• dignified • introverted • shy
• adaptab • reflectiv
• energetic • kind • silly
le e
• extroverte • knowledgea • smart
• bold • relaxed
d ble • spontaneo
• brave • religious
• friendly • logical us
• calm • responsi
• giving • loving • sympathet
• caring ve
• happy • mature ic
• cheerful • searchin
• helpful • modest • tense
• clever g
• idealistic • nervous • trustworth
• comple • self-
• independe • observant y
x assertive
nt • warm
• organized • wise
• confide • self-
• ingenious
nt consciou
• witty
s
[edit] Motivational equivalent
The concept of meta-emotions categorized by basic emotions offers the possibility of a
meta-emotional window as a motivational counterpart to the meta-cognitive Johari
window.

[edit] Appropriation of name

• In September 2008, New York indie band Carlon released an LP titled Johari
Window on Rope-a-Dope Records.

• A second season episode of the TV show Fringe was titled "Johari Window",
airing on January 14, 2010.

johari window
Ingham and Luft's Johari Window model diagrams and examples - for
self-awareness, personal development, group development and
understanding relationships

The Johari Window model is a simple and useful tool for illustrating and improving self-
awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals within a group. The Johari
Window model can also be used to assess and improve a group's relationship with other
groups. The Johari Window model was devised by American psychologists Joseph Luft
and Harry Ingham in 1955, while researching group dynamics at the University of
California Los Angeles. The model was first published in the Proceedings of the Western
Training Laboratory in Group Development by UCLA Extension Office in 1955, and was
later expanded by Joseph Luft. Today the Johari Window model is especially relevant
due to modern emphasis on, and influence of, 'soft' skills, behaviour, empathy,
cooperation, inter-group development and interpersonal development.

The Johari Window concept is particularly helpful to understanding employee/employer

relationships within the Psychological Contract.

Over the years, alternative Johari Window terminology has been developed and adapted
by other people - particularly leading to different descriptions of the four regions, hence
the use of different terms in this explanation. Don't let it all confuse you - the Johari
Window model is really very simple indeed.

free johari window model diagram (pdf - landscape)

free johari window model diagram (pdf - portrait)
(The Johari Window diagram is also available in MSWord format from the free resources
section.)

Luft and Ingham called their Johari Window model 'Johari' after combining their first
names, Joe and Harry. In early publications the word appears as 'JoHari'. The Johari
Window soon became a widely used model for understanding and training self-
awareness, personal development, improving communications, interpersonal
relationships, group dynamics, team development and inter-group relationships.

The Johari Window model is also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of self

awareness', and by some people an 'information processing tool'. The Johari Window
actually represents information - feelings, experience, views, attitudes, skills, intentions,
motivation, etc - within or about a person - in relation to their group, from four
perspectives, which are described below. The Johari Window model can also be used to
represent the same information for a group in relation to other groups. Johari Window
terminology refers to 'self' and 'others': 'self' means oneself, ie, the person subject to the
Johari Window analysis. 'Others' means other people in the person's group or team.

N.B. When the Johari Window model is used to assess and develop groups in relation to
other groups, the 'self' would be the group, and 'others' would be other groups. However,
for ease of explanation and understanding of the Johari Window and examples in this
article, think of the model applying to an individual within a group, rather than a group
relating to other groups.

The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of
these regions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known
about the person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the
person, and whether the information is known or unknown by others in the group.

The Johari Window's four regions, (areas, quadrants, or perspectives) are as follows,
showing the quadrant numbers and commonly used names:

johari window four regions

1. what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others -
open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the arena'
2. what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know - blind
area, blind self, or 'blindspot'
3. what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know - hidden area,
hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade'
4. what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others -
unknown area or unknown self
johari window four regions - model diagram
Like some other behavioural models (eg, Tuckman, Hersey/Blanchard), the Johari
Window is based on a four-square grid - the Johari Window is like a window with four
'panes'. Here's how the Johari Window is normally shown, with its four regions.

This is the standard

representation of the
Johari Window
model, showing each
quadrant the same
size.

The Johari Window

'panes' can be
changed in size to
reflect the relevant
proportions of each
type of 'knowledge'
of/about a particular
person in a given
group or team
situation.

In new groups or
teams the open free
space for any team
member is small (see
the Johari Window
new team member
example below)
because shared
awareness is
relatively small.

As the team member

becomes better
established and
known, so the size of
the team member's
open free area
quadrant increases.
See the Johari
Window established
team member
 example below.

johari window model - explanation of the four regions

Refer to the free detailed Johari Window model diagram in the free resources section -
print a copy and it will help you to understand what follows.

johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public area', or

'arena'

Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about
the person - behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views,
etc - known by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others').

The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person,
because when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and
productive, and the group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the
arena', can be seen as the space where good communications and cooperation occur,
free from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict and misunderstanding.

Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team
members. New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively
little knowledge about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be
expanded horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback
from other group members. This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other
group members can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback,
sensitively of course. The size of the open area can also be expanded vertically
downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the person's disclosure of information,
feelings, etc about him/herself to the group and group members. Also, group members
can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by asking the person about
him/herself. Managers and team leaders can play an important role in facilitating
feedback and disclosure among group members, and in directly giving feedback to
individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big responsibility to promote
a culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful, constructive, sensitive
communications, and the sharing of knowledge throughout their organization. Top
performing groups, departments, companies and organizations always tend to have a
culture of open positive communication, so encouraging the positive development of the
'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective
leadership.
johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'

Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown
by the person him/herself. By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should
be to reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area (see the Johari Window
diagram below), ie, to increase self-awareness. This blind area is not an effective or
productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area could also be referred to as
ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A blind area could also
include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person. We all know how
difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works well when subject to
'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind area'.

Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to
reduce their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback
and encouraging disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental
feedback, and group response to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore
encourages both processes to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback,
and the issues on which feedback is sought, must always be at the individual's own
discretion. Some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid
causing emotional upset. The process of soliciting serious and deep feedback relates to
the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development
and motivation model.

johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided self/area'

or 'facade'

Johari region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore
unknown, to others. This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc,
anything that a person knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden
from others. The hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas,
manipulative intentions, secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for
whatever reason. It's natural for very personal and private information and feelings to
remain hidden, indeed, certain information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on
work, and so can and should remain hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden
information is not very personal, it is work- or performance-related, and so is better
positioned in the open area.

Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area
through the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant
information and feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and
'exposure process', thereby increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and
other information about ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area,
which enables better understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and
productivity. Reducing hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion,
misunderstanding, poor communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team
effectiveness.
Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group
members' preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or
vulnerability and therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved
into the open area, ie known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding,
and thereby improve group awareness, enabling better individual performance and group
effectiveness.

The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the
issues which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own
discretion. Some people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should
disclose at a pace and depth that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback,
some people are more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing
emotional upset. Also as with soliciting feedback, the process of serious disclosure relates
to the process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
development and motivation model.

johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of unknown activity' or

'unknown area'

Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc,
that are unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These
unknown issues take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes,
capabilities, aptitudes, which can be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive
and useful, or they can be deeper aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her
behaviour to various degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in
younger people, and people who lack experience or self-belief.

Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant
and common, especially in typical organizations and teams:

• an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity,

encouragement, confidence or training
• a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess
• a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have
• an unknown illness
• repressed or subconscious feelings
• conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood

The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various,
and can be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain
situations through collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on
outward bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can also
uncover unknown issues, but this would then be known to the person and by one other,
rather than by a group.
Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area
depends on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is
then given as feedback, or disclosed. As with the processes of soliciting feedback and
disclosure, striving to discover information and feelings in the unknown is relates to the
process of 'self-actualization' described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs development and
motivation model.

Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a
sensitive one. The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover
their unknown feelings must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people
are more keen and able than others to do this.

Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with
developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area,
and is not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try
new things, with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown
abilities, and thereby reduce the unknown area.

Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-
discovery, and to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and
feedback among team members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of
staff in any organization are at any time working well within their potential. Creating a
culture, climate and expectation for self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their
potential and thereby to achieve more, and to contribute more to organizational
performance.

A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed
or subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences,
which can stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari
Window should not be used to address issues of a clinical nature. Useful references are
Arthur Janov's seminal book The Primal Scream (read about the book here), and
Transactional Analysis.

johari window example - increasing open area through

feedback solicitation
 This Johari Window
model diagram is an
example of increasing
the open area , by
reduction of the blind
area, which would
normally be achieved
through the process of
asking for and then
receiving feedback.

Feedback develops
the open area by
reducing the blind
area.

The open area can

also be developed
through the process of
disclosure, which
reduces the hidden
area.

The unknown area

can be reduced in
different ways: by
others' observation
(which increases the
blind area); by self-
discovery (which
increases the hidden
area), or by mutual
enlightenment -
typically via group
experiences and
discussion - which
increases the open
area as the unknown
area reduces.

A team which understands itself - that is, each person having a strong mutual
understanding with the team - is far more effective than a team which does not
understand each other- that is, whose members have large hidden, blind, and/or unknown
areas.

Team members - and leaders - should always be striving to increase their open free areas,
and to reduce their blind, hidden and unknown areas.

A person represented by the Johari Window example below will not perform to their best
potential, and the team will fail to make full use of the team's potential and the person's
potential too. Effort should generally be made by the person to increase his/her open free
area, by disclosing information about his/her feelings, experience, views, motivation, etc,
which will reduce the size of the hidden area, and increase the open free area.

Seeking feedback about the blind area will reduce the blind area, and will increase the
open free area. Discovery through sensitive communications, active listening and
experience, will reduce the unknown area, transferring in part to the blind, hidden areas,
depending on who knows what, or better still if known by the person and others, to the
open free area.

johari window model - example for new team member

or member within a new team

This Johari Window

model diagram is an
example of a member
of a new team or a
person who is new to
an existing team.

The open free region

is small because
others know little
about the new person.

Similarly the blind

area is small because
others know little
about the new person.

The hidden or
avoided issues and
feelings are a
relatively large area.
 In this particular
example the unknown
area is the largest,
which might be
because the person is
young, or lacking in
self-knowledge or
belief.

johari window example - established team member

example

This Johari Window

model diagram is an
example of an
established member
of a team.

The open free region

is large because
others know a lot
about the person that
the person also
knows.

Through the
processes of
disclosure and
receiving feedback
the open area has
expanded and at the
same time reduced the
sizes of the hidden,
blind and unknown
areas.

It's helpful to compare the Johari Window model to other four-quadrant behavioural
models, notably Bruce Tuckman's Forming, Storming Norming Performing team
development model; also to a lesser but nonetheless interesting extent, The Hersey-
Blanchard Situational Leadership team development and management styles model (See
both here). The common principle is that as the team matures and communications
improve, so performance improves too, as less energy is spent on internal issues and
clarifying understanding, and more effort is devoted to external aims and productive
output.

The Johari Window model also relates to emotional intelligence theory (EQ), and one's
awareness and development of emotional intelligence.

As already stated, the Johari Window relates also to Transactional Analysis (notably
understanding deeper aspects of the 'unknown' area, region 4).

The Johari Window processes of serious feedback solicitation, disclosure, and striving to
uncover one's unknown area relate to Maslow's 'self-actualization' ideas contained in the
Hierarchy of Needs.

There are several exercises and activities for Johari Window awareness development
among teams featured on the team building games section, for example the ring tones
activity.

exploring more ideas for using ingham and luft's johari

window model in training, learning and
development
The examples of exercises using the Johari Window theory on this website which might
begin to open possibilities for you. The Johari Window obviously model provides useful
background rationale and justification for most things that you might think to do with
people relating to developing mutual and self-awareness, all of which links strongly to
team effectiveness and harmony.

There are many ways to use the Johari model in learning and development - much as
using any other theory such as Maslow's, Tuckman's, TA, NLP, etc. It very much
depends on what you want to achieve, rather than approaching the subject from 'what are
all the possible uses?' which would be a major investigation.

This being the case, it might help you to ask yourself first what you want to achieve in
your training and development activities? And what are your intended outputs and how
will you measure that they have been achieved? And then think about how the Johari
Window theory and principles can be used to assist this.
Researching academic papers (most typically published on university and learning
institutions websites) written about theories such as Johari is a fertile method of exploring
possibilities for concepts and models like Johari. This approach tends to improve your in-
depth understanding, instead of simply using specific interpretations or applications 'off-
the-shelf', which in themselves might provide good ideas for a one-off session, but don't
help you much with understanding how to use the thinking at a deeper level.

Also explore the original work of Ingham and Luft, and reviews of same, relating to the
development and applications of the model.

Johari is a very elegant and potent model, and as with other powerful ideas, simply
helping people to understand is the most effective way to optimise the value to people.
Explaining the meaning of the Johari Window theory to people, so they can really
properly understand it in their own terms, then empowers people to use the thinking in
their own way, and to incorporate the underlying principles into their future thinking and
behaviour.

Relevant reading, (if you can find copies):

'Group Processes - An Introduction to Group Dynamics' by Joseph Luft, first published in

1963; and

'Of Human Interaction: The Johari Model' by Joseph Luft, first published in 1969.

In the books Joseph Luft explains that Johari is pronounced as if it were Joe and Harry,
and that is '...just what the word means'. He explains also that the Johari model was
developed by him and Harrington V Ingham MD in 1955 during a summer laboratory
session, and that the model was published in the Proceedings of the Western Training
Laboratory in Group Development for that year by the UCLA (University of California
Los Angeles) Extension Office.

Transactional analysis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Diagram of concepts in transactional analysis, based on cover of Eric Berne's 1964 book
Games People Play.

Transactional analysis, commonly known as TA to its adherents, is an integrative

approach to the theory of psychology and psychotherapy. Integrative because it has
elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive approaches. It was developed by
Canadian-born US psychiatrist Eric Berne during the late 1950s.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 TA outline
o 1.1 Philosophy of TA
• 2 History
o 2.1 General History
o 2.2 Development of Transactional Analysis
o 2.3 Fifty years later
• 3 Key ideas of TA
o 3.1 The Ego-State (or Parent-Adult-Child, PAC) model
o 3.2 Transactions and Strokes
o 3.3 Kinds of transactions
 3.3.1 Reciprocal or Complementary Transactions
 3.3.2 Crossed Transactions
 3.3.3 Duplex or Covert transactions
o 3.4 Phenomena behind the transactions
 3.4.1 Life positions
 3.4.2 Life (or Childhood) Script
 3.4.3 Redefining and Discounting
 3.4.4 Injunctions and Drivers
o 3.5 Ways of Time Structuring
 3.5.1 Withdrawal
 3.5.2 Rituals
  3.5.3 Pastimes
 3.5.4 Activities (Work)
 3.5.5 Games
 3.5.6 Intimacy
• 4 Games and their analysis
o 4.1 Definition of game
o 4.2 Analysis of a game
o 4.3 Contrast with rational (mathematical) games
o 4.4 Some commonly found games
 4.4.1 Why Don't You/Yes But
 4.4.2 "Drunk" or "Alcoholic"
 4.4.2.1 The script for "Drunk"
o 4.5 Rackets
• 5 TA and popular culture
• 6 See also
• 7 References
o 7.1 Books by Eric Berne (Popular)
o 7.2 Books by Eric Berne (Other)
o 7.3 Books by other authors
• 8 External links
o 8.1 General

o 8.2 Skepticism about TA

[edit] TA outline
According to the International Transactional Analysis Association[1] TA 'is a theory of
personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change'.

1. As a theory of personality, TA describes how people are structured

psychologically. It uses what is perhaps its best known model, the ego-state
(Parent-Adult-Child) model to do this. This same model helps explain how people
function and express their personality in their behavior[1]
2. It is a theory of communication that can be extended to the analysis of systems
and organisations[1].
3. It offers a theory for child development, by explaining how our adult patterns of
life originated in childhood[1]. This explanation is based on the idea of a "Life (or
Childhood) Script": the assumption that we continue to re-play childhood
strategies, even when this results in pain or defeat. Thus it claims to offer a theory
of psychopathology[1].
4. In practical application, it can be used in the diagnosis and treatment of many
types of psychological disorders, and provides a method of therapy for
individuals, couples, families and groups.
5. Outside the therapeutic field, it has been used in education, to help teachers
remain in clear communication at an appropriate level, in counselling and
consultancy, in management and communications training, and by other bodies[1].
[edit] Philosophy of TA

• People are OK; thus each person has validity, importance, equality of respect[2].
• Everyone (with only few exceptions, such as the severely brain-damaged) has the
capacity to think[2].
• People decide their story and destiny, and these decisions can be changed[2].

Freedom from historical maladaptations embedded in the childhood script is required in

order to become free of inappropriate, inauthentic, and displaced emotions which are not
a fair and honest reflection of here-and-now life (such as echoes of childhood suffering,
pity-me and other mind games, compulsive behavior, and repetitive dysfunctional life
patterns). The aim of change under TA is to move toward autonomy (freedom from
childhood script), spontaneity, intimacy, problem solving as opposed to avoidance or
passivity, cure as an ideal rather than merely making progress, learning new choices.

[edit] History
TA is a neo-Freudian theory of personality. Berne's ego states are heavily influenced by
Freud's id, ego and superego, although they do not precisely correspond with them[3]. A
primary difference between Berne and Freud is the former's treatment of the observable
transactions known as "games". A number of books popularized TA in the general public
but did little to gain acceptance in the conventional psychoanalytic community. TA is
considered by its adherents to be a more user-friendly and accessible model than the
conventional psychoanalytic model. A number of modern-day TA practitioners
emphasize the similarities with cognitive-behaviorist models while others emphasize
different models.

[edit] General History

TA is not only post-Freudian but, according to its founder's wishes, consciously extra-
Freudian. That is to say that, while it has its roots in psychoanalysis, since Berne was a
psychoanalytically-trained psychiatrist, it was designed as a dissenting branch of
psychoanalysis in that it put its emphasis on transactional, rather than "psycho-", analysis.

With its focus on transactions, TA shifted the attention from internal psychological
dynamics to the dynamics contained in people's interactions. Rather than believing that
increasing awareness of the contents of unconsciously held ideas was the therapeutic
path, TA concentrated on the content of people's interactions with each other. Changing
these interactions was TA's path to solving emotional problems.

In addition, Berne believed in making a commitment to "curing" his patients rather than
just understanding them. To that end he introduced one of the most important aspects of
TA: the contract—an agreement entered into by both client and therapist to pursue
specific changes that the client desires.
Revising Freud's concept of the human psyche as composed of the id, ego, and super-ego,
Berne postulated in addition three "ego states"—the Parent, Adult, and Child states—
which were largely shaped through childhood experiences. These three are all part of
Freud's ego; none represent the id or the superego.

Unhealthy childhood experiences can lead to these being pathologically fixated in the
Child and Parent ego states, bringing discomfort to an individual and/or others in a
variety of forms, including many types of mental illness.

Berne considered how individuals interact with one another, and how the ego states affect
each set of transactions. Unproductive or counterproductive transactions were considered
to be signs of ego state problems. Analyzing these transactions according to the person's
individual developmental history would enable the person to "get better". Berne thought
that virtually everyone has something problematic about their ego states and that negative
behavior would not be addressed by "treating" only the problematic individual.

Berne identified a typology of common counterproductive social interactions, identifying

these as "games".

Berne presented his theories in two popular books on transactional analysis: Games
People Play (1964) and What Do You Say After You Say Hello? (1975). As a result of this
popularity, TA came to be disdained in many[citation needed] mainstream mental health circles
as an example of "pop psychology". I'm OK, You're OK (1969), written by Berne's
longtime friend Thomas Anthony Harris, is probably the most popular TA book. Many
TA therapists regard I'm OK, You're OK as an oversimplification or worse.[citation needed]

TA was also dismissed by the conventional psychoanalytic community[citation needed] because

of its radical departures from Freudian theory. However, by the 1970s, because of its
non-technical and non-threatening jargon and model of the human psyche, many of its
terms and concepts were adopted by eclectic therapists as part of their individual
approaches to psychotherapy. It also served well as a therapy model for groups of
patients, or marital/family counselees, where interpersonal (rather than intrapersonal)
disturbances were the focus of treatment. Critics[4] have charged that TA—especially as
loosely interpreted by those outside the more formal TA community—is a pseudoscience,
when it is in fact[citation needed] better understood as a philosophy.

TA's popularity in the U.S. waned in the 1970s, but it retains some popularity elsewhere
in the world.[4] The more dedicated TA purists banded together in 1964 with Berne to
form a research and professional accrediting body, the International Transactional
Analysis Association, or ITAA. This organization is still active as of 2009.

[edit] Development of Transactional Analysis

Leaving psychoanalysis half a century ago, Eric Berne presented transactional analysis to
the world as a phenomenological approach replacing Freud's philosophical construct with
observable data. His theory built on the science of Penfield and Spitz along with the neo-
psychoanalytic thought of people such as Paul Federn, Weiss, and Erikson. By moving to
an interpersonal motivational theory, he placed it both in opposition to the psychoanalytic
traditions of his day and within what would become the psychoanalytic traditions of the
future.

From Berne, transactional analysts have inherited a determination to create an accessible

and user-friendly system, an understanding of script or life-plan, ego states, transactions,
and a theory of groups.

They also inherited troubled aspects of his thinking and personality, especially his
rebelliousness and antagonism toward the psychoanalysis of his day. They have inherited
misunderstandings arising from the ill-informed equation of the ego states of
transactional analysis with the psychoanalytic constructs of id, ego, and superego, and
from the consequences of the popularity of his book Games People Play which resulted
in the vulgarization of some of its concepts.

These problems have been compounded by the isolationist and elitist attitude that
permeated the beginnings of transactional analysis as it established its own standards for
competency-based credentialing without taking into account other training or certification
in occupational fields—while at the same time paradoxically cultivating the “pop
psychology” image that appealed to mental health clients and other consumers in
organizations and education.

[edit] Fifty years later

Within the overarching framework of transactional analysis, more recent transactional

analysts have elaborated several different, if overlapping, “flavors:” cognitive,
behavioral, relational, redecision, integrative, constructivist, narrative, body-work,
positive psychological, personality adaptational, self-reparenting, psychodynamic, and
neuroconstructivist[citation needed].

Some transactional analysts highlight the many things they have in common with
cognitive-behavioral therapists: the use of contracts with clear goals, the attention to
cognitive distortions (called “Adult decontamination” or “Child deconfusion”), the focus
on the client’s conscious attitudes and behaviors and the use of “strokes”[citation needed].

Cognitive-based transactional analysts use ego state identification to identify

communication distortions and teach different functional options in the dynamics of
communication. Some make additional contracts for more profound work involving life-
plans or scripts or with unconscious processes, including those which manifest in the
client-therapist relationship as transference and countertransference, and define
themselves as psychodynamic or relational transactional analysts. Some highlight the
study and promotion of subjective well-being and optimal human functioning rather than
pathology and so identify with positive psychology[citation needed]. Some are increasingly
influenced by current research in attachment, mother-infant interaction, and by the
implications of interpersonal neurobiology, and non-linear dynamic systems.
[edit] Key ideas of TA
Some core models and concepts are part of TA as follows:--

[edit] The Ego-State (or Parent-Adult-Child, PAC) model

At any given time, a person experiences and manifests their personality through a mixture
of behaviours, thoughts and feelings. Typically, according to TA, there are three ego-
states that people consistently use:

• Parent ("exteropsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel, and think in

response to an unconscious mimicking of how their parents (or other parental
figures) acted, or how they interpreted their parent's actions. For example, a
person may shout at someone out of frustration because they learned from an
influential figure in childhood the lesson that this seemed to be a way of relating
that worked.
• Adult ("neopsyche"): a state of the ego which is most like a computer
processing information and making predictions absent of major emotions that
could affect its operation. Learning to strengthen the Adult is a goal of TA. While
a person is in the Adult ego state, he/she is directed towards an objective appraisal
of reality.
• Child ("archaeopsyche"): a state in which people behave, feel and think
similarly to how they did in childhood. For example, a person who receives a poor
evaluation at work may respond by looking at the floor, and crying or pouting, as
they used to when scolded as a child. Conversely, a person who receives a good
evaluation may respond with a broad smile and a joyful gesture of thanks. The
Child is the source of emotions, creation, recreation, spontaneity and intimacy.

Berne differentiated his Parent, Adult, and Child ego states from actual adults, parents,
and children, by using capital letters when describing them. These ego-states may or may
not represent the relationships that they act out. For example, in the workplace, an adult
supervisor may take on the Parent role, and scold an adult employee as though they were
a Child. Or a child, using their Parent ego-state, could scold their actual parent as though
the parent were a Child.

Within each of these ego states are subdivisions. Thus Parental figures are often either
more nurturing (permission-giving, security-giving) or more criticizing (comparing to
family traditions and ideals in generally negative ways); Childhood behaviours are either
more natural (free) or more adapted to others. These subdivision categorize individuals'
patterns of behaviour, feelings, and ways of thinking, that can be functional (beneficial or
positive) or dysfunctional/counterproductive (negative).

Berne states that there are four types of diagnosis of ego states. They are the behavioural
diagnosis, social diagnosis, historical diagnosis and the phenomenological diagnosis of
ego states. For a complete diagnosis one needs to complete all four types. It has been
subsequently demonstrated that there is in fact a fifth way of diagnosis. It is known as the
contextual diagnosis of ego states. For example if a man says, “On July 5th, 2007 the
alignment of the planets will create a gravitational field so strong that there will be the
biggest tides in half a century”, what ego state would be diagnosed?

If that man was of a dishevelled appearance, had not shaven for 2 days and was sitting on
a park bench drinking out of a bottle in a brown paper bag what ego state would be
diagnosed?. Probably some kind of regressed Child ego state. If that man was in an
observatory wearing a white coat and carrying a clip board what ego state would be
diagnosed? Probably Adult ego state. The different contexts for the same statement
would tend to result in a different diagnosis. The context in which the statement is made
is central to the diagnosis of ego states.

Ego-states do not correspond directly to Sigmund Freud's Ego, Superego and Id, although
there are obvious parallels: i.e., Superego:Ego:Id::Parent:Adult:Child. Ego states are
consistent for each person and are argued by TA practitioners as more readily observable
than the parts in Freud's hypothetical model. In other words, the particular ego state that a
given person is communicating from is determinable by external observation and
experience.

There is no "universal" ego-state; each state is individually and visibly manifested for
each person. For example, each Child ego state is unique to the childhood experiences,
mentality, intellect, and family of each individual; it is not a generalised childlike state.

Ego states can become contaminated, for example, when a person mistakes Parental rules
and slogans, for here-and-now Adult reality, and when beliefs are taken as facts. Or when
a person "knows" that everyone is laughing at them because "they always laughed". This
would be an example of a childhood contamination, insofar as here-and-now reality is
being overlaid with memories of previous historic incidents in childhood.

Although TA theory claims that Ego states do not correspond directly to thinking,
feeling, and judging, as these processes are present in every ego state, this claim is self-
contradictory to the claim that the Adult is like a computer processing information,
therefore not feeling unless it is contaminated by the Child.

Berne suspected that Parent, Adult, and Child ego states might be tied to specific areas of
the human brain; an idea that has not been proved.[4]

The three ego state model has been questioned by a TA group in Australia, who have
devised a "two ego-state model" as a means of solving perceived theoretical problems:

"The two ego-state model says that there is a Child ego-state and a Parent ego-state,
placing the Adult ego-state with the Parent ego-state. [...] How we learn to speak, add up
and learn how to think is all just copied from our teachers. Just as our morals and values
are copied from our parents. There is no absolute truth where facts exist out side a
person’s own belief system. Berne mistakenly concluded that there was and thus
mistakenly put the Adult ego-state as separate from the Parent ego-state." [5][6]
[edit] Transactions and Strokes

• Transactions are the flow of communication, and more specifically the unspoken
psychological flow of communication that runs in parallel. Transactions occur
simultaneously at both explicit and psychological levels. Example: sweet caring
voice with sarcastic intent. To read the real communication requires both surface
and non-verbal reading.
• Strokes are the recognition, attention or responsiveness that one person gives
another. Strokes can be positive (nicknamed "warm fuzzies"[7]) or negative ("cold
pricklies"). A key idea is that people hunger for recognition, and that lacking
positive strokes, will seek whatever kind they can, even if it is recognition of a
negative kind. We test out as children what strategies and behaviours seem to get
us strokes, of whatever kind we can get.

People often create pressure in (or experience pressure from) others to communicate in a
way that matches their style, so that a boss who talks to his staff as a controlling parent
will often engender self-abasement or other childlike responses. Those employees who
resist may get removed or labeled as "trouble".

Transactions can be experienced as positive or negative depending on the nature of the

strokes within them. However, a negative transaction is preferred to no transaction at all,
because of a fundamental hunger for strokes.

The nature of transactions is important to understanding communication.

[edit] Kinds of transactions

There are basically three kinds of transactions:

1. Reciprocal/Complementary (the simplest)

2. Crossed
3. Duplex/Covert (the most complex)

[edit] Reciprocal or Complementary Transactions

A simple, reciprocal transaction occurs when both partners are addressing the ego state
the other is in.These are also called complementary transactions.Example 1:A: "Have you
been able to write the report?" :B: "Yes - I'm about to email it to you." ----(This exchange
was Adult to Adult)Example 2:A: "Would you like to skip this meeting and go watch a
film with me instead?" :B: "I'd love to - I don't want to work anymore, what should we
go and see?" (Child to Child)Example 3:A: "You should have your room tidy by now!"
(Parent to Child):B: "Will you stop hassling me? I'll do it eventually!" (Child to
Parent)Communication like this can continue indefinitely. (Clearly it will stop at some
stage - but this psychologically balanced exchange of strokes can continue for some
time).
[edit] Crossed Transactions

Communication failures are typically caused by a 'crossed transaction' where partners

address ego states other than that their partner is in. Consider the above examples
jumbled up a bit.Example 1a::A: "Have you been able to write that report?" (Adult to
Adult):B: "Will you stop hassling me? I'll do it eventually!" (Child to Parent)is a crossed
transaction likely to produce problems in the workplace. "A" may respond with a Parent
to Child transaction. For instance::A: "If you don't change your attitude, you'll get
fired."Example 2a::A: "Is your room tidy yet?" (Parent to Child):B: "I'm just going to do
it, actually." (Adult to Adult)is a more positive crossed transaction. However there is the
risk that "A" will feel aggrieved that "B" is acting responsibly and not playing their role,
and the conversation will develop into::A: "I can never trust you to do things!" (Parent to
Child):B: "Why don't you believe anything I say?" (Adult to Adult)which can continue
indefinitely.

[edit] Duplex or Covert transactions

Another class of transaction is the 'duplex' or 'covert' transactions, where the explicit
social conversation occurs in parallel with an implicit psychological transaction. For
instance,:A: "I need you to stay late at the office with me." (Adult words)body language
indicates sexual intent (flirtatious Child):B: "Of course." (Adult response to Adult
statement).winking or grinning (Child accepts the hidden motive).

[edit] Phenomena behind the transactions

[edit] Life positions

In TA theory,"Life Position" refers to the general feeling about life (specifically, the
unconscious feeling, as opposed to a conscious philosophical position) that colours every
dyadic (i.e. person-to-person) transaction. Initially four such Life Positions were
proposed:

1. "I'm Not OK, You're OK" (I-U+)

2. "I'm Not OK, You're Not OK" (I-U-)
3. "I'm OK, You're Not OK" (I+U-)
4. "I'm OK, You're OK" (I+U+)

However, lately, an Australian TA analyst has claimed that in order to better represent the
Life Position behind disorders that were not, allegedly, as widespread and/or recognized
at the time when TA was conceptualized as they are now (such as borderline personality
disorder and narcissistic personality disorder) the above list requires alteration. Also, two
additional Life Positions are proposed [8]:

1. "I'm not-OK, You're OK" (I-U+)

2. "I'm not-OK, You're not-OK" (I-U-)
3. "I'm not-OK, But You're Worse" (I-U--)
 4. "I'm not-OK, You're Irrelevant" (I-U?)
5. "I'm a Bit More OK Than You Are" (I++U+)
6. "I'm OK, You're OK" (I+U+)
7. "I'm OK, You're Irrelevant" (I+U?)

The difference between one's own OK-ness and other's OK-ness captured by description
"I'm OK, You're not-OK" is proposed to be substituted by description that more
accurately captures one's own feeling (not jumping to conclusions based only on one's
perceived behavior), therefore stating the difference in a new way: "I'm not-OK, but
You're worse" (I-,U--), instead.

[edit] Life (or Childhood) Script

• Script is a life plan, directed to a reward[9].

• Script is decisional and responsive; i.e., decided upon in childhood in response to
perceptions of the world and as a means of living with and making sense of the
world. It is not just thrust upon a person by external forces.
• Script is reinforced by parents (or other influential figures and experiences).
• Script is for the most part outside awareness.
• Script is how we navigate and what we look for, the rest of reality is redefined
(distorted) to match our filters.

Each culture, country and people in the world has a Mythos, that is, a legend explaining
its origins, core beliefs and purpose. According to TA, so do individual people. A person
begins writing his/her own life story (script) at a young age, as he/she tries to make sense
of the world and his place within it. Although it is revised throughout life, the core story
is selected and decided upon typically by age 7. As adults it passes out of awareness. A
life script might be "to be hurt many times, and suffer and make others feel bad when I
die", and could result in a person indeed setting himself up for this, by adopting
behaviours in childhood that produce exactly this effect. Though Berne identified several
dozen common scripts, there are a practically infinite number of them. Though often
largely destructive, scripts could as easily be mostly positive or beneficial.

[edit] Redefining and Discounting

• Redefining means the distortion of reality when we deliberately (but

unconsciously) distort things to match our preferred way of seeing the world.
Thus a person whose script involves "struggling alone against a cold hard world"
may redefine others' kindness, concluding that others are trying to get something
by manipulation.
• Discounting means to take something as worth less than it is. Thus to give a
substitute reaction which does not originate as a here-and-now Adult attempt to
solve the actual problem, or to choose not to see evidence that would contradict
one's script. Types of discount can also include: passivity (doing nothing), over-
adaptation, agitation, incapacitation, anger and violence.
[edit] Injunctions and Drivers

TA identifies twelve key injunctions which people commonly build into their scripts.
These are injunctions in the sense of being powerful "I can't/mustn't ..." messages that
embed into a child's belief and life-script:

• Don't be (don't exist)

• Don't be who you are
• Don't be a child
• Don't grow up
• Don't make it in your life
• Don't do anything!
• Don't be important
• Don't belong
• Don't be close
• Don't be well (don't be sane!)
• Don't think
• Don't feel.

In addition there is the so-called episcript:

"You should (or deserve to) have this happen in your life, so it doesn't have to
happen to me." (Magical thinking on the part of the parent(s).)

Against these, a child is often told other things he or she must do. There is debate as to
whether there are five or six of these 'drivers':

• Please (me/others)!
• Be perfect!
• Be Strong!
• Try Hard!
• Hurry Up!
• Be Careful! (is in dispute)

Thus in creating his script, a child will often attempt to juggle these, example: "It's okay
for me to go on living (ignore don't exist) so long as I try hard".

This explains why some change is inordinately difficult. To continue the above example:
When a person stops trying hard and relaxes to be with his family, the injunction You
don't have the right to exist which was being suppressed by their script now becomes
exposed and a vivid threat. Such an individual may feel a massive psychological pressure
which he himself doesn't understand, to return to trying hard, in order to feel safe and
justified (in a childlike way) in existing.

Driver behaviour is also detectable at a very small scale, for instance in instinctive
responses to certain situations where driver behaviour is played out over five to twenty
seconds.
Broadly speaking, scripts can fall into Tragic, Heroic or Banal (or Non-Winner) varieties,
depending on their rules.

[edit] Ways of Time Structuring

There are six ways of structuring time by giving and receiving strokes:

1. Withdrawal
2. Ritual
3. Pastimes
4. Activity
5. Games
6. Intimacy

This is sorted in accordance with stroke strength; Intimacy and Games in general allow
for the most intensive strokes.

[edit] Withdrawal

This means no strokes are being exchanged

[edit] Rituals

A ritual is a series of transactions that are complementary (reciprocal), stereotyped and

based on social programming. Rituals usually comprise a series of strokes exchanged
between two parties.

For instance, two people may have a daily two stroke ritual, where, the first time they
meet each day, each one greets the other with a "Hi". Others may have a four stroke
ritual, such as:

A: Hi!

B: Hi! How are you?

A: Getting along. What about you?

B: Fine. See you around.

The next time they meet in the day, they may not exchange any strokes at all, or may just
acknowledge each other's presence with a curt nod.

Some phenomena associated with daily rituals:

• If a person exchanges fewer strokes than expected, the other person may feel that
he is either preoccupied or acting high and mighty.
 • If a person exchanges more strokes than expected, the other person might wonder
whether he is trying to butter him up or get on good terms for some vested
interests.
• If two people do not meet for a long time, a backlog of strokes gets built up, so
that the next time they meet, they may exchange a large number of strokes to
catch up.

[edit] Pastimes

A pastime is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal), semi-ritualistic,

and is mainly intended as a time-structuring activity. Pastimes have no covert purpose
and can usually be carried out only between people on the same wavelength. They are
usually shallow and harmless. Pastimes are a type of smalltalk.

Individuals often partake in similar pastimes throughout their entire life, as pastimes are
generally very much linked to one's life script and the games that one often plays. Some
pastimes can even be understood as a reward for playing a certain game. For example,
Eric Berne in Games People Play discusses how those who play the "Alcoholic" game
(which Berne differentiated from alcoholism and alcoholics) often enjoy the "Morning
After" pastime in which participants share their most amusing or harrowing hangover
stories.

[edit] Activities (Work)

Activities in this context mean the individuals work together for a common goal. This
may be work, sports or something similar. In contrast to Pastimes, there is a meaningful
purpose guiding the interactions, while Pastimes are just about exchanging strokes.
Strokes can then be given in the context of the cooperation. Thus the strokes are generally
not personal, but related to the activity.

[edit] Games

See below.

[edit] Intimacy

Intimacy as a way of structuring time allows one to exchange the strongest strokes
without playing a Game. Intimacy differs from Games as there is no covert purpose, and
differs from Activities as there is no other process going on which defines a context of
cooperation. Strokes are personal, relating to the other person, and often unconditional.

[edit] Games and their analysis

[edit] Definition of game

A game[10] is a series of transactions that is complementary (reciprocal), ulterior, and

proceeds towards a predictable outcome. Games are often characterized by a switch in
roles of players towards the end. Games are usually played by Parent, Adult and Child
ego states, and games usually have a fixed number of players; however, an individual's
role can shift, and people can play multiple roles.

Berne identified dozens of games, noting that, regardless of when, where or by whom
they were played, each game tended towards very similar structures in how many players
or roles were involved, the rules of the game, and the game's goals.

Each game has a payoff for those playing it, such as the aim of earning sympathy,
satisfaction, vindication, or some other emotion that usually reinforces the life script. The
antithesis of a game, that is, the way to break it, lies in discovering how to deprive the
actors of their payoff.

Students of transactional analysis have discovered that people who are accustomed to a
game are willing to play it even as a different "actor" from what they originally were.

[edit] Analysis of a game

One important aspect of a game is its number of players. Games may be two handed (that
is, played by two players), three handed (that is, played by three players), or many
handed. Three other quantitative variables are often useful to consider for games:

• Flexibility: The ability of the players to change the currency of the game (that is,
the tools they use to play it). In a flexible game, players may shift from words, to
money, to parts of the body.

• Tenacity: The persistence with which people play and stick to their games and
their resistance to breaking it.

• Intensity: Easy games are games played in a relaxed way. Hard games are games
played in a tense and aggressive way.

Based on the degree of acceptability and potential harm, games are classified as:

• First Degree Games are socially acceptable in the players' social circle.
• Second Degree Games are games that the players would like to conceal, though
they may not cause irreversible damage.
• Third Degree Games are games that could lead to drastic harm to one or more of
the parties concerned.

Games are also studied based on their:

 • Aim
• Roles
• Social and Psychological Paradigms
• Dynamics
• Advantages to players (Payoffs)

[edit] Contrast with rational (mathematical) games

Transactional game analysis is fundamentally different from rational or mathematical

game analysis in the following senses:

• The players do not always behave rationally in transactional analysis, but behave
more like real people.
• Their motives are often ulterior.

[edit] Some commonly found games

Here are some of the most commonly found themes of games described in Games People
Play by Eric Berne:

• YDYB: Why Don't You, Yes But. Historically, the first game discovered.
• IFWY: If It Weren't For You
• WAHM: Why does this Always Happen to Me? (setting up a self-fulfilling
prophecy)
• SWYMD: See What You Made Me Do
• UGMIT: You Got Me Into This
• LHIT: Look How Hard I've Tried
• ITHY: I'm Only Trying to Help You
• LYAHF: Let's You and Him Fight (staging a love triangle)
• NIGYYSOB / NIGYSOB: Now I've Got You, You Son Of a Bitch
• RAPO: A woman falsely cries 'rape' or threatens to - related to Buzz Off Buster

Berne argued that games are not played logically; rather, one person's Parent state might
interact with another's Child, rather than as Adult to Adult.

Games can also be analysed according to the Karpman drama triangle, that is, by the
roles of Persecutor, Victim and Rescuer. The 'switch' is then when one of these having
allowed stable roles to become established, suddenly switches role. The Victim becomes
a Persecutor, and throws the previous Persecutor into the Victim role, or the Rescuer
suddenly switches to become a Persecutor ("You never appreciate me helping you!").

[edit] Why Don't You/Yes But

The first such game theorized was Why don't you/Yes, but in which one player (White)
would pose a problem as if seeking help, and the other player(s) (Black) would offer
solutions (the "Why don't you?" suggestion). This game was noticed as many patients
played it in therapy and psychiatry sessions, and inspired Berne to identify other
interpersonal "games".

White would point out a flaw in every Black player's solution (the "Yes, but" response),
until they all gave up in frustration. For example, if someone's life script was "to be hurt
many times, and suffer and make others feel bad when I die" a game of "Why Don't You,
Yes But" might proceed as follows:

White: I wish I could lose some weight.

Black: Why don't you join a gym?
W: Yes but, I can't afford the payments for a gym.
B: Why don't you speed walk around your block after you get home from work?
W: Yes but, I don't dare walk alone in my neighborhood after dark.
B: Why don't you take the stairs at work instead of the elevator?
W: Yes but, after my knee surgery, it hurts too much to walk that many flights of
stairs.
B: Why don't you change your diet?
W: Yes but, my stomach is sensitive and I can tolerate only certain foods.

"Why Don't You, Yes But" can proceed indefinitely, with any number of players in the
Black role, until Black's imagination is exhausted, and she can think of no other
solutions. At this point, White "wins" by having stumped Black. After a silent pause
following Black's final suggestion, the game is often brought to a formal end by a third
role, Green, who makes a comment such as, "It just goes to show how difficult it is to
lose weight."

The secondary gain for White was that he could claim to have justified his problem as
insoluble and thus avoid the hard work of internal change; and for Black, to either feel
the frustrated martyr ("I was only trying to help") or a superior being, disrespected ("the
patient was uncooperative").

Superficially, this game can resemble Adult to Adult interaction (people seeking
information or advice), but more often, according to Berne, the game is played by White's
helpless Child, and Black's lecturing Parent ego states.

[edit] "Drunk" or "Alcoholic"

Another example of Berne's approach was his identification of the game of "Drunk" or
"Alcoholic." As he explained it, the transactional object of the drunk, aside from the
personal pleasure obtained by drinking, could be seen as being to set up a situation where
the Child can be severely scolded not only by the internal parent but by any parental
figures in the immediate environment who are interested enough to oblige. The pattern is
shown to be similar to that in the non-alcoholic game "Schlemiel," in which mess-making
attracts attention and is a pleasure-giving way for White to lead up to the crux, which is
obtaining forgiveness by Black.
There are a variety of organizations involved in playing 'Alcoholic’, some of them
national or even international in scope, others local. Many of them publish rules for the
game. Nearly all of them explain how to play the role of Alcoholic: take a drink before
breakfast, spend money allotted for other purposes, etc. They also explain the function of
the Rescuer role in the game. Alcoholics Anonymous, for example, continues playing the
actual game but concentrates on inducing the Alcoholic to take the role of Rescuer.
Former Alcoholics are preferred because they know how the game goes, and hence are
better qualified to play the supporting role of Rescuer than people who have never played
before.

According to this type of analysis, with the rise of rescue organizations which publicize
that alcoholism is a disease rather than a transactional game, alcoholics have been taught
to play "Wooden Leg", a different game in which an organic ailment absolves White of
blame.[11]

[edit] The script for "Drunk"

Roles: Victim (addict), Persecutor (usually spouse), Rescuer (often family member of
same sex), Patsy (enabler), Connection (supplier)

Pastimes: Martini (how much I used) and morning after (look what you made me do).
Many addicts find unlimited access to these pastimes in organizations such as AA.

The game is played from the Victim role as "see how bad I've been; see if you can stop
me." The purpose is self-punishment and the

[edit] Rackets

A racket is the dual strategy of getting "permitted feelings," while covering up feelings
which we truly feel, but which we regard as being "not allowed". More technically, a
racket feeling is "a familiar set of emotions, learned and enhanced during childhood,
experienced in many different stress situations, and maladaptive as an adult means of
problem solving".

A racket is then a set of behaviours which originate from the childhood script rather than
in here-and-now full Adult thinking, which (1) are employed as a way to manipulate the
environment to match the script rather than to actually solve the problem, and (2) whose
covert goal is not so much to solve the problem, as to experience these racket feelings
and feel internally justified in experiencing them.

Examples of racket and racket feelings: "Why do I meet good guys who turn out to be so
hurtful", or "He always takes advantage of my goodwill". The racket is then a set of
behaviours and chosen strategies learned and practised in childhood which in fact help to
cause these feelings to be experienced. Typically this happens despite their own surface
protestations and hurt feelings, out of awareness and in a way that is perceived as
someone else's fault. One covert pay-off for this racket and its feelings, might be to gain
in a guilt free way, continued evidence and reinforcement for a childhood script belief
that "People will always let you down".

[edit] TA and popular culture

Eric Berne's ability to express the ideas of TA in common language and his
popularisation of the concepts in mass-market books inspired a boom of popular TA
texts, some of which simplify TA concepts to a deleterious degree[citation needed].

One example is a caricature of the structural model, where it is made out that the Parent
judges, the Adult thinks and the Child feels. Most serious TA texts, including those
aimed at the mass market rather than professionals, avoid this degree of
oversimplification.

Thomas Harris's highly successful popular work from the late 1960s, I'm OK, You're OK
is largely based on Transactional Analysis. A fundamental divergence, however, between
Harris and Berne is that Berne postulates that everyone starts life in the "I'm OK"
position, whereas Harris believes that life starts out "I'm not OK, you're OK". Many
transactional analysts[citation needed] have regarded Harris as too far removed from core TA
beliefs to be considered a transactional analyst.

New Age author James Redfield has acknowledged[12] Harris and Berne as important
influences in his best-seller The Celestine Prophecy. The protagonists in the novel
survive by striving (and succeeding) in escaping from "control dramas" that resemble the
games of TA.